en:Dog

{{Redirect2|Doggy|Pooch|other uses|Dog (disambiguation)|and|Doggy (disambiguation)|and|Pooch (disambiguation)}}

{{Speciesbox

| name = Dog

| fossil_range = {{fossil range|0.0142|0}} Late Pleistocene (14,200 years ago) to present

| image =

{{multiple image

| perrow = 3/3/2

| total_width = 275

| border = infobox

| image1 = Blue merle koolie short coat heading sheep.jpg

| image2 = Dog - നായ-6.JPG

| image3 = Chin posing.jpg

| image4 = Retriever in water.jpg

| image5 = Black Labrador Retriever - Male IMG 3323.jpg

| image7 = Brooks Chase Ranger of Jolly Dogs Jack Russell.jpg

| image8 = Huskiesatrest.jpg

| image9 = Wilde huendin am stillen.jpg

}}

| status = DOM

| genus = Canis

| species = familiaris

| authority = Linnaeus, 1758

| synonyms_ref =

| synonyms = {{collapsible list|bullets=true|

|C. aegyptius {{small|Linnaeus, 1758}}

|C. alco {{small|C. E. H. Smith, 1839,}}

|C. americanus {{small|Gmelin, 1792}}

|C. anglicus {{small|Gmelin, 1792}}

|C. antarcticus {{small|Gmelin, 1792}}

|C. aprinus {{small|Gmelin, 1792}}

|C. aquaticus {{small|Linnaeus, 1758}}

|C. aquatilis {{small|Gmelin, 1792}}

|C. avicularis {{small|Gmelin, 1792}}

|C. borealis {{small|C. E. H. Smith, 1839}}

|C. brevipilis {{small|Gmelin, 1792}}

|C. cursorius {{small|Gmelin, 1792}}

|C. domesticus {{small|Linnaeus, 1758}}

|C. extrarius {{small|Gmelin, 1792}}

|C. ferus {{small|C. E. H. Smith, 1839}}

|C. fricator {{small|Gmelin, 1792}}

|C. fricatrix {{small|Linnaeus, 1758}}

|C. fuillus {{small|Gmelin, 1792}}

|C. gallicus {{small|Gmelin, 1792}}

|C. glaucus {{small|C. E. H. Smith, 1839}}

|C. graius {{small|Linnaeus, 1758}}

|C. grajus {{small|Gmelin, 1792}}

|C. hagenbecki {{small|Krumbiegel, 1950}}

|C. haitensis {{small|C. E. H. Smith, 1839}}

|C. hibernicus {{small|Gmelin, 1792}}

|C. hirsutus {{small|Gmelin, 1792}}

|C. hybridus {{small|Gmelin, 1792}}

|C. islandicus {{small|Gmelin, 1792}}

|C. italicus {{small|Gmelin, 1792}}

|C. laniarius {{small|Gmelin, 1792}}

|C. leoninus {{small|Gmelin, 1792}}

|C. leporarius {{small|C. E. H. Smith, 1839}}

|C. lupus familiaris {{small|Linnaeus,1758}}

|C. major {{small|Gmelin, 1792}}

|C. mastinus {{small|Linnaeus, 1758}}

|C. melitacus {{small|Gmelin, 1792}}

|C. melitaeus {{small|Linnaeus, 1758}}

|C. minor {{small|Gmelin, 1792}}

|C. molossus {{small|Gmelin, 1792}}

|C. mustelinus {{small|Linnaeus, 1758}}

|C. obesus {{small|Gmelin, 1792}}

|C. orientalis {{small|Gmelin, 1792}}

|C. pacificus {{small|C. E. H. Smith, 1839}}

|C. plancus {{small|Gmelin, 1792}}

|C. pomeranus {{small|Gmelin, 1792}}

|C. sagaces {{small|C. E. H. Smith, 1839}}

|C. sanguinarius {{small|C. E. H. Smith, 1839}}

|C. sagax {{small|Linnaeus, 1758}}

|C. scoticus {{small|Gmelin, 1792}}

|C. sibiricus {{small|Gmelin, 1792}}

|C. suillus {{small|C. E. H. Smith, 1839}}

|C. terraenovae {{small|C. E. H. Smith, 1839}}

|C. terrarius {{small|C. E. H. Smith, 1839}}

|C. turcicus {{small|Gmelin, 1792}}

|C. urcani {{small|C. E. H. Smith, 1839}}

|C. variegatus {{small|Gmelin, 1792}}

|C. venaticus {{small|Gmelin, 1792}}

|C. vertegus {{small|Gmelin, 1792}}

}}

The dog (Canis familiaris or Canis lupus familiaris) is a domesticated descendant of the gray wolf. Also called the domestic dog, it was selectively bred from an extinct population of wolves during the Late Pleistocene by hunter-gatherers. The dog was the first species to be domesticated by humans, over 14,000 years ago and before the development of agriculture. Due to their long association with humans, dogs have gained the ability to thrive on a starch-rich diet that would be inadequate for other canids.

Dogs have been bred for desired behaviors, sensory capabilities, and physical attributes. Dog breeds vary widely in shape, size, and color. They have the same number of bones (with the exception of the tail), powerful jaws that house around 42 teeth, and well-developed senses of smell, hearing, and sight. Compared to humans, dogs possess a superior sense of smell and hearing, but inferior visual acuity. Dogs perform many roles for humans, such as hunting, herding, pulling loads, protection, companionship, therapy, aiding disabled people, and assisting police and the military.

Communication in dogs includes eye gaze, facial expression, vocalization, body posture (including movements of bodies and limbs), and gustatory communication (scents, pheromones, and taste). They mark their territories by urinating on them, which is more likely when entering a new environment. Over the millennia, dogs have uniquely adapted to human behavior; this adaptation includes being able to understand and communicate with humans. As such, the human–canine bond has been a topic of frequent study, and dogs' influence on human society has given them the sobriquet of "man's best friend".

The global dog population is estimated at 700 million to 1 billion, distributed around the world. The dog is the most popular pet in the United States, present in 34–40% of households. Developed countries make up approximately 20% of the global dog population, while around 75% of dogs are estimated to be from developing countries, mainly in the form of feral and community dogs.

Taxonomy

{{Further|Canis lupus dingo#Taxonomic debate – the domestic dog, dingo, and New Guinea singing dog}}

{{cladogram|title=Canine phylogeny with ages of divergence

|caption=Cladogram and divergence of the gray wolf (including the domestic dog) among its closest extant relatives{{Cite journal |last1=Koepfli |first1=Klaus-Peter |last2=Pollinger |first2=John |last3=Godinho |first3=Raquel |last4=Robinson |first4=Jacqueline |last5=Lea |first5=Amanda |last6=Hendricks |first6=Sarah |last7=Schweizer |first7=Rena M. |last8=Thalmann |first8=Olaf |last9=Silva |first9=Pedro |last10=Fan |first10=Zhenxin |last11=Yurchenko |first11=Andrey A.|last12=Dobrynin |first12=Pavel |last13=Makunin |first13=Alexey |last14=Cahill |first14=James A. |last15=Shapiro |first15=Beth |date= August 2015 |title=Genome-wide Evidence Reveals that African and Eurasian Golden Jackals Are Distinct Species |journal=Current Biology |volume=25 |issue=16 |pages=2158–2165 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2015.06.060 |pmid=26234211 |bibcode=2015CBio...25.2158K |doi-access=free }}

|cladogram={{clade| style=font-size:85%;line-height:75%;width:475px;

|sublabel1=3.50 mya

|1={{clade

|sublabel1=3.06 mya

|1={{clade

|sublabel1=2.74 mya

|1={{clade

|sublabel1=1.92 mya

|1={{clade

|sublabel1=1.62 mya

|1={{clade

|sublabel1=1.32 mya

|1={{clade

|sublabel1=1.10 mya

|1={{clade

|1=Gray wolf (domestic dog) 50 px

|2=Coyote 50 px

}}

|2=African wolf 50 px

}}

|2=Ethiopian wolf 50 px

}}

|2=Golden jackal 50 px

}}

|2=Dhole 50 px

}}

|2=African wild dog 50 px

}}

|sublabel2=2.62 mya

|2={{clade

|1=Side-striped jackal 50 px

|2=Black-backed jackal 50 px

}}

Dogs are domesticated members of the family Canidae. They are classified as a subspecies of Canis lupus, along with wolves and dingoes.{{Cite journal |last1=Freedman |first1=Adam H. |last2=Wayne |first2=Robert K. |date=February 2017 |title=Deciphering the Origin of Dogs: From Fossils to Genomes |journal=Annual Review of Animal Biosciences |volume=5 |pages=281–307 |doi=10.1146/annurev-animal-022114-110937|pmid=27912242 }}{{Cite web |last=Thiele |first=Kevin |date=19 April 2019 |title=The Trouble With Dingoes |url=https://www.taxonomyaustralia.org.au/post/the-trouble-with-dingoes |website=Taxonomy Australia |publisher=Australian Academy of Science}} Dogs were domesticated from wolves over 14,000 years ago by hunter-gatherers, before the development of agriculture.{{cite journal |last1=Perri |first1=Angela R. |last2=Feuerborn |first2=Tatiana R. |last3=Frantz |first3=Laurent A. F. |last4=Larson |first4=Greger |last5=Malhi |first5=Ripan S. |last6=Meltzer |first6=David J. |last7=Witt |first7=Kelsey E. |title=Dog domestication and the dual dispersal of people and dogs into the Americas |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=9 February 2021 |volume=118 |issue=6 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2010083118 |doi-access=free |pmid=33495362 |pmc=8017920 |bibcode=2021PNAS..11810083P |language=en |issn=0027-8424}}{{cite journal |title=Dogs domesticated before farming |journal=Nature |date=January 2014 |volume=505 |issue=7485 |pages=589 |doi=10.1038/505589e |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/505589e |language=en |issn=1476-4687}} The remains of the Bonn–Oberkassel dog, buried alongside humans between 14,000 and 15,000 years ago, are the earliest to be conclusively identified as a domesticated dog.{{cite web |work=National Geographic |last1=Brown |first1=Jackie |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/dogs-evolve-wolves-fossils-dna |title=How did wolves evolve into dogs? Ancient fossils provide intriguing clues |date=August 23, 2024}} Genetic studies show that dogs likely diverged from wolves between 27,000 and 40,000 years ago.{{Cite journal |last=Skoglund |first=Pontus |date=1 June 2015 |title=Ancient Wolf Genome Reveals an Early Divergence of Domestic Dog Ancestors and Admixture into High-Latitude Breeds |url=https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(15)00432-7 |journal=Current Biology |volume=25 |issue=11 |pages=1515–1519|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2015.04.019 |pmid=26004765 |bibcode=2015CBio...25.1515S }} The dingo and the related New Guinea singing dog resulted from the geographic isolation and feralization of dogs in Oceania over 8,000 years ago.{{Cite journal |last1=Shao-jie Zhang |last2=Guo-Dong Wang |last3=Pengcheng Ma |last4=Liang-liang Zhang |year=2020 |title=Genomic regions under selection in the feralization of the dingoes |journal=Nature Communications |volume=11 |issue=671|page=671 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-14515-6 |pmid=32015346 |pmc=6997406 |bibcode=2020NatCo..11..671Z }}{{Cite journal |last1=Cairns |first1=Kylie M. |last2=Wilton |first2=Alan N. |date=17 September 2016 |title=New insights on the history of canids in Oceania based on mitochondrial and nuclear data |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10709-016-9924-z |pages=553–565 |volume=144 |journal=Genetica|issue=5 |doi=10.1007/s10709-016-9924-z |pmid=27640201 }}

Dogs, wolves, and dingoes have sometimes been classified as separate species. In 1758, the Swedish botanist and zoologist Carl Linnaeus assigned the genus name Canis (which is the Latin word for "dog"){{sfn|Wang|Tedford|2008|p=58}} to the domestic dog, the wolf, and the golden jackal in his book, Systema Naturae. He classified the domestic dog as Canis familiaris and, on the next page, classified the grey wolf as Canis lupus. Linnaeus considered the dog to be a separate species from the wolf because of its upturning tail (cauda recurvata in Latin term), which is not found in any other canid. In the 2005 edition of Mammal Species of the World, mammalogist W. Christopher Wozencraft listed the wolf as a wild subspecies of Canis lupus and proposed two additional subspecies: familiaris, as named by Linnaeus in 1758, and dingo, named by Meyer in 1793. Wozencraft included hallstromi (the New Guinea singing dog) as another name (junior synonym) for the dingo. This classification was informed by a 1999 mitochondrial DNA study.

The classification of dingoes is disputed and a political issue in Australia. Classifying dingoes as wild dogs simplifies reducing or controlling dingo populations that threaten livestock. Treating dingoes as a separate species allows conservation programs to protect the dingo population.{{cite journal |display-authors=4 |last1=Donfrancesco |first1=Valerio |last2=Allen |first2=Benjamin L. |last3=Appleby |first3=Rob |last4=Behrendorff |first4=Linda |last5=Conroy |first5=Gabriel |last6=Crowther |first6=Mathew S. |last7=Dickman |first7=Christopher R. |last8=Doherty |first8=Tim |last9=Fancourt |first9=Bronwyn A. |last10=Gordon |first10=Christopher E. |last11=Jackson |first11=Stephen M. |last12=Johnson |first12=Chris N. |last13=Kennedy |first13=Malcolm S. |last14=Koungoulos |first14=Loukas |last15=Letnic |first15=Mike |last16=Leung |first16=Luke K.-P. |last17=Mitchell |first17=Kieren J. |last18=Nesbitt |first18=Bradley |last19=Newsome |first19=Thomas |last20=Pacioni |first20=Carlo |last21=Phillip |first21=Justine |last22=Purcell |first22=Brad V. |last23=Ritchie |first23=Euan G. |last24=Smith |first24=Bradley P. |last25=Stephens |first25=Danielle |last26=Tatler |first26=Jack |last27=van Eeden |first27=Lily M. |last28=Cairns |first28=Kylie M. |title=Understanding conflict among experts working on controversial species: A case study on the Australian dingo |journal=Conservation Science and Practice |date=March 2023 |volume=5 |issue=3 |doi=10.1111/csp2.12900 |bibcode=2023ConSP...5E2900D |url=https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/csp2.12900 |language=en |issn=2578-4854|hdl=2440/137822 |hdl-access=free }} Dingo classification affects wildlife management policies, legislation, and societal attitudes.{{cite journal |last1=Boronyak |first1=Louise |last2=Jacobs |first2=Brent |last3=Smith |first3=Bradley |title=Unlocking Lethal Dingo Management in Australia |journal=Diversity |date=May 2023 |volume=15 |issue=5 |pages=642 |doi=10.3390/d15050642 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2023Diver..15..642B }} In 2019, a workshop hosted by the IUCN/Species Survival Commission's Canid Specialist Group considered the dingo and the New Guinea singing dog to be feral Canis familiaris. Therefore, it did not assess them for the IUCN Red List of threatened species.

= Domestication =

File:Comparison of a wolf and a pug.png

The earliest remains generally accepted to be those of a domesticated dog were discovered in Bonn-Oberkassel, Germany. Contextual, isotopic, genetic, and morphological evidence shows that this dog was not a local wolf. The dog was dated to 14,223 years ago and was found buried along with a man and a woman, all three having been sprayed with red hematite powder and buried under large, thick basalt blocks. The dog had died of canine distemper. This timing indicates that the dog was the first species to be domesticated in the time of hunter-gatherers, which predates agriculture. Earlier remains dating back to 30,000 years ago have been described as Paleolithic dogs, but their status as dogs or wolves remains debated because considerable morphological diversity existed among wolves during the Late Pleistocene.

DNA sequences show that all ancient and modern dogs share a common ancestry and descended from an ancient, extinct wolf population that was distinct from any modern wolf lineage. Some studies have posited that all living wolves are more closely related to each other than to dogs, while others have suggested that dogs are more closely related to modern Eurasian wolves than to American wolves.{{Cite journal |last1=Gojobori |first1=Jun |last2=Arakawa |first2=Nami |last3=Xiaokaiti |first3=Xiayire |last4=Matsumoto |first4=Yuki |last5=Matsumura |first5=Shuichi |last6=Hongo |first6=Hitomi |last7=Ishiguro |first7=Naotaka |last8=Terai |first8=Yohey |date=23 February 2024 |title=Japanese wolves are most closely related to dogs and share DNA with East Eurasian dogs |journal=Nature Communications |volume=15 |issue=1 |page=1680 |doi=10.1038/s41467-024-46124-y |pmid=38396028 |pmc=10891106 |bibcode=2024NatCo..15.1680G }}

The dog is a domestic animal that likely travelled a commensal pathway into domestication (i.e. humans initially neither benefitted nor were harmed by wild dogs eating refuse from their camps). The questions of when and where dogs were first domesticated remains uncertain. Genetic studies suggest a domestication process commencing over 25,000 years ago, in one or several wolf populations in either Europe, the high Arctic, or eastern Asia. In 2021, a literature review of the current evidence infers that the dog was domesticated in Siberia 23,000 years ago by ancient North Siberians, then later dispersed eastward into the Americas and westward across Eurasia, with dogs likely accompanying the first humans to inhabit the Americas. Some studies have suggested that the extinct Japanese wolf is closely related to the ancestor of domestic dogs.

In 2018, a study identified 429 genes that differed between modern dogs and modern wolves. As the differences in these genes could also be found in ancient dog fossils, these were regarded as being the result of the initial domestication and not from recent breed formation. These genes are linked to neural crest and central nervous system development. These genes affect embryogenesis and can confer tameness, smaller jaws, floppy ears, and diminished craniofacial development, which distinguish domesticated dogs from wolves and are considered to reflect domestication syndrome. The study concluded that during early dog domestication, the initial selection was for behavior. This trait is influenced by those genes which act in the neural crest, which led to the phenotypes observed in modern dogs.{{Cite journal |last1=Pendleton |first1=Amanda L. |last2=Shen |first2=Feichen |last3=Taravella |first3=Angela M. |last4=Emery |first4=Sarah |last5=Veeramah |first5=Krishna R. |last6=Boyko |first6=Adam R. |last7=Kidd |first7=Jeffrey M. |date=December 2018 |title=Comparison of village dog and wolf genomes highlights the role of the neural crest in dog domestication |journal=BMC Biology |language=en |volume=16 |issue=1 |page=64 |doi=10.1186/s12915-018-0535-2 |issn=1741-7007 |pmc=6022502 |pmid=29950181 |doi-access=free}}

= Breeds =

{{Further|Dog type}} There are around 450 official dog breeds, the most of any mammal.{{cite journal |last1=Parker |first1=Heidi G. |last2=Dreger |first2=Dayna L. |last3=Rimbault |first3=Maud |last4=Davis |first4=Brian W. |last5=Mullen |first5=Alexandra B. |last6=Carpintero-Ramirez |first6=Gretchen |last7=Ostrander |first7=Elaine A. |title=Genomic Analyses Reveal the Influence of Geographic Origin, Migration, and Hybridization on Modern Dog Breed Development |journal=Cell Reports |year=2017 |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=697–708 |doi=10.1016/j.celrep.2017.03.079 |pmid=28445722 |pmc=5492993 |doi-access=free}} Dogs began diversifying in the Victorian era, when humans took control of their natural selection. Most breeds were derived from small numbers of founders within the last 200 years. Since then, dogs have undergone rapid phenotypic change and have been subjected to artificial selection by humans. The skull, body, and limb proportions between breeds display more phenotypic diversity than can be found within the entire order of carnivores. These breeds possess distinct traits related to morphology, which include body size, skull shape, tail phenotype, fur type, and colour. As such, humans have long used dogs for their desirable traits to complete or fulfill a certain work or role. Their behavioural traits include guarding, herding, hunting, retrieving, and scent detection. Their personality traits include hypersocial behavior, boldness, and aggression. Present-day dogs are dispersed around the world. An example of this dispersal is the numerous modern breeds of European lineage during the Victorian era.

File:Dog morphological variation.png|Morphological variation in six dogs

File:Dog coat variation.png|Phenotypic variation in four dogs

Anatomy and physiology

= Size and skeleton =

File:Dog anatomy lateral skeleton view.jpg

Dogs are extremely variable in size, ranging from one of the largest breeds, the Great Dane, at {{cvt|50|to|79|kg}} and {{cvt|71|to|81|cm}}, to one of the smallest, the Chihuahua, at {{cvt|0.5|to|3|kg}} and {{cvt|13|to|20|cm}}.{{Cite web |date=14 June 2024 |title=Great Dane {{!}} Description, Temperament, Lifespan, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/animal/Great-Dane |access-date=15 June 2024 |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |language=en}}{{Cite web |date=29 May 2024 |title=Chihuahua dog {{!}} Description, Temperament, Images, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/animal/Chihuahua-dog |access-date=15 June 2024 |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |language=en |archive-date=14 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240614011119/https://www.britannica.com/animal/Chihuahua-dog |url-status=live }} All healthy dogs, regardless of their size and type, have the same amount of bones (with the exception of the tail), although there is significant skeletal variation between dogs of different types.{{sfnp|Cunliffe|2004|p=12}}{{sfnp|Fogle|2009|pp=38-39}} The dog's skeleton is well adapted for running; the vertebrae on the neck and back have extensions for back muscles, consisting of epaxial muscles and hypaxial muscles, to connect to; the long ribs provide room for the heart and lungs; and the shoulders are unattached to the skeleton, allowing for flexibility.{{sfnp|Cunliffe|2004|p=12}}{{sfnp|Fogle|2009|pp=38-39}}{{Cite web |title=Back pain |url=https://www.elwoodvet.net/back-pain-dogs |access-date=24 March 2024 |website=Elwood vet |language=en-AU |archive-date=24 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240324091613/https://www.elwoodvet.net/back-pain-dogs |url-status=live }}

Compared to the dog's wolf-like ancestors, selective breeding since domestication has seen the dog's skeleton increase in size for larger types such as mastiffs and miniaturised for smaller types such as terriers; dwarfism has been selectively bred for some types where short legs are preferred, such as dachshunds and corgis.{{sfnp|Fogle|2009|pp=38-39}} Most dogs naturally have 26 vertebrae in their tails, but some with naturally short tails have as few as three.{{sfnp|Cunliffe|2004|p=12}}

File:Selected skulls.jpg

The dog's skull has identical components regardless of breed type, but there is significant divergence in terms of skull shape between types.{{sfnp|Fogle|2009|pp=38-39}}{{sfnp|Jones|Hamilton|1971|p=27}} The three basic skull shapes are the elongated dolichocephalic type as seen in sighthounds, the intermediate mesocephalic or mesaticephalic type, and the very short and broad brachycephalic type exemplified by mastiff type skulls.{{sfnp|Fogle|2009|pp=38-39}}{{sfnp|Jones|Hamilton|1971|p=27}} The jaw contains around 42 teeth, and it has evolved for the consumption of flesh. Dogs use their carnassial teeth to cut food into bite-sized chunks, more especially meat.{{Cite book |last=DK |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cBGmEAAAQBAJ&q=Dog |title=The Dog Encyclopedia: The Definitive Visual Guide |date=6 July 2023 |publisher=Dorling Kindersley Limited |isbn=978-0-241-63310-6 |pages=15–19 |language=en}}

= Senses =

File:Vision comparison with dogs.jpg

Dogs' senses include vision, hearing, smell, taste, touch, and magnetoreception. One study suggests that dogs can feel small variations in Earth's magnetic field.{{cite journal |last1=Nießner |first1=Christine |last2=Denzau |first2=Susanne |last3=Malkemper |first3=Erich Pascal |author-link3=Erich Pascal Malkemper |last4=Gross |first4=Julia Christina |last5=Burda |first5=Hynek |last6=Winklhofer |first6=Michael |last7=Peichl |first7=Leo |year=2016 |title=Cryptochrome 1 in Retinal Cone Photoreceptors Suggests a Novel Functional Role in Mammals |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=6 |pages=21848 |bibcode=2016NatSR...621848N |doi=10.1038/srep21848 |pmc=4761878 |pmid=26898837}} Dogs prefer to defecate with their spines aligned in a north–south position in calm magnetic field conditions.{{cite journal |last1=Hart |first1=Vlastimil |last2=Nováková |first2=Petra |last3=Malkemper |first3=Erich Pascal |last4=Begall |first4=Sabine |last5=Hanzal |first5=Vladimír |last6=Ježek |first6=Miloš |last7=Kušta |first7=Tomáš |last8=Němcová |first8=Veronika |last9=Adámková |first9=Jana |last10=Benediktová |first10=Kateřina |last11=Červený |first11=Jaroslav |last12=Burda |first12=Hynek |title=Dogs are sensitive to small variations of the Earth's magnetic field |journal=Frontiers in Zoology |date=December 2013 |volume=10 |issue=1 |page=80 |doi=10.1186/1742-9994-10-80 |doi-access=free |pmc=3882779 |pmid=24370002 }}

Dogs' vision is dichromatic; their visual world consists of yellows, blues, and grays.{{Cite journal |last1=Byosiere |first1=Sarah-Elizabeth |last2=Chouinard |first2=Philippe A. |last3=Howell |first3=Tiffani J. |last4=Bennett |first4=Pauleen C. |date=1 October 2018 |title=What do dogs (Canis familiaris) see? A review of vision in dogs and implications for cognition research |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/s13423-017-1404-7 |journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review |language=en |volume=25 |issue=5 |pages=1798–1813 |doi=10.3758/s13423-017-1404-7 |pmid=29143248 |issn=1531-5320}} They have difficulty differentiating between red and green,{{Cite journal |last1=Siniscalchi |first1=Marcello |last2=d'Ingeo |first2=Serenella |last3=Fornelli |first3=Serena |last4=Quaranta |first4=Angelo |date=8 November 2017 |title=Are dogs red–green colour blind? |journal=Royal Society Open Science |volume=4 |issue=11 |pages=170869 |doi=10.1098/rsos.170869 |issn=2054-5703 |pmc=5717654 |pmid=29291080}} and much like other mammals, the dog's eye is composed of two types of cone cells compared to the human's three. The divergence of the eye axis of dogs ranges from 12 to 25°, depending on the breed, which can have different retina configurations.{{Cite journal |last1=Miller |first1=Paul E. |last2=Murphy |first2=Christopher J. |date=15 December 1995 |title=Vision in dogs |url=https://avmajournals.avma.org/view/journals/javma/207/12/javma.1995.207.12.1623.xml |journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association |language=EN |volume=207 |issue=12 |pages=1623–1634 |doi=10.2460/javma.1995.207.12.1623|pmid=7493905 }}{{Cite web |last=updated |first=Natalie WolchoverContributions from Cameron Duke last |date=4 February 2022 |title=How Do Dogs See the World? |url=https://www.livescience.com/34029-dog-color-vision.html |access-date=13 October 2024 |website=livescience.com |language=en}} The fovea centralis area of the eye is attached to a nerve fiber, and is the most sensitive to photons.{{Cite web |title=Eye Structure and Function in Dogs - Dog Owners |url=https://www.msdvetmanual.com/dog-owners/eye-disorders-of-dogs/eye-structure-and-function-in-dogs |access-date=5 April 2024 |website=MSD Veterinary Manual |language=en |archive-date=22 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222060812/https://www.msdvetmanual.com/dog-owners/eye-disorders-of-dogs/disorders-of-the-eyelids-in-dogs |url-status=live }} Additionally, a study found that dogs' visual acuity was up to eight times less effective than a human, and their ability to discriminate levels of brightness was about two times worse than a human.{{Cite journal |last1=Pongrácz |first1=Péter |last2=Ujvári |first2=Vera |last3=Faragó |first3=Tamás |last4=Miklósi |first4=Ádám |last5=Péter |first5=András |date=1 July 2017 |title=Do you see what I see? The difference between dog and human visual perception may affect the outcome of experiments |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0376635716303400 |journal=Behavioural Processes |volume=140 |pages=53–60 |doi=10.1016/j.beproc.2017.04.002 |pmid=28396145 |issn=0376-6357}}

While the human brain is dominated by a large visual cortex, the dog brain is dominated by a large olfactory cortex. Dogs have roughly forty times more smell-sensitive receptors than humans, ranging from about 125{{Nbsp}}million to nearly 300{{Nbsp}}million in some dog breeds, such as bloodhounds.{{Cite book |last=Coren |first=Stanley |url=https://archive.org/details/howdogsthinkunde00core |title=How dogs think : understanding the canine mind |date=2004 |publisher=New York : Free Press |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-7432-2232-7 |pages=50–81}} This sense of smell is the most prominent sense of the species; it detects chemical changes in the environment, allowing dogs to pinpoint the location of mating partners, potential stressors, resources, etc.{{Cite journal |last1=Kokocińska-Kusiak |first1=Agata |last2=Woszczyło |first2=Martyna |last3=Zybala |first3=Mikołaj |last4=Maciocha |first4=Julia |last5=Barłowska |first5=Katarzyna |last6=Dzięcioł |first6=Michał |date=August 2021 |title=Canine Olfaction: Physiology, Behavior, and Possibilities for Practical Applications |journal=Animals |language=en |volume=11 |issue=8 |pages=2463 |doi=10.3390/ani11082463 |doi-access=free |pmid=34438920 |pmc=8388720 |issn=2076-2615}} Dogs also have an acute sense of hearing up to four times greater than that of humans. They can pick up the slightest sounds from about {{cvt|400|m}} compared to {{cvt|90|m}} for humans.{{Cite journal |last1=Barber |first1=Anjuli L. A. |last2=Wilkinson |first2=Anna |last3=Montealegre-Z |first3=Fernando |last4=Ratcliffe |first4=Victoria F. |last5=Guo |first5=Kun |last6=Mills |first6=Daniel S. |year=2020 |title=A comparison of hearing and auditory functioning between dogs and humans |url=http://comparative-cognition-and-behavior-reviews.org/vol15_barber_wilkinson_montealegre-z_ratcliffe_guo_mills/ |journal=Comparative Cognition & Behavior Reviews |volume=15 |pages=45–94 |doi=10.3819/CCBR.2020.150007|doi-access=free }}

Dogs have stiff, deeply embedded hairs known as whiskers that sense atmospheric changes, vibrations, and objects not visible in low light conditions. The lower most part of whiskers hold more receptor cells than other hair types, which help in alerting dogs of objects that could collide with the nose, ears, and jaw. Whiskers likely also facilitate the movement of food towards the mouth.{{Cite news |date=24 June 2015 |title=Dog Senses - A Dog's Sense of Touch Compared to Humans {{!}} Puppy And Dog Care |work=Puppy And Dog Care |url=http://blog.puppyanddogcare.com/dog-senses-touch/ |access-date=18 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150624013803/http://blog.puppyanddogcare.com/dog-senses-touch/ |archive-date=24 June 2015 | vauthors = Care PA }}

= Coat =

{{Main|Dog coat}}The coats of domestic dogs are of two varieties: "double" being common in dogs (as well as wolves) originating from colder climates, made up of a coarse guard hair and a soft down hair, or "single", with the topcoat only. Breeds may have an occasional "blaze", stripe, or "star" of white fur on their chest or underside.{{sfnp|Cunliffe|2004|pp=22–23}} Premature graying can occur in dogs as early as one year of age; this is associated with impulsive behaviors, anxiety behaviors, and fear of unfamiliar noise, people, or animals.{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.applanim.2016.09.013|title=Anxiety and impulsivity: Factors associated with premature graying in young dogs|journal=Applied Animal Behaviour Science|volume=185|pages=78–85|year=2016|last1=King|first1=Camille|last2=Smith|first2=Thomas J.|last3=Grandin|first3=Temple|last4=Borchelt|first4=Peter|doi-access=free}} Some dog breeds are hairless, while others have a very thick corded coat. The coats of certain breeds are often groomed to a characteristic style, for example, the Yorkshire Terrier's "show cut".

= Dewclaw =

A dog's dewclaw is the fifth digit in its forelimb and hind legs. Dewclaws on the forelimbs are attached by bone and ligament, while the dewclaws on the hind legs are attached only by skin. Most dogs are not born with dewclaws in their hind legs, and some are without them in their forelimbs. Dogs' dewclaws consist of the proximal phalanges and distal phalanges. Some publications theorize that dewclaws in wolves, who usually do not have dewclaws, were a sign of hybridization with dogs.{{cite journal |last1=Ciucci |first1=Paolo |last2=Lucchini |first2=Vittorio |last3=Boitani |first3=Luigi |last4=Randi |first4=Ettore |title=Dewclaws in wolves as evidence of admixed ancestry with dogs |journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology |date=December 2003 |volume=81 |issue=12 |pages=2077–2081 |doi=10.1139/z03-183 |bibcode=2003CaJZ...81.2077C }}{{Cite journal |last1=Amici |first1=Federica |last2=Meacci |first2=Simone |last3=Caray |first3=Emmeline |last4=Oña |first4=Linda |last5=Liebal |first5=Katja |last6=Ciucci |first6=Paolo |year=2024 |title=A first exploratory comparison of the behaviour of wolves (Canis lupus) and wolf-dog hybrids in captivity |journal=Animal Cognition |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=9 |doi=10.1007/s10071-024-01849-7 |pmid=38429445 |pmc=10907477 }}

= Tail =

A dog's tail is the terminal appendage of the vertebral column, which is made up of a string of 5 to 23 vertebrae enclosed in muscles and skin that support the dog's back extensor muscles. One of the primary functions of a dog's tail is to communicate their emotional state.{{Cite web |title=Study explores the mystery of why dogs wag their tails |url=https://www.earth.com/news/study-explores-the-mystery-of-why-dogs-wag-their-tails/ |access-date=13 March 2024 |website=Earth.com |language=en |archive-date=4 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240204151625/https://www.earth.com/news/study-explores-the-mystery-of-why-dogs-wag-their-tails/ |url-status=live }} The tail also helps the dog maintain balance by putting its weight on the opposite side of the dog's tilt, and it can also help the dog spread its anal gland's scent through the tail's position and movement.{{Cite journal |last1=Wada |first1=Naomi |last2=Hori |first2=Hiroko |last3=Tokuriki |first3=Mikihiko |date=July 1993 |title=Electromyographic and kinematic studies of tail movements in dogs during treadmill locomotion |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jmor.1052170109 |journal=Journal of Morphology |language=en |volume=217 |issue=1 |pages=105–113 |doi=10.1002/jmor.1052170109 |pmid=8411184 |issn=0362-2525}} Dogs can have a violet gland (or supracaudal gland) characterized by sebaceous glands on the dorsal surface of their tails; in some breeds, it may be vestigial or absent. The enlargement of the violet gland in the tail, which can create a bald spot from hair loss, can be caused by Cushing's disease or an excess of sebum from androgens in the sebaceous glands.{{Cite web |title=Stud Tail Tail Gland Hyperplasia in Dogs |url=https://vcahospitals.com/know-your-pet/stud-tail-tail-gland-hyperplasia-in-dogs |access-date=30 March 2024 |website=VCA Animal Hospitals |language=en |archive-date=30 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330202745/https://vcahospitals.com/know-your-pet/stud-tail-tail-gland-hyperplasia-in-dogs |url-status=live }}

File:BlkStdSchnauzer2.jpg with a docked tail]]

A study suggests that dogs show asymmetric tail-wagging responses to different emotive stimuli. "Stimuli that could be expected to elicit approach tendencies seem to be associated with [a] higher amplitude of tail-wagging movements to the right side".{{Cite journal |last1=Siniscalchi |first1=Marcello |last2=Lusito |first2=Rita |last3=Vallortigara |first3=Giorgio |last4=Quaranta |first4=Angelo |date=31 October 2013 |title=Seeing Left- or Right-Asymmetric Tail Wagging Produces Different Emotional Responses in Dogs |journal=Current Biology |publisher=Cell Press |volume=23 |issue=22|pages=2279–2282 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2013.09.027 |pmid=24184108 |bibcode=2013CBio...23.2279S |doi-access=free }}{{Cite journal |last1=Artelle |first1=K. A. |last2=Dumoulin |first2=L. K. |last3=Reimchen |first3=T. E. |date=19 January 2010 |others=Financially supported by Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada |title=Behavioural responses of dogs to asymmetrical tail wagging of a robotic dog replica |journal=Laterality: Asymmetries of Body, Brain and Cognition |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=129–135 |doi=10.1080/13576500903386700 |pmid=20087813 }} Dogs can injure themselves by wagging their tails forcefully; this condition is called kennel tail, happy tail, bleeding tail, or splitting tail.{{Cite web |title=What is Happy Tail Syndrome in Dogs? |url=https://www.thewildest.com/dog-health/what-happy-tail-syndrome-dogs |access-date=29 March 2024 |website=thewildest.com |language=en |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329132018/https://www.thewildest.com/dog-health/what-happy-tail-syndrome-dogs |url-status=live }} In some hunting dogs, the tail is traditionally docked to avoid injuries. Some dogs can be born without tails because of a DNA variant in the T gene, which can also result in a congenitally short (bobtail) tail.{{Cite web |title=Paw Print Genetics - T Locus (Natural Bobtail) in the Poodle |url=https://www.pawprintgenetics.com/products/tests/details/175/?breed=20 |access-date=29 March 2024 |website=pawprintgenetics.com |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329132151/https://www.pawprintgenetics.com/products/tests/details/175/?breed=20 |url-status=live }} Tail docking is opposed by many veterinary and animal welfare organisations such as the American Veterinary Medical Association{{cite web |title=Ear cropping and tail docking of dogs |url=https://www.avma.org/resources-tools/avma-policies/ear-cropping-and-tail-docking-dogs |website=American Veterinary Medical Association |access-date=29 June 2024 |archive-date=20 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200520001141/https://www.avma.org/resources-tools/avma-policies/ear-cropping-and-tail-docking-dogs |url-status=live }} and the British Veterinary Association.{{cite web |title=Tail docking in dogs |url=https://www.bva.co.uk/take-action/our-policies/tail-docking-in-dogs/ |website=British Veterinary Association |access-date=29 June 2024}} Evidence from veterinary practices and questionnaires showed that around 500 dogs would need to have their tail docked to prevent one injury.{{Cite journal |last1=Diesel |first1=G. |last2=Pfeiffer |first2=D. |last3=Crispin |first3=S. |last4=Brodbelt |first4=D. |date=26 June 2010 |title=Risk factors for tail injuries in dogs in Great Britain |url=https://bvajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1136/vr.b4880 |journal=Veterinary Record |language=en |volume=166 |issue=26 |pages=812–817 |doi=10.1136/vr.b4880 |issn=0042-4900 |pmid=20581358 |access-date=29 July 2024 |archive-date=14 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240714194838/https://bvajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1136/vr.b4880 |url-status=live }}

Health

Numerous disorders have been known to affect dogs. Some are congenital and others are acquired. Dogs can acquire upper respiratory tract diseases including diseases that affect the nasal cavity, the larynx, and the trachea; lower respiratory tract diseases which includes pulmonary disease and acute respiratory diseases; heart diseases which includes any cardiovascular inflammation or dysfunction of the heart; haemopoietic diseases including anaemia and clotting disorders; gastrointestinal disease such as diarrhoea and gastric dilatation volvulus; hepatic disease such as portosystemic shunts and liver failure; pancreatic disease such as pancreatitis; renal disease; lower urinary tract disease such as cystitis and urolithiasis; endocrine disorders such as diabetes mellitus, Cushing's syndrome, hypoadrenocorticism, and hypothyroidism; nervous system diseases such as seizures and spinal injury; musculoskeletal disease such as arthritis and myopathies; dermatological disorders such as alopecia and pyoderma; ophthalmological diseases such as conjunctivitis, glaucoma, entropion, and progressive retinal atrophy; and neoplasia.{{cite book |last1=Gear |first1=Robyn|editor1-last=Cooper |editor1-first=Barabara |editor2-last=Mullineaux |editor2-first=Elizabeth |editor3-last=Turner |editor3-first=Lynn |title=BSAVA Textbook of Veterinary Nursing |date=2020 |publisher=British Small Animal Veterinary Association |pages=532–597 |chapter=Medical disorders of dogs and cats and their nursing}}

Common dog parasites are lice, fleas, fly larvae, ticks, mites, cestodes, nematodes, and coccidia. Taenia is a notable genus with 5 species in which dogs are the definitive host.{{cite book |last1=Fisher |first1=Maggie |last2=McGarry |first2=John |editor1-last=Cooper |editor1-first=Barabara |editor2-last=Mullineaux |editor2-first=Elizabeth |editor3-last=Turner |editor3-first=Lynn |title=BSAVA Textbook of Veterinary Nursing |date=2020 |publisher=British Small Animal Veterinary Association |pages=149–171 |chapter=Principles of parasitology}} Additionally, dogs are a source of zoonoses for humans. They are responsible for 99% of rabies cases worldwide;{{cite web |title=Rabies facts |url=https://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/rabies |website=World Health Organisation}} however, in some developed countries such as the UK, rabies is absent from dogs and is instead only transmitted by bats.{{cite book |last1=Dawson |first1=Susan |last2=Cooper |first2=Barbara |editor1-last=Cooper |editor1-first=Barabara |editor2-last=Mullineaux |editor2-first=Elizabeth |editor3-last=Turner |editor3-first=Lynn |title=BSAVA Textbook of Veterinary Nursing |date=2020 |publisher=British Small Animal Veterinary Association |pages=172–186 |chapter=Principles of infection and immunity}} Other common zoonoses are hydatid disease, leptospirosis, pasteurellosis, ringworm, and toxocariasis. Common infections in dogs include canine adenovirus, canine distemper virus, canine parvovirus, leptospirosis, canine influenza, and canine coronavirus. All of these conditions have vaccines available.

Dogs are the companion animal most frequently reported for exposure to toxins. Most poisonings are accidental and over 80% of reports of exposure to the ASPCA animal poisoning hotline are due to oral exposure. The most common substances people report exposure to are: pharmaceuticals, toxic foods, and rodenticides.{{cite book |last1=Wismer |first1=Tina |editor1-last=Bonagura |editor1-first=John D. |editor2-last=Twedt |editor2-first=David C. |title=Kirk's Current Veterinary Therapy |date=1 December 2013 |publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences |isbn=9780323227629 |page=92 |edition=15th |chapter=ASPCA Animal Poison Control Center Toxin Exposures for Pets}} Data from the Pet Poison Helpline shows that human drugs are the most frequent cause of toxicosis death. The most common household products ingested are cleaning products. Most food related poisonings involved theobromine poisoning (chocolate). Other common food poisonings include xylitol, Vitis (grapes, raisins, etc.), and Allium (garlic, onions, etc.). Pyrethrin insecticides were the most common cause of pesticide poisoning. Metaldehyde, a common pesticide for snails and slugs, typically causes severe outcomes when ingested by dogs.{{cite book|last2=Almgren|first2=Colleen |last1=Welch |first1=Sharon |editor1-last=Bonagura |editor1-first=John D. |editor2-last=Twedt |editor2-first=David C. |title=Kirk's Current Veterinary Therapy |date=1 December 2013 |publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences |isbn=9780323227629 |pages=93–96 |edition=15th |chapter=Toxin Exposures in Small Animals}}

Neoplasia is the most common cause of death for dogs.{{cite journal | last1=Fleming | first1=J. M. | last2=Creevy | first2=K. E. | last3=Promislow | first3=D. E. L. | title=Mortality in North American Dogs from 1984 to 2004: An Investigation into Age-, Size-, and Breed-Related Causes of Death | journal=Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine | volume=25 | issue=2 |year=2011 | issn=0891-6640 | doi=10.1111/j.1939-1676.2011.0695.x | pages=187–198| pmid=21352376 | doi-access=free }}{{cite journal | last1=Roccaro | first1=Mariana | last2=Salini | first2=Romolo | last3=Pietra | first3=Marco | last4=Sgorbini | first4=Micaela | last5=Gori | first5=Eleonora | last6=Dondi | first6=Maurizio | last7=Crisi | first7=Paolo E. | last8=Conte | first8=Annamaria | last9=Dalla Villa | first9=Paolo | last10=Podaliri | first10=Michele | last11=Ciaramella | first11=Paolo | last12=Di Palma | first12=Cristina | last13=Passantino | first13=Annamaria | last14=Porciello | first14=Francesco | last15=Gianella | first15=Paola | last16=Guglielmini | first16=Carlo | last17=Alborali | first17=Giovanni L. | last18=Rota Nodari | first18=Sara | last19=Sabatelli | first19=Sonia | last20=Peli | first20=Angelo | title=Factors related to longevity and mortality of dogs in Italy | journal=Preventive Veterinary Medicine | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=225 | year=2024 | issn=0167-5877 | doi=10.1016/j.prevetmed.2024.106155 | page=106155| pmid=38394961 | hdl=11585/961937 | hdl-access=free }}{{cite journal | last1=Lewis | first1=T. W. | last2=Wiles | first2=B. M. | last3=Llewellyn-Zaidi | first3=A. M. | last4=Evans | first4=K. M. | last5=O'Neill | first5=D. G. | title=Longevity and mortality in Kennel Club registered dog breeds in the UK in 2014 | journal=Canine Genetics and Epidemiology | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=5 | issue=1 | date=17 October 2018 | issn=2052-6687 | doi=10.1186/s40575-018-0066-8 | doi-access=free | page=10| pmid=30349728 | pmc=6191922 }} Other common causes of death are heart and renal failure. Their pathology is similar to that of humans, as is their response to treatment and their outcomes. Genes found in humans to be responsible for disorders are investigated in dogs as being the cause and vice versa.{{cite book | last1=Feldman | first1=Edward C. | last2=Nelson | first2=Richard W. | last3=Reusch | first3=Claudia | last4=Scott-Moncrieff | first4=J. Catharine | title=Canine and Feline Endocrinology | publisher=Saunders | publication-place=St. Louis, Missouri | date=8 December 2014 | isbn=978-1-4557-4456-5 | pages=44–49}}

= Lifespan =

The typical lifespan of dogs varies widely among breeds, but the median longevity (the age at which half the dogs in a population have died and half are still alive) is approximately 12.7 years.{{cite journal |last1=Montoya |first1=Mathieu |last2=Morrison |first2=Jo Ann |last3=Arrignon |first3=Florent |last4=Spofford |first4=Nate |last5=Charles |first5=Hélène |last6=Hours |first6=Marie-Anne |last7=Biourge |first7=Vincent |title=Life expectancy tables for dogs and cats derived from clinical data |journal=Frontiers in Veterinary Science |date=21 February 2023 |volume=10 |doi=10.3389/fvets.2023.1082102 |pmid=36896289 |pmc=9989186 |doi-access=free }}{{cite journal |last1=McMillan |first1=Kirsten M. |last2=Bielby |first2=Jon |last3=Williams |first3=Carys L. |last4=Upjohn |first4=Melissa M. |last5=Casey |first5=Rachel A. |last6=Christley |first6=Robert M. |title=Longevity of companion dog breeds: those at risk from early death |journal=Scientific Reports |date=February 2024 |volume=14 |issue=1 |page=531 |doi=10.1038/s41598-023-50458-w |pmid=38302530 |pmc=10834484 |bibcode=2024NatSR..14..531M }} Obesity correlates negatively with longevity with one study finding obese dogs to have a life expectancy approximately a year and a half less than dogs with a healthy weight.

In a 2024 UK study analyzing 584,734 dogs, it was concluded that purebred dogs lived longer than crossbred dogs, challenging the previous notion of the latter having the higher life expectancies. The authors noted that their study included "designer dogs" as crossbred and that purebred dogs were typically given better care than their crossbred counterparts, which likely influenced the outcome of the study.{{Cite journal |last1=McMillan |first1=Kirsten M. |last2=Bielby |first2=Jon |last3=Williams |first3=Carys L. |last4=Upjohn |first4=Melissa M. |last5=Casey |first5=Rachel A. |last6=Christley |first6=Robert M. |date=1 February 2024 |title=Longevity of companion dog breeds: those at risk from early death |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-50458-w |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=14 |issue=1 |page=531 |doi=10.1038/s41598-023-50458-w |pmid=38302530 |pmc=10834484 |bibcode=2024NatSR..14..531M |issn=2045-2322}} Other studies also show that fully mongrel dogs live about a year longer on average than dogs with pedigrees.{{Cite journal |last1=Mata |first1=Fernando |last2=Mata |first2=Andreia |date=19 July 2023 |title=Investigating the relationship between inbreeding and life expectancy in dogs: mongrels live longer than pure breeds |journal=PeerJ |volume=11 |pages=e15718 |doi=10.7717/peerj.15718 |doi-access=free |issn=2167-8359 |pmid=37483958|pmc=10362839 }} Furthermore, small dogs with longer muzzles have been shown to have higher lifespans than larger medium-sized dogs with much more depressed muzzles.{{Cite web |last=Nurse |first=Angus |date=2 February 2024 |title=How long might your dog live? New study calculates life expectancy for different breeds |url=https://theconversation.com/how-long-might-your-dog-live-new-study-calculates-life-expectancy-for-different-breeds-222446 |access-date=13 October 2024 |website=The Conversation |language=en-US}} For free-ranging dogs, less than 1 in 5 reach sexual maturity,{{Cite journal |last1=Paul |first1=Manabi |last2=Sen Majumder |first2=Sreejani |last3=Sau |first3=Shubhra |last4=Nandi |first4=Anjan K. |last5=Bhadra |first5=Anindita |date=25 January 2016 |title=High early life mortality in free-ranging dogs is largely influenced by humans |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=6 |pages=19641 |doi=10.1038/srep19641 |issn=2045-2322 |pmc=4726281 |pmid=26804633|bibcode=2016NatSR...619641P }} and the median life expectancy for feral dogs is less than half of dogs living with humans.{{Cite news |date=6 January 2022 |title=Would dogs survive without humans? The answer may surprise you |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-01-07/would-dogs-survive-without-humans/100695292 |access-date=13 October 2024 |work=ABC News |language=en-AU}}

= Reproduction =

File:Dogs mating 2.jpg]]

In domestic dogs, sexual maturity happens around six months to one year for both males and females, although this can be delayed until up to two years of age for some large breeds. This is the time at which female dogs will have their first estrous cycle, characterized by their vulvas swelling and producing discharges, usually lasting between 4 and 20 days.{{Cite journal |last=Ma |first=Kutzler |date=July 2018 |title=Estrous Cycle Manipulation in Dogs |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29709316/ |journal=The Veterinary Clinics of North America. Small Animal Practice |language=en |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=581–594 |doi=10.1016/j.cvsm.2018.02.006 |issn=1878-1306 |pmid=29709316}}{{Cite journal |last1=Da Costa |first1=Rosa E. P. |last2=Kinsman |first2=Rachel H. |last3=Owczarczak-Garstecka |first3=Sara C. |last4=Casey |first4=Rachel A. |last5=Tasker |first5=Séverine |last6=Knowles |first6=Toby G. |last7=Woodward |first7=Joshua L. |last8=Lord |first8=Michelle S. |last9=Murray |first9=Jane K. |date=July 2022 |title=Age of sexual maturity and factors associated with neutering dogs in the UK and the Republic of Ireland |journal=Veterinary Record |language=en |volume=191 |issue=6 |pages=e1265 |doi=10.1002/vetr.1265 |pmid=34939683 |issn=0042-4900|doi-access=free }} They will experience subsequent estrous cycles semiannually, during which the body prepares for pregnancy. At the peak of the cycle, females will become estrous, mentally and physically receptive to copulation. Because the ova survive and can be fertilized for a week after ovulation, more than one male can sire the same litter.Dewey, T. and S. Bhagat. 2002. "[https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Canis_lupus_familiaris/ Canis lupus familiaris]". {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220526171627/https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Canis_lupus_familiaris/|date=26 May 2022}}, Animal Diversity Web. Fertilization typically occurs two to five days after ovulation. After ejaculation, the dogs are coitally tied for around 5–30 minutes because of the male's bulbus glandis swelling and the female's constrictor vestibuli contracting; the male will continue ejaculating until they untie naturally due to muscle relaxation.{{Cite web |title=Estrus and Mating in Dogs |url=https://vcahospitals.com/know-your-pet/breeding-for-pet-owners-estrus-and-mating-in-dogs |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240207090454/https://vcahospitals.com/know-your-pet/breeding-for-pet-owners-estrus-and-mating-in-dogs |archive-date=7 February 2024 |access-date=1 April 2024 |website=VCA Animal Hospitals |language=en}} 14–16 days after ovulation, the embryo attaches to the uterus, and after seven to eight more days, a heartbeat is detectable.{{cite journal |pmid=11787146 |year=2001 |last1=Concannon |first1=P |last2=Tsutsui |first2=T |last3=Shille |first3=V |title=Embryo development, hormonal requirements and maternal responses during canine pregnancy |volume=57 |pages=169–179 |journal=Journal of Reproduction and Fertility. Supplement}}{{cite web |url=http://php.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php?title=Dog_Development#Development_Overview |title=Dog Development – Embryology |publisher=Php.med.unsw.edu.au |date=16 June 2013 |access-date=20 May 2021 |archive-date=2 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202234138/http://php.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php?title=Dog_Development#Development_Overview |url-status=live }} Dogs bear their litters roughly 58 to 68 days after fertilization,{{cite web|url=http://www.cpvh.com/2011/07/27/gestation-in-dogs/ |title=Gestation in dogs |access-date=24 March 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130603145809/http://www.cpvh.com/2011/07/27/gestation-in-dogs/ |archive-date=3 June 2013 }} with an average of 63 days, although the length of gestation can vary. An average litter consists of about six puppies.{{cite web|url=http://www.humanesociety.org/issues/pet_overpopulation/facts/overpopulation_estimates.html|title=HSUS Pet Overpopulation Estimates|publisher=The Humane Society of the United States|access-date=22 October 2008|archive-date=25 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130425142203/http://www.humanesociety.org/issues/pet_overpopulation/facts/overpopulation_estimates.html|url-status=dead}}

== Neutering ==

Neutering is the sterilization of animals via gonadectomy, which is an orchidectomy (castration) in dogs and ovariohysterectomy (spay) in bitches. Neutering reduces problems caused by hypersexuality, especially in male dogs.{{cite journal |last1=Heidenberger |first1=E. |last2=Unshelm |first2=J. |date=February 1990 |title=Verhaltensänderungen von Hunden nach Kastration |trans-title=Changes in the behavior of dogs after castration |journal=Tierarztliche Praxis |language=de |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=69–75 |pmid=2326799}} Spayed females are less likely to develop cancers affecting the mammary glands, ovaries, and other reproductive organs.{{Cite book |author=Morrison, Wallace B. |title=Cancer in Dogs and Cats |publisher=Williams and Wilkins |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-683-06105-5 |edition=1st |pages=583}} However, neutering increases the risk of urinary incontinence in bitches,{{cite journal |last1=Arnold |first1=S. |year=1997 |title=Harninkontinenz bei kastrierten Hündinnen. Teil 1: Bedeutung, Klinik und Ätiopathogenese |trans-title=Urinary incontinence in castrated bitches. Part 1: Significance, clinical aspects and etiopathogenesis |journal=Schweizer Archiv für Tierheilkunde |language=de |volume=139 |issue=6 |pages=271–276 |pmid=9411733}} prostate cancer in dogs,{{cite journal |last1=Johnston |first1=S.D |last2=Kamolpatana |first2=K |last3=Root-Kustritz |first3=M.V |last4=Johnston |first4=G.R |date=July 2000 |title=Prostatic disorders in the dog |journal=Animal Reproduction Science |volume=60-61 |pages=405–415 |doi=10.1016/s0378-4320(00)00101-9 |pmid=10844211}} and osteosarcoma, hemangiosarcoma, cruciate ligament rupture, pyometra, obesity, and diabetes mellitus in either sex.{{cite journal |last1=Kustritz |first1=Margaret V. Root |date=December 2007 |title=Determining the optimal age for gonadectomy of dogs and cats |journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association |volume=231 |issue=11 |pages=1665–1675 |doi=10.2460/javma.231.11.1665 |pmid=18052800 |doi-access=free}}

Neutering is the most common surgical procedure in dogs less than a year old in the US and is seen as a control method for overpopulation. Neutering often occurs as early as 6–14 weeks in shelters in the US.{{cite book |last1=Kutzler |first1=Michelle Anne |title=Kirk's Current Veterinary Therapy |date=1 December 2013 |publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences |isbn=9780323227629 |editor1-last=Bonagura |editor1-first=John D. |edition=15th |pages=982–984 |chapter=Early Age Neutering in Dogs and Cats |editor2-last=Twedt |editor2-first=David C.}} The American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA) advises that dogs not intended for further breeding should be neutered so that they do not have undesired puppies that may later be euthanized.{{cite web | url=http://www.aspca.org/pet-care/spayneuter/ | title=Top 10 reasons to spay/neuter your pet | publisher=American Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals | access-date=16 May 2007 | archive-date=1 February 2009 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090201223014/http://www.aspca.org/pet-care/spayneuter/ | url-status=live }}{{Cite journal |last1=Hart |first1=Benjamin L. |last2=Hart |first2=Lynette A. |last3=Thigpen |first3=Abigail P. |last4=Willits |first4=Neil H. |date=14 July 2014 |title=Long-Term Health Effects of Neutering Dogs: Comparison of Labrador Retrievers with Golden Retrievers |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=9 |issue=7 |pages=e102241 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0102241 |doi-access=free |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=4096726 |pmid=25020045|bibcode=2014PLoSO...9j2241H }} However, the Society for Theriogenology and the American College of Theriogenologists made a joint statement that opposes mandatory neutering; they said that the cause of overpopulation in the US is cultural.

Neutering is less common in most European countries, especially in Nordic countries—except for the UK, where it is common. In Norway, neutering is illegal unless for the benefit of the animal's health (e.g., ovariohysterectomy in case of ovarian or uterine neoplasia). Some European countries have similar laws to Norway, but their wording either explicitly allows for neutering for controlling reproduction or it is allowed in practice or by contradiction through other laws. Italy and Portugal have passed recent laws that promote it. Germany forbids early age neutering, but neutering is still allowed at the usual age. In Romania, neutering is mandatory except for when a pedigree to select breeds can be shown.{{cite journal | last=Fossati | first=Paola | title=Spay/neuter laws as a debated approach to stabilizing the populations of dogs and cats: An overview of the European legal framework and remarks | journal=Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science | publisher=Informa UK Limited | volume=27 | issue=2 | date=31 May 2022 | issn=1088-8705 | doi=10.1080/10888705.2022.2081807 | pages=281–293| pmid=35642302 }}

== Inbreeding depression ==

A common breeding practice for pet dogs is to mate them between close relatives (e.g., between half- and full-siblings).{{cite journal |vauthors=Leroy G |title=Genetic diversity, inbreeding and breeding practices in dogs: results from pedigree analyses |journal=Vet. J. |volume=189 |issue=2 |pages=177–182 |year=2011 |pmid=21737321 |doi=10.1016/j.tvjl.2011.06.016 }} In a study of seven dog breeds (the Bernese Mountain Dog, Basset Hound, Cairn Terrier, Brittany, German Shepherd Dog, Leonberger, and West Highland White Terrier), it was found that inbreeding decreases litter size and survival.{{cite journal |last1=Leroy |first1=Grégoire |last2=Phocas |first2=Florence |last3=Hedan |first3=Benoit |last4=Verrier |first4=Etienne |last5=Rognon |first5=Xavier |title=Inbreeding impact on litter size and survival in selected canine breeds |journal=The Veterinary Journal |date=January 2015 |volume=203 |issue=1 |pages=74–78 |doi=10.1016/j.tvjl.2014.11.008 |pmid=25475165 |url=https://hal-univ-rennes1.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01122782/file/Inbreeding%20impact%20on%20litter%20size_accepted.pdf |access-date=31 December 2018 |archive-date=6 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201106093903/https://hal-univ-rennes1.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01122782/file/Inbreeding |url-status=live }} Another analysis of data on 42,855 Dachshund litters found that as the inbreeding coefficient increased, litter size decreased and the percentage of stillborn puppies increased, thus indicating inbreeding depression.{{cite journal |last1=Gresky |first1=Christina |last2=Hamann |first2=Henning |last3=Distl |first3=Ottmar |title=Einfluss von Inzucht auf die Wurfgröße und den Anteil tot geborener Welpen beim Dackel |trans-title=Influence of inbreeding on litter size and the proportion of stillborn puppies in dachshunds |language=de |journal=Berliner und Munchener Tierarztliche Wochenschrift |year=2005 |volume=118 |issue=3–4 |pages=134–139 |pmid=15803761 |url=https://www.vetline.de/einfluss-von-inzucht-auf-die-wurfgroesse-und-den-anteil-tot-geborener-welpen-beim-dackel |access-date=8 July 2024 |archive-date=11 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240911133308/https://www.vetline.de/einfluss-von-inzucht-auf-die-wurfgroesse-und-den-anteil-tot-geborener-welpen-beim-dackel |url-status=live }} In a study of Boxer litters, 22% of puppies died before reaching 7 weeks of age. Stillbirth was the most frequent cause of death, followed by infection. Mortality due to infection increased significantly with increases in inbreeding.{{cite journal |last1=van der Beek |first1=Sijne |last2=Nielen |first2=Angelique L. J. |last3=Schukken |first3=Ynte H. |last4=Brascamp |first4=E. W. |title=Evaluation of genetic, common-litter, and within-litter effects on preweaning mortality in a birth cohort of puppies |journal=American Journal of Veterinary Research |date=September 1999 |volume=60 |issue=9 |pages=1106–1110 |doi=10.2460/ajvr.1999.60.09.1106 |pmid=10490080 }}

Behavior

Dog behavior has been shaped by millennia of contact with humans. They have acquired the ability to understand and communicate with humans and are uniquely attuned to human behaviors. Behavioral scientists suggest that a set of social-cognitive abilities in domestic dogs that are not possessed by the dog's canine relatives or other highly intelligent mammals, such as great apes, are parallel to children's social-cognitive skills. Dogs have about twice the number of neurons in their cerebral cortexes than what cats have, which suggests they could be about twice as intelligent.

{{cite web

| archive-date = 2024-11-24

| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20241124010407/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/dog-cat-brains-neurons-intelligence-study-spd

| date = 2017-01-12

| first = Sarah

| last = Gibbens

| title = Are Dogs Smarter Than Cats? Science Has an Answer

| url = https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/dog-cat-brains-neurons-intelligence-study-spd

| website = National Geographic

}}

Most domestic animals were initially bred for the production of goods. Dogs, on the other hand, were selectively bred for desirable behavioral traits.{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-53994-7_2 |chapter=Dog Breeds and Their Behavior |title=Domestic Dog Cognition and Behavior |date=2014 |pages=31–57 |isbn=978-3-642-53993-0 | vauthors = Serpell JA, Duffy DL }} In 2016, a study found that only 11 fixed genes showed variation between wolves and dogs.{{Cite journal |last1=Cagan |first1=Alex |last2=Blass |first2=Torsten |year=2016 |title=Identification of genomic variants putatively targeted by selection during dog domestication |journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=10 |doi=10.1186/s12862-015-0579-7 |doi-broken-date=28 November 2024 |pmc=4710014 |pmid=26754411 |bibcode=2016BMCEE..16...10C |doi-access=free }} These gene variations indicate the occurrence of artificial selection and the subsequent divergence of behavior and anatomical features. These genes have been shown to affect the catecholamine synthesis pathway, with the majority of the genes affecting the fight-or-flight response{{cite journal |last1=Almada |first1=Rafael Carvalho |last2=Coimbra |first2=Norberto Cysne |title=Recruitment of striatonigral disinhibitory and nigrotectal inhibitory GABAergic pathways during the organization of defensive behavior by mice in a dangerous environment with the venomous snake Bothrops alternatus (Reptilia, Viperidae) |journal=Synapse |date=June 2015 |volume=69 |issue=6 |pages=299–313 |doi=10.1002/syn.21814 |pmid=25727065 }} (i.e., selection for tameness) and emotional processing. Compared to their wolf counterparts, dogs tend to be less timid and less aggressive, though some of these genes have been associated with aggression in certain dog breeds.{{cite book |last1=Lord |first1=Kathryn |last2=Schneider |first2=Richard A. |last3=Coppinger |first3=Raymond |chapter=Evolution of Working Dogs |pages=42–66 |editor-last1=Serpell |editor-first1=James |title=The Domestic Dog: Its Evolution, Behavior and Interactions with People |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2016 |isbn=978-1-107-02414-4 |doi=10.1017/9781139161800 }}{{cite journal |last1=Cagan |first1=Alex |last2=Blass |first2=Torsten |title=Identification of genomic variants putatively targeted by selection during dog domestication |journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology |date=December 2016 |volume=16 |issue=1 |page=10 |doi=10.1186/s12862-015-0579-7 |doi-broken-date=28 November 2024 |pmid=26754411 |pmc=4710014 |bibcode=2016BMCEE..16...10C |doi-access=free }} Traits of high sociability and lack of fear in dogs may include genetic modifications related to Williams-Beuren syndrome in humans, which cause hypersociability at the expense of problem-solving ability.{{cite journal |last1=vonHoldt |first1=Bridgett M. |last2=Shuldiner |first2=Emily |last3=Koch |first3=Ilana Janowitz |last4=Kartzinel |first4=Rebecca Y. |last5=Hogan |first5=Andrew |last6=Brubaker |first6=Lauren |last7=Wanser |first7=Shelby |last8=Stahler |first8=Daniel |last9=Wynne |first9=Clive D. L. |last10=Ostrander |first10=Elaine A. |last11=Sinsheimer |first11=Janet S. |last12=Udell |first12=Monique A. R. |title=Structural variants in genes associated with human Williams-Beuren syndrome underlie stereotypical hypersociability in domestic dogs |journal=Science Advances |date=7 July 2017 |volume=3 |issue=7 |pages=e1700398 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.1700398 |pmid=28776031 |pmc=5517105 |bibcode=2017SciA....3E0398V }} In a 2023 study of 58 dogs, some dogs classified as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder-like showed lower serotonin and dopamine concentrations.{{Cite journal |last1=González-Martínez |first1=Ángela |last2=Muñiz de Miguel |first2=Susana |last3=Graña |first3=Noemi |last4=Costas |first4=Xiana |last5=Diéguez |first5=Francisco Javier |date=13 March 2023 |title=Serotonin and Dopamine Blood Levels in ADHD-Like Dogs |journal=Animals |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=1037 |doi=10.3390/ani13061037 |doi-access=free |pmid=36978578 |pmc=10044280 }} A similar study claims that hyperactivity is more common in male and young dogs.{{Cite journal |last1=Sulkama |first1=Sini |last2=Puurunen |first2=Jenni |last3=Salonen |first3=Milla |last4=Mikkola |first4=Salla |last5=Hakanen |first5=Emma |last6=Araujo |first6=César |last7=Lohi |first7=Hannes |date=October 2021 |title=Canine hyperactivity, impulsivity, and inattention share similar demographic risk factors and behavioural comorbidities with human ADHD |journal=Translational Psychiatry |volume=11 |issue=1 |page=501 |doi=10.1038/s41398-021-01626-x |pmid=34599148 |pmc=8486809 }} A dog can become aggressive because of trauma or abuse, fear or anxiety, territorial protection, or protecting an item it considers valuable.{{Cite web |title=How to Handle Aggression Between Dogs (Inter-Dog Aggressive Behavior) |url=https://www.petmd.com/dog/conditions/behavioral/c_dg_AggressionInterdog |access-date=29 March 2024 |website=petmd.com |language=en |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329121301/https://www.petmd.com/dog/conditions/behavioral/c_dg_AggressionInterdog |url-status=live }} Acute stress reactions from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) seen in dogs can evolve into chronic stress.{{Cite journal |last1=Fan |first1=Zhicong |last2=Bian |first2=Zhaowei |last3=Huang |first3=Hongcan |last4=Liu |first4=Tingting |last5=Ren |first5=Ruiti |last6=Chen |first6=Xiaomin |last7=Zhang |first7=Xiaohe |last8=Wang |first8=Yingjia |last9=Deng |first9=Baichuan |last10=Zhang |first10=Lingna |date=21 February 2023 |title=Dietary Strategies for Relieving Stress in Pet Dogs and Cats |journal=Antioxidants |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=545 |doi=10.3390/antiox12030545 |doi-access=free |pmid=36978793 |pmc=10045725 }} Police dogs with PTSD can often refuse to work.{{Cite web |date=22 May 2018 |website=American Kennel Club |publisher=American Kennel Club's Staff |title=Dogs and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) |url=https://www.akc.org/expert-advice/lifestyle/dogs-post-traumatic-stress-disorder/ |access-date=30 March 2024 |language=en |archive-date=30 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330093436/https://www.akc.org/expert-advice/lifestyle/dogs-post-traumatic-stress-disorder/ |url-status=live }}File:2022-07-20 LJUBLJANA ŠPICA CARNIVORA Canis lupus familiaris DOMAČI PES.webm

Dogs have a natural instinct called prey drive (the term is chiefly used to describe training dogs' habits) which can be influenced by breeding. These instincts can drive dogs to consider objects or other animals to be prey or drive possessive behavior. These traits have been enhanced in some breeds so that they may be used to hunt and kill vermin or other pests.{{Cite web |last=NutriSource |date=19 October 2022 |title=What Natural Instincts Do Dogs Have? |url=https://nutrisourcepetfoods.com/blog/pet-parents/what-natural-instincts-do-dogs-have/ |access-date=2 April 2024 |website=NutriSource Pet Foods |language=en-US |archive-date=2 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240402091139/https://nutrisourcepetfoods.com/blog/pet-parents/what-natural-instincts-do-dogs-have/ |url-status=live }} Puppies or dogs sometimes bury food underground. One study found that wolves outperformed dogs in finding food caches, likely due to a "difference in motivation" between wolves and dogs.{{cite journal |last1=Vetter |first1=Sebastian G. |last2=Rangheard |first2=Louise |last3=Schaidl |first3=Lena |last4=Kotrschal |first4=Kurt |last5=Range |first5=Friederike |title=Observational spatial memory in wolves and dogs |journal=PLOS ONE |date=13 September 2023 |volume=18 |issue=9 |pages=e0290547 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0290547 |doi-access=free |pmid=37703235 |pmc=10499247 |bibcode=2023PLoSO..1890547V }} Some puppies and dogs engage in coprophagy out of habit, stress, for attention, or boredom; most of them will not do it later in life. A study hypothesizes that the behavior was inherited from wolves, a behavior likely evolved to lessen the presence of intestinal parasites in dens.{{cite journal |last1=Hart |first1=Benjamin L. |last2=Hart |first2=Lynette A. |last3=Thigpen |first3=Abigail P. |last4=Tran |first4=Alisha |last5=Bain |first5=Melissa J. |title=The paradox of canine conspecific coprophagy |journal=Veterinary Medicine and Science |date=May 2018 |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=106–114 |doi=10.1002/vms3.92 |pmid=29851313 |pmc=5980124 }} Most dogs can swim. In a study of 412 dogs, around 36.5% of the dogs could not swim; the other 63.5% were able to swim without a trainer in a swimming pool.{{cite journal |last1=Nganvongpanit |first1=Korakot |last2=Yano |first2=Terdsak |title=Side Effects in 412 Dogs from Swimming in a Chlorinated Swimming Pool |journal=The Thai Journal of Veterinary Medicine |date=September 2012 |volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=281–286 |doi=10.56808/2985-1130.2398 }} A study of 55 dogs found a correlation between swimming and 'improvement' of the hip osteoarthritis joint.{{Cite journal |last1=Nganvongpanit |first1=Korakot |last2=Tanvisut |first2=Sikhrin |last3=Yano |first3=Terdsak |last4=Kongtawelert |first4=Prachya |date=9 January 2014 |title=Effect of Swimming on Clinical Functional Parameters and Serum Biomarkers in Healthy and Osteoarthritic Dogs |journal=ISRN Veterinary Science |volume=2014 |pages=459809 |doi=10.1155/2014/459809 |doi-access=free |pmc=4060742 |pmid=24977044 }}

= Nursing =

File:Säugende Hündin.JPG

The female dog may produce colostrum, a type of milk high in nutrients and antibodies, 1–7 days before giving birth. Milk production lasts for around three months,{{Cite journal |last1=Rossi |first1=Luciana |last2=Valdez Lumbreras |first2=Ana Elena |last3=Vagni |first3=Simona |last4=Dell'Anno |first4=Matteo |last5=Bontempo |first5=Valentino |date=15 November 2021 |title=Nutritional and Functional Properties of Colostrum in Puppies and Kittens |journal=Animals |volume=11 |issue=11 |page=3260 |doi=10.3390/ani11113260 |doi-access=free |pmid=34827992 |pmc=8614261 }}{{Cite journal |last=Chastant |first=Sylvie |date=14 June 2023 |title=Lactation in domestic carnivores |journal=Animal Frontiers: The Review Magazine of Animal Agriculture |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=78–83 |doi=10.1093/af/vfad027 |doi-access=free |pmid=37324213 |pmc=10266749 }} and increases with litter size. The dog can sometimes vomit and refuse food during child contractions.{{Cite web |title=Dog Pregnancy, Birth, and Postpartum Care: The Complete Guide |url=https://www.petmd.com/dog/conditions/reproductive/dog-pregnancy-birth-and-puppy-care-complete-guide |access-date=24 March 2024 |website=petmd.com |language=en |archive-date=24 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240324045503/https://www.petmd.com/dog/conditions/reproductive/dog-pregnancy-birth-and-puppy-care-complete-guide |url-status=live }} In the later stages of the dog's pregnancy, nesting behaviour may occur.{{cite web |title=Whelping your first litter |url=https://www.abbeyvetcentregrimsby.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/Whelping-your-first-litter.pdf |website=Abbey Vets |date=February 2022 |access-date=24 March 2024 |archive-date=18 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220818113710/https://www.abbeyvetcentregrimsby.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/Whelping-your-first-litter.pdf |url-status=live }} Puppies are born with a protective fetal membrane that the mother usually removes shortly after birth. Dogs can have the maternal instincts to start grooming their puppies, consume their puppies' feces, and protect their puppies, likely due to their hormonal state.{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-1-4160-5419-1.00004-3 |chapter=Canine Social Behavior |title=Canine Behavior |date=2009 |pages=133–192 |isbn=978-1-4160-5419-1 | vauthors = Beaver BV |publisher=W.B. Saunders }}{{Cite web |last=Dodman |first=Nicholas |title=Coprophagia {{!}} Dog Behavior |url=https://www.tendercareanimalhospital.net/dog-coprophagia.html |access-date=31 March 2024 |website=www.tendercareanimalhospital.net |archive-date=31 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240331003703/https://www.tendercareanimalhospital.net/dog-coprophagia.html |url-status=live }} While male-parent dogs can show more disinterested behaviour toward their own puppies,{{Cite web |title=How Will the Male Dog React to the Newborn Puppies? {{!}} Cuteness |url=https://www.cuteness.com/article/male-dog-react-newborn-puppies |access-date=24 March 2024 |website=Cuteness.com |date=14 August 2011 |language=en |archive-date=24 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240324082858/https://www.cuteness.com/article/male-dog-react-newborn-puppies |url-status=live }} most can play with the young pups as they would with other dogs or humans.{{Cite web |date=16 June 2019 |title=Do male dogs have paternal instincts? |url=https://www.wisdompanel.com/en-us/blog/do-male-dogs-have-paternal-instincts |access-date=24 March 2024 |website=Wisdom Panel™ |language=en-us |archive-date=24 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240324082858/https://www.wisdompanel.com/en-us/blog/do-male-dogs-have-paternal-instincts |url-status=live }} A female dog may abandon or attack her puppies or her male partner dog if she is stressed or in pain.{{Cite journal |last1=Lezama-García |first1=Karina |last2=Mariti |first2=Chiara |last3=Mota-Rojas |first3=Daniel |last4=Martínez-Burnes |first4=Julio |last5=Barrios-García |first5=Hugo |last6=Gazzano |first6=Angelo |date=2 January 2019 |title=Maternal behaviour in domestic dogs |journal=International Journal of Veterinary Science and Medicine |language=en |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=20–30 |doi=10.1080/23144599.2019.1641899 |issn=2314-4599 |pmc=6776987 |pmid=31620484}}

= Intelligence =

Researchers have tested dogs' ability to perceive information, retain it as knowledge, and apply it to solve problems. Studies of two dogs suggest that dogs can learn by inference. A study with Rico, a Border Collie, showed that he knew the labels of over 200 different items. He inferred the names of novel things by exclusion learning and correctly retrieved those new items after four weeks of the initial exposure. A study of another Border Collie, Chaser, documented that he had learned the names and could associate them by verbal command with over 1,000 words.{{cite book|author=Pilley, John |year=2013|title=Chaser: Unlocking the genius of the dog who knows a thousand words|publisher = Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|isbn=978-0-544-10257-6}}

One study of canine cognitive abilities found that dogs' capabilities are similar to those of horses, chimpanzees, or cats. One study of 18 household dogs found that the dogs could not distinguish food bowls at specific locations without distinguishing cues; the study stated that this indicates a lack of spatial memory. A study stated that dogs have a visual sense for number. The dogs showed a ratio-dependent activation both for numerical values from 1–3 to larger than four.{{Cite journal |last1=Aulet |first1=Lauren S. |last2=Chiu |first2=Veronica C. |last3=Prichard |first3=Ashley |last4=Spivak |first4=Mark |last5=Lourenco |first5=Stella F. |last6=Berns |first6=Gregory S. |date=December 2019 |title=Canine sense of quantity: evidence for numerical ratio-dependent activation in parietotemporal cortex |journal= Biology Letters|publication-date=18 December 2019 |volume=15 |issue=12 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2019.0666 |pmid=31847744 |pmc=6936025 }}

Dogs demonstrate a theory of mind by engaging in deception.{{cite journal |last1=Piotti |first1=Patrizia |last2=Kaminski |first2=Juliane |title=Do Dogs Provide Information Helpfully? |journal=PLOS ONE |date=10 August 2016 |volume=11 |issue=8 |pages=e0159797 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0159797 |pmid=27508932 |pmc=4980001 |bibcode=2016PLoSO..1159797P |doi-access=free }} Another experimental study showed evidence that Australian dingos can outperform domestic dogs in non-social problem-solving, indicating that domestic dogs may have lost much of their original problem-solving abilities once they joined humans.{{cite journal | last1 = Smith | first1 = B. | last2 = Litchfield | first2 = C. | year = 2010 | title = How well do dingoes (Canis dingo) perform on the detour task | journal = Animal Behaviour | volume = 80 | pages = 155–162 | doi=10.1016/j.anbehav.2010.04.017| s2cid = 53153703 }} Another study showed that dogs stared at humans after failing to complete an impossible version of the same task they had been trained to solve. Wolves, under the same situation, avoided staring at humans altogether.{{cite journal |last1=Miklósi |first1=A. |last2=Kubinyi |first2=E. |last3=Topál |first3=J. |last4=Gácsi |first4=M. |last5=Virányi |first5=Z. |last6=Csányi |first6=V. |date=Apr 2003 |title=A simple reason for a big difference: wolves do not look back at humans, but dogs do |journal=Curr Biol |volume=13 |issue=9 |pages=763–766 |bibcode=2003CBio...13..763M |doi=10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00263-X |pmid=12725735 |s2cid=10200094 |doi-access=free}}

= Communication =

{{Listen

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Dog communication is the transfer of information between dogs, as well as between dogs and humans.{{cite book |last1=Coren |first1=Stanley |title=How To Speak Dog: Mastering the Art of Dog-Human Communication |date=2001 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-0-7432-0297-8 |page=xii }} Communication behaviors of dogs include eye gaze, facial expression,{{cite journal |last1=Kaminski |first1=Juliane |last2=Hynds |first2=Jennifer |last3=Morris |first3=Paul |last4=Waller |first4=Bridget M. |title=Human attention affects facial expressions in domestic dogs |journal=Scientific Reports |year=2017 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=12914 |doi=10.1038/s41598-017-12781-x |pmid=29051517 |pmc=5648750 |bibcode=2017NatSR...712914K |doi-access=free}}{{cite journal |last1=Kaminski |first1=Juliane |last2=Waller |first2=Bridget M. |last3=Diogo |first3=Rui |last4=Hartstone-Rose |first4=Adam |last5=Burrows |first5=Anne M. |title=Evolution of facial muscle anatomy in dogs |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |year=2019 |volume=116 |issue=29 |pages=14677–14681 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1820653116 |pmid=31209036 |pmc=6642381 |bibcode=2019PNAS..11614677K |doi-access=free}} vocalization, body posture (including movements of bodies and limbs), and gustatory communication (scents, pheromones, and taste). Dogs mark their territories by urinating on them, which is more likely when entering a new environment.{{Cite web |last1=Lindell |first1=Ellen |last2=Feyrecilde |first2=Monique |last3=Horwitz |first3=Debra |last4=Landsberg |first4=Gary |title=Dog Behavioral Problems: Marking Behavior |url=https://vcahospitals.com/know-your-pet/dog-behavior-problems-marking-behavior |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240121214453/https://vcahospitals.com/know-your-pet/dog-behavior-problems-marking-behavior |archive-date=21 January 2024 |access-date=13 March 2024 |website=VCA Animal Hospitals |language=en}}{{Cite web |title=Curbing the Issue of Dog Marking |url=https://www.akc.org/expert-advice/training/curbing-marking/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230929091137/https://www.akc.org/expert-advice/training/curbing-marking/ |archive-date=29 September 2023 |access-date=13 March 2024 |website=American Kennel Club |language=en}} Both sexes of dogs may also urinate to communicate anxiety or frustration, submissiveness, or when in exciting or relaxing situations.{{Cite web |title=Why Do Dogs Pee When They're Excited or Fearful? |url=https://www.thesprucepets.com/fixing-submissive-excitement-urination-1118271 |access-date=30 March 2024 |website=The Spruce Pets |language=en |archive-date=30 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330093436/https://www.thesprucepets.com/fixing-submissive-excitement-urination-1118271 |url-status=live }} Aroused dogs can be a result of the dogs' higher cortisol levels.{{Cite web |date=26 May 2023 |title=What is Overarousal in Dogs? {{!}} FOTP |url=https://fotp.com/learn/dog-lifestyle/what-is-overarousal-in-dogs |access-date=30 March 2024 |website=Front of the Pack |language=en-US |archive-date=30 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330093437/https://fotp.com/learn/dog-lifestyle/what-is-overarousal-in-dogs |url-status=live }} Dogs begin socializing with other dogs by the time they reach the ages of 3 to 8 weeks, and at about 5 to 12 weeks of age, they alter their focus from dogs to humans.{{Cite web |title=Normal Social Behavior in Dogs - Dog Owners |url=https://www.msdvetmanual.com/dog-owners/behavior-of-dogs/normal-social-behavior-in-dogs |access-date=29 March 2024 |website=MSD Veterinary Manual |language=en |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329121024/https://www.msdvetmanual.com/dog-owners/behavior-of-dogs/normal-social-behavior-in-dogs |url-status=live }} Belly exposure in dogs can be a defensive behavior that can lead to a bite or to seek comfort.{{cite journal |last1=Tami |first1=Gabriella |last2=Gallagher |first2=Anne |title=Description of the behaviour of domestic dog (Canis familiaris) by experienced and inexperienced people |journal=Applied Animal Behaviour Science |date=September 2009 |volume=120 |issue=3–4 |pages=159–169 |doi=10.1016/j.applanim.2009.06.009 }}

Humans communicate with dogs by using vocalization, hand signals, and body posture. With their acute sense of hearing, dogs rely on the auditory aspect of communication for understanding and responding to various cues, including the distinctive barking patterns that convey different messages. A study using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has shown that dogs respond to both vocal and nonvocal voices using the brain's region towards the temporal pole, similar to that of humans' brains. Most dogs also looked significantly longer at the face whose expression matched the valence of vocalization.{{cite journal |last1=Nagasawa |first1=Miho |last2=Murai |first2=Kensuke |last3=Mogi |first3=Kazutaka |last4=Kikusui |first4=Takefumi |year=2011 |title=Dogs can discriminate human smiling faces from blank expressions |journal=Animal Cognition |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=525–533 |doi=10.1007/s10071-011-0386-5 |pmid=21359654 |s2cid=12354384}}{{cite journal |last1=Albuquerque |first1=Natalia |last2=Guo |first2=Kun |last3=Wilkinson |first3=Anna |last4=Savalli |first4=Carine |last5=Otta |first5=Emma |last6=Mills |first6=Daniel |year=2016 |title=Dogs recognize dog and human emotions |journal=Biology Letters |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=20150883 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2015.0883 |pmc=4785927 |pmid=26763220 |doi-access=free}} A study of caudate responses shows that dogs tend to respond more positively to social rewards than to food rewards.{{cite journal |last1=Cook |first1=Peter F. |last2=Prichard |first2=Ashley |last3=Spivak |first3=Mark |last4=Berns |first4=Gregory S. |title=Awake canine fMRI predicts dogs' preference for praise vs food |journal=Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience |date=12 August 2016 |volume=11 |issue=12 |pages=1853–1862 |doi=10.1093/scan/nsw102 |pmid=27521302 |pmc=5141954 }}

Ecology

= Population =

The dog is the most widely abundant large carnivoran living in the human environment.{{cite journal |last1=Young |first1=Julie K. |last2=Olson |first2=Kirk A. |last3=Reading |first3=Richard P. |last4=Amgalanbaatar |first4=Sukh |last5=Berger |first5=Joel |title=Is Wildlife Going to the Dogs? Impacts of Feral and Free-roaming Dogs on Wildlife Populations |journal=BioScience |date=February 2011 |volume=61 |issue=2 |pages=125–132 |doi=10.1525/bio.2011.61.2.7 |url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdm_usdanwrc/1387 |access-date=3 July 2024 |archive-date=6 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230806215638/https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdm_usdanwrc/1387/ |url-status=live }}{{cite journal |last1=Daniels |first1=T. J. |last2=Bekoff |first2=M. |title=Population and Social Biology of Free-Ranging Dogs, Canis familiaris |journal=Journal of Mammalogy |date=27 November 1989 |volume=70 |issue=4 |pages=754–762 |doi=10.2307/1381709 |jstor=1381709 |url=https://animalstudiesrepository.org/acwp_ehlm/18 |access-date=6 July 2024 |archive-date=3 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803014341/https://animalstudiesrepository.org/acwp_ehlm/18/ |url-status=live }} In 2020, the estimated global dog population was between 700 million and 1 billion.{{Cite journal |last1=Sykes |first1=Naomi |last2=Beirne |first2=Piers |last3=Horowitz |first3=Alexandra |last4=Jones |first4=Ione |last5=Kalof |first5=Linda |last6=Karlsson |first6=Elinor |last7=King |first7=Tammie |last8=Litwak |first8=Howard |last9=McDonald |first9=Robbie A. |last10=Murphy |first10=Luke John |last11=Pemberton |first11=Neil |last12=Promislow |first12=Daniel |last13=Rowan |first13=Andrew |last14=Stahl |first14=Peter W. |last15=Tehrani |first15=Jamshid |date=March 2020 |title=Humanity's Best Friend: A Dog-Centric Approach to Addressing Global Challenges |journal=Animals |language=en |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=502 |doi=10.3390/ani10030502 |doi-access=free |pmid=32192138 |pmc=7142965 |issn=2076-2615}} In the same year, a study found the dog to be the most popular pet in the United States, as they were present in 34 out of every 100 homes. About 20% of the dog population live in developed countries. In the developing world, it is estimated that three-quarters of the world's dog population lives in the developing world as feral, village, or community dogs.{{Cite book |author=Coppinger |first1=Raymond |url=https://archive.org/details/dogsstartlingnew00raym |title=Dogs: a Startling New Understanding of Canine Origin, Behavior and Evolution |last2=Coppinger |first2=Lorna |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |others=Information contributed by Internet Archive |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-684-85530-1 |location=New York |language=en}} Most of these dogs live as scavengers and have never been owned by humans, with one study showing that village dogs' most common response when approached by strangers is to run away (52%) or respond aggressively (11%).{{cite journal |last1=Ortolani |first1=Alessia |last2=Vernooij |first2=Hans |last3=Coppinger |first3=Raymond |title=Ethiopian village dogs: Behavioural responses to a stranger's approach |journal=Applied Animal Behaviour Science |date=July 2009 |volume=119 |issue=3–4 |pages=210–218 |doi=10.1016/j.applanim.2009.03.011 }}

= Competitors =

Feral and free-ranging dogs' potential to compete with other large carnivores is limited by their strong association with humans. Although wolves are known to kill dogs, wolves tend to live in pairs in areas where they are highly persecuted, giving them a disadvantage when facing large dog groups.{{sfn|Boitani|Mech|2003|pp=259–264}} In some instances, wolves have displayed an uncharacteristic fearlessness of humans and buildings when attacking dogs, to the extent that they have to be beaten off or killed.{{cite journal |last1=Kojola |first1=Ilpo |last2=Ronkainen |first2=Seppo |last3=Hakala |first3=Antero |last4=Heikkinen |first4=Samuli |last5=Kokko |first5=Sanna |year=2004 |title=Interactions between wolves Canis lupus and dogs C. familiaris in Finland |journal=Wildlife Biology |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=101–105 |doi=10.2981/wlb.2004.014 |bibcode=2004WildB..10..101K |s2cid=85973414}} Although the numbers of dogs killed each year are relatively low, there is still a fear among humans of wolves entering villages and farmyards to take dogs, and losses of dogs to wolves have led to demands for more liberal wolf hunting regulations.

Coyotes and big cats have also been known to attack dogs. In particular, leopards are known to have a preference for dogs and have been recorded to kill and consume them, no matter their size.{{Cite book|author1=Scott, Jonathan |author2=Scott, Angela |title = Big Cat Diary: Leopard|year = 2006|isbn = 978-0-00-721181-4|publisher=Collins|location = London|page = 108}} Siberian tigers in the Amur river region have killed dogs in the middle of villages. They will not tolerate wolves as competitors within their territories, and the tigers could be considering dogs in the same way. Striped hyenas are known to kill dogs in their range.{{cite web| url = http://www.hyaena.ge/striped.htm|title = Striped Hyaena Hyaena (Hyaena) hyaena (Linnaeus, 1758)|publisher=IUCN Species Survival Commission Hyaenidae Specialist Group|access-date =21 May 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928225108/http://www.hyaena.ge/striped.htm| archive-date=28 September 2007}} Dogs as introduced predators have affected the ecology of New Zealand, which lacked indigenous land-based mammals before human settlement.{{cite book |last1=Atkinson |first1=I. A. E. |title=Biological Invasions in New Zealand |date=2006 |isbn=3-540-30022-8 |series=Ecological Studies |volume=186 |pages=49–66 |chapter=Introduced Mammals in a New Environment |doi=10.1007/3-540-30023-6_4 |quote=New Zealand was originally a land without terrestrial mammals, except for three species of small bats. [...] packs of European dogs were roaming forests by the middle of the 19th century. [...] both domestic and feral dogs continue to be predators of ground birds, including the kiwi and weka [...]. |quote-pages=49, 50}} Dogs have made 11 vertebrate species extinct and are identified as a 'potential threat' to at least 188 threatened species worldwide.{{cite journal |last1=Doherty |first1=Tim S. |last2=Dickman |first2=Chris R. |last3=Glen |first3=Alistair S. |last4=Newsome |first4=Thomas M. |last5=Nimmo |first5=Dale G. |last6=Ritchie |first6=Euan G. |last7=Vanak |first7=Abi T. |last8=Wirsing |first8=Aaron J. |title=The global impacts of domestic dogs on threatened vertebrates |journal=Biological Conservation |date=June 2017 |volume=210 |pages=56–59 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2017.04.007 |bibcode=2017BCons.210...56D }} Dogs have also been linked to the extinction of 156 animal species.{{Cite journal |last1=Doherty |first1=Tim S. |last2=Glen |first2=Alistair S. |last3=Nimmo |first3=Dale G. |last4=Ritchie |first4=Euan G. |last5=Dickman |first5=Chris R. |date=16 September 2016 |editor-last=Simberloff |editor-first=Daniel S. |title=Invasive predators and global biodiversity loss |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=113 |issue=40 |pages=11261–11265 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1602480113|doi-access=free |pmid=27638204 |pmc=5056110 |bibcode=2016PNAS..11311261D }} Dogs have been documented to have killed a few birds of the endangered species, the kagu, in New Caledonia.{{Cite journal |last1=Hunt |first1=Gavin R. |last2=Hay |first2=Rod |last3=Veltman |first3=Clare J. |date=December 1996 |title=Multiple Kagu Rhynochetos jubatus deaths caused by dog attacks at a high-altitude study site on Pic Ningua, New Caledonia |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0959270900001775/type/journal_article |journal=Bird Conservation International |language=en |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=295–306 |doi=10.1017/S0959270900001775 |issn=0959-2709}}

= Diet =

File:Golden retriever eating pigs foot.jpg gnawing on a pig's foot bone|330x330px]]

Dogs are typically described as omnivores.{{Cite book | title=Biology of the pancreas in growing animals | volume=28 | author1=S.G. Pierzynowski | author2=R. Zabielski | publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences | year=1999 | isbn=978-0-444-50217-9 | page=417 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W5NKvgAACAAJ | oclc=247092084 | access-date=23 April 2023 | archive-date=12 May 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230512215727/https://books.google.com/books?id=W5NKvgAACAAJ | url-status=live }}{{Cite book | title=Grab Life by the Leash: A Guide to Bringing Up and Bonding with Your Four-Legged Friend | author=Smith, Cheryl S. | publisher=John Wiley and Sons | year=2008 | isbn=978-0-470-17882-9 | chapter=Chapter 6: Omnivores Together |page=77| chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p0y9b9voiI8C&pg=PA77 | url=https://archive.org/details/grablifebyleashg0000smit }} Compared to wolves, dogs from agricultural societies have extra copies of amylase and other genes involved in starch digestion that contribute to an increased ability to thrive on a starch-rich diet.{{cite journal |last1=Axelsson |first1=Erik |last2=Ratnakumar |first2=Abhirami |last3=Arendt |first3=Maja-Louise |last4=Maqbool |first4=Khurram |last5=Webster |first5=Matthew T. |last6=Perloski |first6=Michele |last7=Liberg |first7=Olof |last8=Arnemo |first8=Jon M. |last9=Hedhammar |first9=Åke |last10=Lindblad-Toh |first10=Kerstin |title=The genomic signature of dog domestication reveals adaptation to a starch-rich diet |journal=Nature |date=March 2013 |volume=495 |issue=7441 |pages=360–364 |doi=10.1038/nature11837 |bibcode=2013Natur.495..360A |pmid=23354050 |s2cid=4415412 | issn=0028-0836}} Similar to humans, some dog breeds produce amylase in their saliva and are classified as having a high-starch diet.{{cite journal |last1=Pajic |first1=Petar |last2=Pavlidis |first2=Pavlos |last3=Dean |first3=Kirsten |last4=Neznanova |first4=Lubov |last5=Romano |first5=Rose-Anne |last6=Garneau |first6=Danielle |last7=Daugherity |first7=Erin |last8=Globig |first8=Anja |last9=Ruhl |first9=Stefan |last10=Gokcumen |first10=Omer |title=Independent amylase gene copy number bursts correlate with dietary preferences in mammals |journal=eLife |date=14 May 2019 |volume=8 |doi=10.7554/eLife.44628 |pmid=31084707 |pmc=6516957 |doi-access=free}}

{{cite journal |last1=Janiak |first1=Mareike C |title=Of starch and spit |journal=eLife |date=14 May 2019 |volume=8 |doi=10.7554/eLife.47523 |doi-access=free |pmid=31084712 |pmc=6516821 }} Despite being an omnivore, dogs are only able to conjugate bile acid with taurine. They must get vitamin D from their diet.{{Cite journal |last=Fascetti |first=Andrea J. |date=July 2010 |title=Nutritional management and disease prevention in healthy dogs and cats |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s1516-35982010001300006 |journal=Revista Brasileira de Zootecnia |volume=39 |issue=suppl spe |pages=42–51 |doi=10.1590/s1516-35982010001300006 |issn=1516-3598}}

Of the twenty-one amino acids common to all life forms (including selenocysteine), dogs cannot synthesize ten: arginine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine.{{Cite web |title=The Essentials of Canine Nutrition: Amino Acids and Other Nutrients |url=https://www.thewildest.com/dog-nutrition/essential-canine-nutrition |access-date=15 June 2023 |website=thewildest.com |language=en |archive-date=30 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630142421/https://www.thewildest.com/dog-nutrition/essential-canine-nutrition |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |title=Amino Acids for Dogs- Fortitude Canine |url=https://fortitudecanine.com/ingredients/amino-acids/ |access-date=15 June 2023 |website=Fortitude |language=en-US |archive-date=30 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630142422/https://fortitudecanine.com/ingredients/amino-acids/ |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |date=12 January 2019 |title=NRC Essential Nutrients: Amino Acids |url=https://perfectlyrawsome.com/raw-feeding-knowledgebase/nrc-essential-nutrients-amino-acids/ |access-date=15 June 2023 |website=Perfectly Rawsome |language=en-US |archive-date=30 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630142422/https://perfectlyrawsome.com/raw-feeding-knowledgebase/nrc-essential-nutrients-amino-acids/ |url-status=live }} Like cats, dogs require arginine to maintain nitrogen balance. These nutritional requirements place dogs halfway between carnivores and omnivores.{{cite book|title=Applied Veterinary Clinical Nutrition|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|editor1-last=Fascetti|editor1-first=Andrea J.|editor2-last=Delaney|editor2-first=Sean J.|edition=1st|year=2012|chapter=7|pages=76|isbn=978-0-8138-0657-0|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eIyL9qss6qsC&pg=PA76|access-date=4 March 2019|archive-date=14 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240314003643/https://books.google.com/books?id=eIyL9qss6qsC&pg=PA76#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}

= Range =

As a domesticated or semi-domesticated animal, the dog has notable exceptions of presence in:

The Aboriginal Tasmanians, who were separated from Australia before the arrival of dingos on that continent{{Cite journal |last=Jones |first=Rhys |date=10 February 2009 |title=Tasmanian Aborigines and Dogs |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1835-9310.1970.tb00420.x |journal=Mankind |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=256–271 |doi=10.1111/j.1835-9310.1970.tb00420.x |issn=0025-2328}}
The Andamanese peoples, who were isolated when rising sea levels covered the land bridge to Myanmar{{Cite journal |last1=Sudarshan |first1=M. K. |last2=Mahendra |first2=B. J. |last3=Madhusudana |first3=S. N. |last4=Rahman |first4=S. A. |last5=Ashwathnarayana |first5=D. H. |date=March 2006 |title=An Assessment of Rabies Free Status of the Island of Andaman, Nicobar and Lakshadweep: Results of the WHO Sponsored National Multicentric Rabies Survey |url=https://journals.lww.com/ijph/abstract/2006/50010/an_assessment_of_rabies_free_status_of_the_island.3.aspx |journal=Indian Journal of Public Health |language=en-US |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=11–14 |pmid=17193752 |issn=0019-557X}}{{Cite journal |last=Venkateswar |first=Sita |year=1999 |title=The Andaman Islanders |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26058248 |journal=Scientific American |volume=280 |issue=5 |pages=82–88 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0599-82 |jstor=26058248 |bibcode=1999SciAm.280e..82V |issn=0036-8733}}
The Fuegians, who instead domesticated the Fuegian dog, an already extinct different canid species{{Cite journal |last1=Jaksic |first1=Fabian M. |last2=Castro |first2=Sergio A. |date=26 July 2023 |title=The identity of Fuegian and Patagonian "dogs" among indigenous peoples in southernmost South America |journal=Revista Chilena de Historia Natural |language=en |volume=96 |issue=1 |pages=5 |doi=10.1186/s40693-023-00119-z |doi-access=free |bibcode=2023RvCHN..96....5J |issn=0717-6317}}
Individual Pacific islands whose maritime settlers did not bring dogs or where the dogs died out after original settlement, notably the Mariana Islands,{{cite journal |last1=Hung |first1=H. |last2=Carson |first2=Mike T. |last3=Bellwood |first3=Peter |last4=Campos |first4= Fredeliza Z. |year=2011 |title=The first settlement of Remote Oceania: The Philippines to the Marianas |journal=Antiquity |volume=85 |issue=329 |pages=909–926 |doi=10.1017/S0003598X00068393 |doi-access=free }} Palau{{cite book |last=Osborne |first=Douglas |date=1966 |title=The archaeology of the Palau Islands |series=Bernice P. Bishop Museum Bulletin |volume=230 |page=29 |isbn=978-0-910240-58-1}} and most of the Caroline Islands with exceptions such as Fais Island and Nukuoro,{{cite journal |last1=Intoh |first1=Michiko |last2=Shigehara |first2=Nobuo |year=2004 |title=Prehistoric pig and dog remains from Fais Island, Micronesia |journal=Anthropological Science |volume=112 |issue=3 |pages=257–267 |doi=10.1537/ase.040511|doi-access=free }} the Marshall Islands,{{cite book |last=Urban |first=Manfred |date=1961 |title=Die Haustiere der Polynesier |location=Göttingen |publisher=Häntzschel }} the Gilbert Islands, New Caledonia,{{cite journal |last=Matisoo-Smith |first=Elizabeth |date=Feb 2015 |title=Ancient DNA and the human settlement of the Pacific: A review |journal=Journal of Human Evolution |volume=79 |pages=93–104 |doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2014.10.017 |pmid=25556846 |bibcode=2015JHumE..79...93M }} Vanuatu,{{cite book |last=Forster |first=Johann Reinhold |date=1778 |title=Observations Made During a Voyage Round the World |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VI8-AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA188 |page=188 }} Tonga, Marquesas, Mangaia in the Cook Islands, Rapa Iti in French Polynesia, Easter Island, the Chatham Islands,{{cite book |last=Sharp |first=Andrew |date=1964 |title=Ancient Voyagers in Polynesia |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientvoyagersi0000shar |url-access=registration |location=Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press |page=[https://archive.org/details/ancientvoyagersi0000shar/page/120 120] }} and Pitcairn Island (settled by the Bounty mutineers, who killed off their dogs to escape discovery by passing ships).{{cite journal|title=Pitcairn's Island|journal=The Asiatic Journal and Monthly Register for British and Foreign India, China, and Australia|volume=10|page=38|year=1820|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x6o3AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA38}}

Dogs were introduced to Antarctica as sled dogs. Starting practice in December 1993, dogs were later outlawed by the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty international agreement due to the possible risk of spreading infections.{{Cite web |title=Did you know that dogs are banned from Antarctica? |url=https://nettarkiv.npolar.no/sorpolen2011.npolar.no/en/did-you-know/2011-11-12-dogs-are-banned-from-antarctica.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729232554/https://nettarkiv.npolar.no/sorpolen2011.npolar.no/en/did-you-know/2011-11-12-dogs-are-banned-from-antarctica.html |archive-date=29 July 2020 |access-date=29 March 2024 |website=nettarkiv.npolar.no}}{{Clear}}

Roles with humans

The domesticated dog originated as a predator and scavenger.{{cite book

|last1 = Nicoll

|first1 = Kate

|year = 2005

|title = Soul Friends: Finding Healing with Animals

|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=JluN-HH-8SMC

|publication-place = Indianapolis, Indiana

|publisher = Dog Ear Publishing

|page = 46

|isbn = 9780976660361

|access-date = 10 May 2024

|quote = [...] current studies seem to suggest [...] dog as predator or scavenger needed a food source and shelter.

|archive-date = 10 May 2024

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240510053615/https://books.google.com/books?id=JluN-HH-8SMC

|url-status = live

}}{{Cite journal |last1=Tancredi |first1=Domenico |last2=Cardinali |first2=Irene |date=May 2023 |title=Being a Dog: A Review of the Domestication Process |journal=Genes |language=en |volume=14 |issue=5 |pages=992 |doi=10.3390/genes14050992 |doi-access=free |pmid=37239352 |issn=2073-4425|pmc=10218297 }} They inherited complex behaviors, such as bite inhibition, from their wolf ancestors, which would have been pack hunters with complex body language. These sophisticated forms of social cognition and communication may account for dogs' trainability, playfulness, and ability to fit into human households and social situations,{{Cite book |last=Miklosi |first=Adam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ISBN9780199295852 |title=Dog Behaviour, Evolution, and Cognition |date=29 November 2007 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-929585-2 |pages=165–200 |language=en}} and probably also their co-existence with early human hunter-gatherers.{{cite journal |last1=Lupo |first1=Karen D. |title=Hounds follow those who feed them: What can the ethnographic record of hunter-gatherers reveal about early human-canid partnerships? |journal=Journal of Anthropological Archaeology |date=September 2019 |volume=55 |pages=101081 |doi=10.1016/j.jaa.2019.101081 }}{{Cite journal |last1=Zilio |first1=Leandro |last2=Hammond |first2=Heidi |last3=Peralta González |first3=Santiago |last4=Laura Parolin |first4=María |last5=Montes |first5=Alejandro |last6=Mariela Ocampo |first6=Silvina |last7=Eduardo Moreno |first7=Julián |date=September 2024 |title=Huachen: First record of use of dogs for carrying loads among hunter-gatherers in South America. Human-dog interactions on the late Holocene in Colhué Huapi lake, Argentine Patagonia |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports |volume=57 |pages=104621 |doi=10.1016/j.jasrep.2024.104621 |bibcode=2024JArSR..57j4621Z }} Dogs perform many roles for people, such as hunting, herding, pulling loads, protection, assisting police and the military, companionship, and aiding disabled individuals. These roles in human society have earned them the nickname "man's best friend" in the Western world. In some cultures, however, dogs are also a source of meat.{{cite news |last=Wingfield-Hayes |first=Rupert |date=29 June 2002 |title=China's taste for the exotic |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/2074073.stm |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190107021312/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/2074073.stm |archive-date= 7 January 2019 |access-date= 14 December 2011 |work= BBC News}}{{cite news |date=31 December 2001 |title= Vietnam's dog meat tradition |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1735647.stm |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190107021323/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1735647.stm |archive-date=7 January 2019 |access-date=14 December 2011 |work=BBC News}}

= Pets =

File:Siberian Husky pho.jpg with a human companion]]

The keeping of dogs as companions, particularly by elites, has a long history.{{Cite book |last= Derr |first= Mark |url= https://archive.org/details/dogsbestfriendan00derr |title= Dog's Best Friend |publisher= University of Chicago Press |year= 1997 |isbn=978-0-226-14280-7 |location= Chicago |url-access= registration}} Pet-dog populations grew significantly after World War II as suburbanization increased. In the 1980s, there have been changes in the pet dog's functions, such as the increased role of dogs in the emotional support of their human guardians.{{Cite journal |last1=Schoenfeld-Tacher |first1=Regina |last2=Hellyer |first2=Peter |last3=Cheung |first3=Louana |last4=Kogan |first4=Lori |date=June 2017 |title=Public Perceptions of Service Dogs, Emotional Support Dogs, and Therapy Dogs |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |language=en |volume=14 |issue=6 |pages=642 |doi=10.3390/ijerph14060642 |doi-access=free |pmid=28617350 |pmc=5486328 }}{{Cite book |last=Serpell |first=James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4fB7DQAAQBAJ&dq=info:poA2zvVNZnsJ:scholar.google.com/&pg=PA247 |title=The Domestic Dog |date=2017 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-02414-4 |pages=248 |language=en}}{{cite journal |last1=Power |first1= Emma |title= Furry families: making a human–dog family through home |journal= Social & Cultural Geography |date=August 2008 |volume=9 |issue=5 |pages=535–555 |doi= 10.1080/14649360802217790 }} Within the second half of the 20th century, more and more dog owners considered their animal to be a part of the family. This major social status shift allowed the dog to conform to social expectations of personality and behavior. The second has been the broadening of the concepts of family and the home to include dogs-as-dogs within everyday routines and practices.

Products such as dog-training books, classes, and television programs target dog owners.{{cite journal |last1=Nast |first1=Heidi J. |title=Loving....Whatever: Alienation, Neoliberalism and Pet-Love in the Twenty-First Century |journal=ACME |year=2006 |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=300–327 |url=https://acme-journal.org/index.php/acme/article/view/761 |access-date=22 April 2024 |archive-date=22 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240422130813/https://acme-journal.org/index.php/acme/article/view/761 |url-status=live }}{{Cite Q|Q115264477}} Some dog-trainers have promoted a dominance model of dog-human relationships. However, the idea of the "alpha dog" trying to be dominant is based on a controversial theory about wolf packs.{{Cite book |last= Miklósi |first= Ádám |title= The Dog: A Natural History |publisher= Princeton University Press |year= 2018 |isbn= 978-0-691-17693-2 |page= 75}}{{cite journal |last1=Mech |first1=L David |title=Alpha status, dominance, and division of labor in wolf packs |journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology |date=November 1999 |volume=77 |issue=8 |pages=1196–1203 |doi=10.1139/z99-099 }} It has been disputed that "trying to achieve status" is characteristic of dog-human interactions.{{cite journal |last1= Bradshaw |first1= John W.S. |last2= Blackwell |first2= Emily J. |last3= Casey |first3= Rachel A. |title= Dominance in domestic dogs—useful construct or bad habit? |journal= Journal of Veterinary Behavior |date=May 2009 |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=135–144 |doi= 10.1016/j.jveb.2008.08.004 }} Human family members have increased participation in activities in which the dog is an integral partner, such as dog dancing and dog yoga.

According to statistics published by the American Pet Products Manufacturers Association in the National Pet Owner Survey in 2009–2010, an estimated 77.5 million people in the United States have pet dogs.{{Cite web |date= 2 May 2010 |title= U.S. Pet Ownership Statistics |url= http://www.humanesociety.org/issues/pet_overpopulation/facts/pet_ownership_statistics.html |access-date= 2 April 2024 |publisher=Humane Society of the United States|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100502015231/http://www.humanesociety.org/issues/pet_overpopulation/facts/pet_ownership_statistics.html |archive-date= 2 May 2010 }} The source shows that nearly 40% of American households own at least one dog, of which 67% own just one dog, 25% own two dogs, and nearly 9% own more than two dogs. The data also shows an equal number of male and female pet dogs; less than one-fifth of the owned dogs come from shelters.{{cite web |title=U.S. Pet Ownership Statistics |url= http://www.humanesociety.org/issues/pet_overpopulation/facts/pet_ownership_statistics.html |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120407193941/http://www.humanesociety.org/issues/pet_overpopulation/facts/pet_ownership_statistics.html |archive-date=7 April 2012 |access-date=24 June 2010}}

= Workers =

In addition to dogs' role as companion animals, dogs have been bred for herding livestock (such as collies and sheepdogs); for hunting; for rodent control (such as terriers); as search and rescue dogs;{{cite journal |last1=Fenton |first1=Vikki |title=The use of dogs in search, rescue and recovery |journal=Journal of Wilderness Medicine |date=August 1992 |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=292–300 |doi=10.1580/0953-9859-3.3.292 }}{{cite book |last1=Coppinger |first1=Raymond |author-link1=Raymond Coppinger |title=The domestic dog: its evolution, behaviour, and interactions with people |last2=Schneider |first2=Richard |date=1995 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-42537-7 |editor-last=Serpell |editor-first=James |location=Cambridge |pages=161–179 |chapter=Evolution of working dogs}} as detection dogs (such as those trained to detect illicit drugs or chemical weapons);{{Cite book |last=Ensminger |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F1TNBQAAQBAJ |title=Police and Military Dogs: Criminal Detection, Forensic Evidence, and Judicial Admissibility |date=10 October 2011 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4398-7240-6 |pages=147–151 |language=en}}{{cite news |last1=Shenon |first1=Philip |title=AFTEREFFECTS: CHEMICAL WEAPONS; Dogs Take Their Place in Arsenal Against Chemical Attack |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/05/13/us/aftereffects-chemical-weapons-dogs-take-their-place-arsenal-against-chemical.html |work=The New York Times |date=13 May 2003 |access-date=9 June 2018 |archive-date=13 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613001401/https://www.nytimes.com/2003/05/13/us/aftereffects-chemical-weapons-dogs-take-their-place-arsenal-against-chemical.html |url-status=live }} as homeguard dogs; as police dogs (sometimes nicknamed "K-9"); as welfare-purpose dogs; as dogs who assist fishermen retrieve their nets; and as dogs that pull loads (such as sled dogs). In 1957, the dog Laika became one of the first animals to be launched into Earth orbit aboard the Soviets's Sputnik 2; Laika died during the flight from overheating.{{cite news|url= https://www.newyorker.com/tech/elements/remembering-laika-space-dog-and-soviet-hero|title= Remembering Laika, Space Dog and Soviet Hero|magazine= The New Yorker|author= Alex Wellerstein|date= 3 November 2017|access-date= 9 June 2018|archive-date=12 June 2018|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180612140755/https://www.newyorker.com/tech/elements/remembering-laika-space-dog-and-soviet-hero|url-status= live}}{{cite news |url= https://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-space-dog-idUSL1117596720080411 |title= Russia fetes dog Laika, first earthling in space |editor1= Solovyov, Dmitry |editor2= Pearce, Tim |date= 11 April 2008 |work= Reuters |access-date= 5 July 2021 |archive-date= 17 May 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210517190200/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-space-dog-idUSL1117596720080411 |url-status=live }} Various kinds of service dogs and assistance dogs, including guide dogs, hearing dogs, mobility assistance dogs, and psychiatric service dogs, assist individuals with disabilities.{{cite journal |last1=Audrestch |first1=Hilary M. |last2=Whelan |first2=Chantelle T. |last3=Grice |first3=David |last4=Asher |first4=Lucy |last5=England |first5=Gary C.W. |last6=Freeman |first6=Sarah L. |title=Recognizing the value of assistance dogs in society |journal=Disability and Health Journal |date=October 2015 |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=469–474 |doi=10.1016/j.dhjo.2015.07.001 |pmid=26364936 |url=http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/38879/ |access-date=31 December 2018 |archive-date=13 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200813115923/http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/38879/ |url-status=live }}{{cite journal |last1= Walther |first1= Sandra |last2= Yamamoto |first2= Mariko |last3= Thigpen |first3= Abigail Paige |last4= Garcia |first4= Anaissa |last5= Willits |first5= Neil H. |last6= Hart |first6= Lynette A. |title= Assistance Dogs: Historic Patterns and Roles of Dogs Placed by ADI or IGDF Accredited Facilities and by Non-Accredited U.S. Facilities |journal=Frontiers in Veterinary Science |date= 19 January 2017 |volume= 4 |page= 1 |doi= 10.3389/fvets.2017.00001 |pmid= 28154816 |pmc= 5243836 |doi-access= free }} A study of 29 dogs found that 9 dogs owned by people with epilepsy were reported to exhibit attention-getting behavior to their handler 30 seconds to 45 minutes prior to an impending seizure; there was no significant correlation between the patients' demographics, health, or attitude towards their pets.{{cite journal |last1= Dalziel |first1= Deborah J |last2= Uthman |first2= Basim M |last3= Mcgorray |first3= Susan P |last4= Reep |first4= Roger L |title= Seizure-alert dogs: a review and preliminary study |journal= Seizure |date= March 2003 |volume= 12 |issue= 2 |pages= 115–120 |doi=10.1016/s105913110200225x |pmid=12566236 |doi-access=free }}

= Shows and sports =

Dogs compete in breed-conformation shows and dog sports (including racing, sledding, and agility competitions). In dog shows, also referred to as "breed shows", a judge familiar with the specific dog breed evaluates individual purebred dogs for conformity with their established breed type as described in a breed standard.{{Cite web |title=Dog show {{!}} Description & History {{!}} Britannica |url= https://www.britannica.com/sports/dog-show |access-date= 27 March 2024 |website= Encyclopædia Britannica |language= en |archive-date= 12 May 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190512001155/https://www.britannica.com/sports/dog-show |url-status=live }} Weight pulling, a dog sport involving pulling weight, has been criticized for promoting doping and for its risk of injury.{{Cite web |last= DogTime |date= 16 April 2014 |title= Critics divided on controversial sport of dog "weight-pulling" |url=https://dogtime.com/dog-health/general/19644-critics-divided-on-controversial-sport-of-dog-weight-pulling |access-date=29 March 2024 |website=DogTime |language= en-US |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240329003644/https://dogtime.com/dog-health/general/19644-critics-divided-on-controversial-sport-of-dog-weight-pulling |url-status=live }}

= Dogs as food =

Humans have consumed dog meat going back at least 14,000 years. It is unknown to what extent prehistoric dogs were consumed and bred for meat. For centuries, the practice was prevalent in Southeast Asia, East Asia, Africa, and Oceania before cultural changes triggered by the spread of religions resulted in dog meat consumption declining and becoming more taboo. Switzerland, Polynesia, and pre-Columbian Mexico historically consumed dog meat.{{cite book|last= Schwabe|first= Calvin W.|title= Unmentionable Cuisine|publisher= University Press of Virginia|year= 1979|isbn= 978-0-8139-1162-5 |location= Charlottesville|page= [https://books.google.com/books?id=SiBntk9jGmoC&pg=PA173 173]}}{{cite journal |last1=Bay-Petersen |first1=Jan |title=Competition for resources : the role of pig and dog in the Polynesian agricultural economy. |journal=Journal de la Société des océanistes |year=1983 |volume=39 |issue=77 |pages=121–129 |doi=10.3406/jso.1983.2793 }}{{Cite journal |last= Stephen J. Hernandez-Divers |first= BVetMed |date=30 March 2015 |title=World Small Animal Veterinary Association World Congress Proceedings, 2005 |url= http://www.vin.com/doc/?id=6694579 |website= VIN.com |access-date=27 March 2024 |archive-date=20 April 2024 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240420222357/https://www.vin.com/apputil/project/defaultadv1.aspx?pid=11196&catid=&id=&meta=&authorid= |url-status=live }} Some Native American dogs, like the Peruvian Hairless Dog and Xoloitzcuintle, were raised to be sacrificed and eaten.{{cite journal |last1=Vásquez Sánchez |first1=Víctor F. |last2=Rosales Tham |first2=Teresa E. |last3=Gálvez Mora |first3=César A. |last4=Dorado Pérez |first4=Gabriel |title=El origen del perro (Canis lupus familiaris) sin pelo peruano (PSPP): pruebas arqueológicas, zooarqueológicas y genéticas. Revisión |journal=Archaeobios |year=2016 |volume=1 |issue=10 |pages=80–102 |issn=1996-5214}}{{cite journal |last1=de la Garza |first1=Mercedes |title=El Xoloitzcuintli y el Sacrificio |journal=Arqueología Mexicana |date=14 January 2022 |url=https://arqueologiamexicana.mx/mexico-antiguo/el-xoloitzcuintli-y-el-sacrificio |publisher=Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia |language=es}} Han Chinese traditionally ate dogs.{{Cite web |last= Wangyun |first= Dai |date= 14 February 2018 |title= 7,000 Years of the Dog: A History of China's Canine Companions |url= https://www.sixthtone.com/news/1001742 |access-date= 1 April 2024 |website= #SixthTone |archive-date= 1 April 2024 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240401134456/https://www.sixthtone.com/news/1001742 |url-status= live }} Consumption of dog meat declined but did not end during the Sui dynasty (581–618) and Tang dynasty (618–907) due in part to the spread of Buddhism and the upper class rejecting the practice.{{cite web |last1=Li |first1=Peter |title=Friend or food? Dog meat trade divides China |url=https://www.cnn.com/2015/06/18/opinions/china-yulin-dog-festival-peter-li/index.html |publisher=CNN |access-date=19 October 2024 |language=en |date=19 June 2015}}{{cite journal |last1= Li |first1= Peter J. |last2= Sun |first2= Jiang |last3= Yu |first3= Dezhi |title= Dog 'Meat' Consumption in China |journal= Society & Animals |date= 20 October 2017 |volume= 25 |issue= 6 |pages= 513–532 |doi= 10.1163/15685306-12341471 }} Dog consumption was rare in India, Iran, and Europe.{{Cite book|title= Eat not this flesh: food avoidances from prehistory to the present|last1 = Simoons | first1 = Frederick J.|edition= 2|publisher= University of Wisconsin Press|year=1994|isbn=978-0-299-14254-4|pages=200–212|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=JwGZTQunH00C&pg=PA208|access-date= 6 June 2020}}

Eating dog meat is a social taboo in most parts of the world,{{Cite news |title=China bans dog meat at infamous Yulin festival |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/yulin-dog-meat-festival-ban-china-authorities-a7741431.html |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181011224646/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/yulin-dog-meat-festival-ban-china-authorities-a7741431.html |archive-date= 11 October 2018 |access-date= 11 October 2018 |work= The Independent}} though some still consume it in modern times.{{cite journal |last1=Czajkowski |first1=Claire |title=Dog Meat Trade in South Korea: A Report on the State of the Trade and Efforts to Eliminate It |journal=Animal Law Review |year=2014 |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=29 |url=https://lawcommons.lclark.edu/alr/vol21/iss1/3/ |access-date=8 July 2024 |archive-date=11 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240911133309/https://lawcommons.lclark.edu/alr/vol21/iss1/3/ |url-status=live }}{{cite journal |last1=Oh |first1=Minjoo |last2=Jackson |first2=Jeffrey |title=Animal Rights vs. Cultural Rights: Exploring the Dog Meat Debate in South Korea from a World Polity Perspective |journal=Journal of Intercultural Studies |date=February 2011 |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=31–56 |doi=10.1080/07256868.2010.491272 }} It is still consumed in some East Asian countries, including China, Vietnam, Korea,{{Cite web |last= Stone |first= Kristin |date= 21 February 2019 |title= Closing South Korea's dog meat farms |url= https://www.hsi.org/news-resources/closing-south-koreas-dog-meat-farms/ |access-date=1 April 2024 |website=Humane Society International |language=en-US |archive-date=1 April 2024 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240401132701/https://www.hsi.org/news-resources/closing-south-koreas-dog-meat-farms/ |url-status=live }} Indonesia,{{Cite journal |last1=Ayu |first1=Azizah Reski Ray |last2=Gobel |first2=Fatmah Afrianty |last3=Arman |first3=Arman |date=2022-12-30 |title=Proximate Levels of Dog Meat (Canis Lupus Familiaris) in Rantepao, North Toraja Regency, South Sulawesi, Indonesia |url=https://pasca-umi.ac.id/index.php/jahr/article/view/1223 |journal=Journal of Aafiyah Health Research |language=en |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=25–30 |doi=10.52103/jahr.v3i2.1223 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |issn=2722-4945}} and the Philippines.{{Cite news|last= Anna Bueno|date= 6 January 2017|title= The legal and cultural implications of killing a dog for film|work=CNN Philippines|url= https://cnnphilippines.com/life/entertainment/film/2017/01/05/oro-dog-killing-scene.html |access-date= 15 December 2020|archive-date=16 April 2021|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210416114758/https://cnnphilippines.com/life/entertainment/film/2017/01/05/oro-dog-killing-scene.html|url-status= dead}} An estimated 30 million dogs are killed and consumed in Asia every year. China is the world's largest consumer of dogs, with an estimated 10 to 20 million dogs killed every year for human consumption.{{Cite news |last= VnExpress |title= 47 dogs seized as police bust dog meat ring in southern Vietnam - VnExpress International |url= https://e.vnexpress.net/news/news/47-dogs-seized-as-police-bust-dog-meat-ring-in-southern-vietnam-3518518.html |access-date= 1 April 2024 |website= VnExpress International – Latest news, business, travel and analysis from Vietnam |language=en |archive-date=16 April 2023 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230416214712/https://e.vnexpress.net/news/news/47-dogs-seized-as-police-bust-dog-meat-ring-in-southern-vietnam-3518518.html |url-status=live }} In Vietnam, about 5 million dogs are slaughtered annually.{{Cite web |last=Secondo |first=Joellen |date=2022-11-18 |title=Ending Viet Nam's dog and cat meat trades |url=https://www.hsi.org/news-resources/ending-viet-nams-dog-meat-trade/ |access-date=2024-10-14 |website=Humane Society International |language=en-US}} In 2024, China, Singapore, and Thailand placed a ban on the consumption of dogs within their borders.{{Cite news |title=Bans on dog meat sweep across Asia |url=https://www.economist.com/asia/2024/05/30/bans-on-dog-meat-sweep-across-asia |access-date=2024-10-14 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613}} In some parts of Poland{{Cite news |date=10 August 2009 |title=Poland prosecutors probe dog lard sale |url= https://www.upi.com/Top_News/2009/08/10/Poland-prosecutors-probe-dog-lard-sale/63511249914379/?ur3=1 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210416102745/https://www.upi.com/Top_News/2009/08/10/Poland-prosecutors-probe-dog-lard-sale/63511249914379/?ur3=1 |archive-date= 16 April 2021 |access-date= 15 December 2020 |work= United Press International}}{{cite news |last= Day |first= Matthew |date= 7 August 2009 |title= Polish couple accused of making dog meat delicacy |url= https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/poland/5985367/Polish-couple-accused-of-making-dog-meat-delicacy.html |url-access= subscription |url-status= live |archive-url= https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/poland/5985367/Polish-couple-accused-of-making-dog-meat-delicacy.html |archive-date= 10 January 2022 |access-date= 21 December 2010 |work= The Daily Telegraph |location= London}}{{cbignore}} and Central Asia,{{Cite web |last= Ayzirek Imanaliyeva |date=13 August 2020 |title= Fighting COVID in Kyrgyzstan: Dog fat, ginger and bloodletting |url= https://eurasianet.org/fighting-covid-in-kyrgyzstan-dog-fat-ginger-and-bloodletting |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20201217070504/https://eurasianet.org/fighting-covid-in-kyrgyzstan-dog-fat-ginger-and-bloodletting |archive-date= 17 December 2020 |access-date= 11 December 2020 |website= Eurasianet}}{{cite web |year=2009 |title= Dog meat restaurants spring up in Uzbekistan |url= http://www.uznews.net/news_single.php?lng=en&sub=&cid=2&nid=12323 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100616084942/http://uznews.net/news_single.php?lng=en&sub=&cid=2&nid=12323 |archive-date= 16 June 2010 |access-date= 24 October 2012 |publisher= Uznews.net}} dog fat is reportedly believed to be beneficial for the lungs.{{cite journal |last1=Parker |first1=Lynette |title=The dog-eaters of bali |journal=Canberra Anthropology |date=April 1991 |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=1–23 |doi=10.1080/03149099109508473 }} Proponents of eating dog meat have argued that placing a distinction between livestock and dogs is Western hypocrisy and that there is no difference in eating different animals' meat.{{cite journal |author=William Saletan |author-link= William Saletan |date= 16 January 2002 |title= Wok The Dog – What's wrong with eating man's best friend? |url= http://www.slate.com/id/2060840/ |url-status= live |journal= Slate |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120419051241/http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/frame_game/2002/01/wok_the_dog.html |archive-date= 19 April 2012 |access-date= 23 July 2007}}{{Cite news |date= 27 December 2017 |title= Korea dog meat campaigners accused of hypocrisy |url= https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/east-asia/korea-dog-meat-campaigners-accused-of-hypocrisy |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220408065014/https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/east-asia/korea-dog-meat-campaigners-accused-of-hypocrisy |archive-date= 8 April 2022 |access-date= 18 December 2020 |work= The Straits Times |agency= Agence France-Presse}}{{cite web |author=Ahmed Zihni |year=2004 |title=Dog Meat Dilemma |url= http://www.sunysb.edu/writrhet/philosophy/handbook/essaycontest/2004essaywinners/2004+Ahmet+Zihni.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070811115017/http://www.sunysb.edu/writrhet/philosophy/handbook/essaycontest/2004essaywinners/2004%20Ahmet%20Zihni.htm |archive-date= 11 August 2007 |access-date= 11 May 2008 |publisher= Stony Brook University – The Program in Writing and Rhetoric}}{{cite web |author= John Feffer |date= 2 June 2002 |title= The Politics of Dog – When globalization and culinary practice clash |url= http://www.prospect.org/print/V13/10/feffer-j.html |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060427201343/http://www.prospect.org/print/V13/10/feffer-j.html |archive-date= 27 April 2006 |access-date= 11 May 2007 |website= The American Prospect}}

There is a long history of dog meat consumption in South Korea, but the practice has fallen out of favor.{{cite web |author1=Jessie Yeung |author2=Gawon Bae |author3=Yoonjung Seo |author4=Marc Stewart |title=South Korea passes bill to ban eating dog meat, ending controversial practice as consumer habits change |url=https://www.cnn.com/2024/01/09/asia/south-korea-bill-bans-dog-meat-bill-intl-hnk/index.html |publisher=CNN |language=en |date=9 January 2024}} A 2017 survey found that under 40% of participants supported a ban on the distribution and consumption of dog meat. This increased to over 50% in 2020, suggesting changing attitudes, particularly among younger individuals. In 2018, the South Korean government passed a bill banning restaurants that sell dog meat from doing so during that year's Winter Olympics.{{Cite web |date= 9 January 2024 |title= South Korea parliament passes bill banning dog meat trade |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2024/01/09/asia-pacific/politics/south-korea-dog-meat-ban/ |access-date= 24 March 2024 |website= The Japan Times |language=en |archive-date=24 March 2024 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240324094547/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2024/01/09/asia-pacific/politics/south-korea-dog-meat-ban/ |url-status= live }} On 9 January 2024, the South Korean parliament passed a law banning the distribution and sale of dog meat. It will take effect in 2027, with plans to assist dog farmers in transitioning to other products.{{Cite web |date=9 January 2024 |title=Selling dog meat will soon be illegal in South Korea |url= https://www.euronews.com/green/2024/01/09/south-korea-plans-to-ban-the-consumption-of-dog-meat-by-the-end-of-the-year |access-date= 27 March 2024 |website= euronews |language= en |archive-date= 9 February 2024 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240209195336/https://www.euronews.com/green/2024/01/09/south-korea-plans-to-ban-the-consumption-of-dog-meat-by-the-end-of-the-year |url-status= live }} The primary type of dog raised for meat in South Korea has been the Nureongi.{{Cite web |last= Hussain |first= Grace |date= 1 September 2023 |title=The Dog Meat Trade Is in Decline — but It's Far from Gone |url= https://sentientmedia.org/korean-dog-meat/ |access-date= 29 March 2024 |website= Sentient Media |language=en-US |archive-date=27 December 2023 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20231227024233/https://sentientmedia.org/korean-dog-meat/ |url-status=live }} In North Korea where meat is scarce, eating dog is a common and accepted practice, officially promoted by the government.{{cite news |last1=Lee |first1=M.H. |title=North Korea Embraces Dog Meat as Traditional Cuisine, Diverging from South's Ban |url=http://koreabizwire.com/north-korea-embraces-dog-meat-as-traditional-cuisine-diverging-from-souths-ban/292528 |access-date=17 October 2024 |work=The Korea Bizwire |date=16 September 2024}}{{cite news |last1=Talmadge |first1=Eric |title=Man bites dog: North Koreans eat dog meat to beat the heat |url=https://www.denverpost.com/2018/07/28/north-korean-dog-meat/ |access-date=17 October 2024 |work=The Denver Post |agency=Associated Press |date=28 July 2018}}

= Health risks =

{{Further|Dog bite|Canine vector-borne disease|Dog bite prevention}}

In 2018, the World Health Organization (WHO) reported that 59,000 people died globally from rabies, with 59.6% of the deaths in Asia and 36.4% in Africa. Rabies is a disease for which dogs are the most significant vector.{{citation|title=WHO expert consultation on rabies: Third report|series= WHO Technical Report Series, 931|publisher= World Health Organization|year=2018|hdl=10665/272364|isbn=978-92-4-121021-8|url= https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/272364|access-date= 30 May 2021|archive-date= 2 June 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210602213657/https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/272364|url-status= live}} Dog bites affect tens of millions of people globally each year. The primary victims of dog bite incidents are children. They are more likely to sustain more serious injuries from bites, which can lead to death.{{cite web|title=Animal bites Fact sheet|url= https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs373/en/|website= World Health Organization|access-date=29 May 2021|date=February 2018|archive-date=4 May 2015|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150504100257/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs373/en/|url-status= live}} Sharp claws can lacerate flesh and cause serious infections.{{cite journal |last1= Tierney |first1= David M. |last2= Strauss |first2= Leigh P. |last3= Sanchez |first3= Jason L. |title= Capnocytophaga canimorsus Mycotic Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm: Why the Mailman Is Afraid of Dogs |journal= Journal of Clinical Microbiology |date= February 2006 |volume= 44 |issue= 2 |pages= 649–651 |doi= 10.1128/JCM.44.2.649-651.2006 |pmid= 16455937 |pmc= 1392675 }} In the United States, cats and dogs are a factor in more than 86,000 falls each year.{{Cite news|title=Injury Prevention Bulletin |url= http://www.hlthss.gov.nt.ca/english/services/health_promotion/pdf/injury_prevention_bulletin.pdf |publisher= Northwest Territories Health and Social Services |date= 25 March 2009 |access-date= 7 January 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110322113606/http://www.hlthss.gov.nt.ca/english/services/health_promotion/pdf/injury_prevention_bulletin.pdf |archive-date= 22 March 2011 }} It has been estimated that around 2% of dog-related injuries treated in U.K. hospitals are domestic accidents. The same study concluded that dog-associated road accidents involving injuries more commonly involve two-wheeled vehicles.{{Cite journal| last= Bewley |first= BR |title= Medical hazards from dogs |journal= British Medical Journal |volume= 291 |issue= 6498 |pages= 760–761 |year= 1985 |pmid= 3929930 |pmc= 1417177 |doi= 10.1136/bmj.291.6498.760}} Some countries and cities have also banned or restricted certain dog breeds, usually for safety concerns.{{cite journal | last1=Kogan | first1=Lori R. | last2=Schoenfeld-Tacher | first2=Regina M. | last3=Hellyer | first3=Peter W. | last4=Oxley | first4=James A. | last5=Rishniw | first5=Mark | title=Small Animal Veterinarians' Perceptions, Experiences, and Views of Common Dog Breeds, Dog Aggression, and Breed-Specific Laws in the United States | journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health | publisher=MDPI AG | volume=16 | issue=21 | date=23 October 2019 | issn=1660-4601 | doi=10.3390/ijerph16214081 | doi-access=free | page=4081| pmid=31652882 | pmc=6861953 }}

Toxocara canis (dog roundworm) eggs in dog feces can cause toxocariasis. It is estimated that nearly 14% of people in the United States are infected with Toxocara; about 10,000 cases are reported each year.{{cite web | url= http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/229855-overview | title = Toxocariasis | date = 20 August 2008 | publisher = Medscape.com | first1 = Sun | last1 = Huh | first2 = Sooung | last2 = Lee | access-date = 15 February 2013 | archive-date = 9 February 2013 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130209162930/http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/229855-overview | url-status = live }} Untreated toxocariasis can cause retinal damage and decreased vision.{{cite web|year= 2010|title= Toxocariasis|url= http://kidshealth.org/parent/infections/parasitic/toxocariasis.html|access-date=12 February 2010 |work= Kids' Health|publisher= The Nemours Foundation|archive-date= 18 February 2010|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100218140629/http://kidshealth.org/parent/infections/parasitic/toxocariasis.html|url-status= live}} Dog feces can also contain hookworms that cause cutaneous larva migrans in humans.{{Cite journal | doi= 10.1590/S0074-02762006000400009 |pmid= 16951810 |title= Related factors to human toxocariasis in a rural community of Argentina |year= 2006 |last1= Chiodo |first1= Paula |last2= Basualdo |first2= Juan |last3= Ciarmela |first3= Laura |last4= Pezzani |first4= Betina |last5= Apezteguía |first5= María |last6= Minvielle |first6= Marta |journal= Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz |volume= 101 |issue= 4 |pages= 397–400|doi-access= free |s2cid= 18882843 }}{{cite journal |first1 = AH |last1 = Talaizadeh |first2= S |last2 = Maraghi |first3 = A |last3 = Jelowdar |first4 = M |last4 = Peyvasteh |url = http://pjms.com.pk/issues/octdec107/article/casereport6.html |title = Human toxocariasis: A report of 3 cases |journal = Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences Quarterly |volume = 23 |issue = #5 |date = October–December 2007 |at = Part I |access-date = 28 June 2009 |archive-date = 22 September 2009 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090922163749/http://pjms.com.pk/issues/octdec107/article/casereport6.html |url-status = live }}

= Health benefits =

File:Walking the dog (1945527533).jpg

The scientific evidence is mixed as to whether a dog's companionship can enhance human physical and psychological well-being.{{cite journal |doi= 10.1136/bmj.331.7527.1252 |title= Pet ownership and human health: A brief review of evidence and issues |year= 2005 |last1= McNicholas |first1= June |journal= BMJ |volume= 331 |issue= 7527 |pages= 1252–1254 |pmid= 16308387 |last2= Gilbey |first2= Andrew |last3= Rennie |first3= Ann |last4= Ahmedzai |first4= Sam |last5= Dono |first5= Jo-Ann |last6= Ormerod |first6= Elizabeth |pmc= 1289326}} Studies suggest that there are benefits to physical health and psychological well-being, but they have been criticized for being "poorly controlled".{{cite journal |doi= 10.1080/10705500802365532 |title= Health effects of ownership of and attachment to companion animals in an older population |year= 2008 |last1= Winefield |first1= Helen R. |last2= Black |first2= Anne |last3= Chur-Hansen |first3= Anna |journal= International Journal of Behavioral Medicine |volume= 15 |issue= 4 |pages= 303–310 |pmid= 19005930|s2cid= 30808366 }}{{Cite journal |last= Podberscek |first= A.L. |year= 2006 |title= Positive and Negative Aspects of Our Relationship with Companion Animals |journal= Veterinary Research Communications |volume= 30 |issue= 1 |pages= 21–27 |doi= 10.1007/s11259-006-0005-0 |s2cid= 43327044 }} One study states that "the health of elderly people is related to their health habits and social supports but not to their ownership of, or attachment to, a companion animal". Earlier studies have shown that pet-dog or -cat guardians make fewer hospital visits and are less likely to be on medication for heart problems and sleeping difficulties than non-guardians.{{Cite journal| author= Headey B.|year = 1999 |title = Health benefits and health cost savings due to pets: preliminary estimates from an Australian national survey|journal= Social Indicators Research |volume = 47 |pages = 233–243 |doi = 10.1023/A:1006892908532 | issue=2 |s2cid = 142618092}} People with pet dogs took considerably more physical exercise than those with cats or those without pets; these effects are relatively long-term.{{cite journal |last1=Serpell |first1=James |date=December 1991 |title=Beneficial Effects of Pet Ownership on Some Aspects of Human Health and Behaviour |journal=Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine |volume=84 |issue=12 |pages=717–720 |doi=10.1177/014107689108401208 |pmc=1295517 |pmid=1774745}} Pet guardianship has also been associated with increased survival in cases of coronary artery disease. Human guardians are significantly less likely to die within one year of an acute myocardial infarction than those who do not own dogs.{{Cite journal |vauthors= Friedmann E, Thomas SA |year= 1995 |title= Pet ownership, social support, and one-year survival after acute myocardial infarction in the Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial (CAST) |journal= The American Journal of Cardiology |volume= 76 |issue= 17 |pages= 1213–1217 |doi= 10.1016/S0002-9149(99)80343-9 |pmid= 7502998}} Studies have found a small to moderate correlation between dog-ownership and increased adult physical-activity levels.{{cite journal |last1=Christian |first1=Hayley E. |last2=Westgarth |first2=Carri |last3=Bauman |first3=Adrian |last4=Richards |first4=Elizabeth A. |last5=Rhodes |first5=Ryan E. |last6=Evenson |first6=Kelly R. |last7=Mayer |first7=Joni A. |last8=Thorpe |first8=Roland J. |title=Dog Ownership and Physical Activity: A Review of the Evidence |journal=Journal of Physical Activity and Health |date=July 2013 |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages=750–759 |doi=10.1123/jpah.10.5.750 |pmid=23006510 |url=https://cdr.lib.unc.edu/downloads/9p290k34g |access-date=22 April 2024 |archive-date=15 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240615083221/https://cdr.lib.unc.edu/downloads/9p290k34g |url-status=live }}

A 2005 paper by the British Medical Journal states:

Recent research has failed to support earlier findings that pet ownership is associated with a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease, a reduced use of general practitioner services, or any psychological or physical benefits on health for community dwelling older people. Research has, however, pointed to significantly less absenteeism from school through sickness among children who live with pets.

Health benefits of dogs can result from contact with dogs in general, not solely from having dogs as pets. For example, when in a pet dog's presence, people show reductions in cardiovascular, behavioral, and psychological indicators of anxiety{{Cite journal |author= Wilson |first= Cindy C. |title= The pet as an anxiolytic intervention |journal= The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease |publication-date= August 1991 |volume= 179 |issue= 8 |pages= 482–489 |doi= 10.1097/00005053-199108000-00006 |pmid= 1856711 |s2cid= 22321266}} and are exposed to immune-stimulating microorganisms, which can protect against allergies and autoimmune diseases (according to the hygiene hypothesis). Other benefits include dogs as social support.{{Cite book |last1= McNicholas | first1= J. | last2= Collis | first2= G. M. |chapter= Animals as social supports: Insights for understanding animal assisted therapy |editor= Fine, Aubrey H. | title= Handbook on animal-assisted therapy: theoretical foundations and guidelines for practice | publisher= Elsevier/Academic Press | location= Amsterdam | year= 2006 | pages= 49–71 | isbn= 978-0-12-369484-3}}

One study indicated that wheelchair-users experience more positive social interactions with strangers when accompanied by a dog than when they are not.{{Cite journal|vauthors= Eddy J, Hart LA, Boltz RP |title= The effects of service dogs on social acknowledgments of people in wheelchairs |journal= The Journal of Psychology |volume= 122 |issue= 1 |pages= 39–45 |year= 1988 |pmid= 2967371|doi= 10.1080/00223980.1988.10542941|s2cid= 26115902 }} In a 2015 study, it was found that having a pet made people more inclined to foster positive relationships with their neighbors.{{cite journal|doi= 10.1371/journal.pone.0122085 | pmid= 25924013 | volume= 10 | issue= 4 | title= The Pet Factor – Companion Animals as a Conduit for Getting to Know People, Friendship Formation and Social Support | journal= PLOS ONE | pages= e0122085| year= 2015 | last1= Wood | first1= Lisa | last2= Martin | first2= Karen | last3= Christian | first3= Hayley | last4= Nathan | first4= Andrea | last5= Lauritsen | first5= Claire | last6= Houghton | first6= Steve | last7= Kawachi | first7= Ichiro | last8= McCune | first8=S andra | pmc= 4414420| bibcode= 2015PLoSO..1022085W | doi-access=free }} In one study, new guardians reported a significant reduction in minor health problems during the first month following pet acquisition, which was sustained through the 10-month study.

Using dogs and other animals as a part of therapy dates back to the late-18th century, when animals were introduced into mental institutions to help socialize patients with mental disorders.{{citation |last1=Kruger |first1=KA |last2=Serpell |first2=JA |year=2006 |title=Animal-assisted interventions in mental health: Definitions and theoretical foundations |editor-last=Fine |editor-first=A.H. |work=Handbook on animal-assisted therapy: Theoretical foundations and guidelines for practice |location=San Diego, CA |publisher=Academic Press |pages=21–38 |isbn=978-0-12-369484-3}} Animal-assisted intervention research has shown that animal-assisted therapy with a dog can increase smiling and laughing among people with Alzheimer's disease.{{Cite book |author1= Batson, K. |author2 = McCabe, B. | author3= Baun, M.M. |author4= Wilson, C. |chapter=T he effect of a therapy dog on socialization and psychological indicators of stress in persons diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease |editor1= Turner, Dennis C. |editor2= Wilson, Cindy C. |title= Companion animals in human health |publisher= Sage Publications |location= Thousand Oaks, CA |year= 1998 |pages= 203–215 |isbn= 978-0-7619-1061-9}} One study demonstrated that children with ADHD and conduct disorders who participated in an education program with dogs and other animals showed increased attendance, knowledge, and skill-objectives and decreased antisocial and violent behavior compared with those not in an animal-assisted program.{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-012369484-3/50011-6 |chapter=The Centaur's Lessons |title=Handbook on Animal-Assisted Therapy |date=2006 |last1=Katcher |first1=Aaron Honori |last2=Wilkins |first2=Gregory G. |pages=153–177 |isbn=978-0-12-369484-3 }}

= Cultural importance =

File:Cerberus-Blake.jpeg with the gluttons in Dante's Third Circle of Hell, depicted by William Blake]]

Artworks have depicted dogs as symbols of guidance, protection, loyalty, fidelity, faithfulness, alertness, and love.{{Cite news|url= https://www.incredibleart.org/lessons/middle/animals2.htm|title=Animal Symbolism in Art and Culture|website= incredibleart.org|access-date= 30 November 2021|archive-date= 30 November 2021|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20211130234950/https://www.incredibleart.org/lessons/middle/animals2.htm|url-status= live}} In ancient Mesopotamia, from the Old Babylonian period until the Neo-Babylonian period, dogs were the symbol of Ninisina, the goddess of healing and medicine,{{cite book|last1= Black |first1= Jeremy|first2= Anthony|last2= Green |title= Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia: An Illustrated Dictionary|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=05LXAAAAMAAJ&q=Inana|publisher=The British Museum Press |year= 1992|isbn= 978-0-7141-1705-8|pages= 70, 101|access-date= 6 June 2020|archive-date= 17 March 2023|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230317010626/https://books.google.com/books?id=05LXAAAAMAAJ&q=Inana|url-status= live}} and her worshippers frequently dedicated small models of seated dogs to her. In the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian periods, dogs served as emblems of magical protection. In China, Korea, and Japan, dogs are viewed as kind protectors.

In mythology, dogs often appear as pets or as watchdogs.{{cite book|author= Sherman, Josepha |title= Storytelling: An Encyclopedia of Mythology and Folklore|year= 2008|publisher= Sharpe Reference|isbn= 978-0-7656-8047-1|pages= 118–121}} Stories of dogs guarding the gates of the underworld recur throughout Indo-European mythologies{{cite Q|Q115264582|page= 439}}{{cite book|last= West|first= Martin Litchfield|author-link= Martin Litchfield West|title= Indo-European Poetry and Myth|date= 2007|publisher= Oxford University Press|location= Oxford|isbn= 978-0-19-928075-9|page= 392}} and may originate from Proto-Indo-European traditions. In Greek mythology, Cerberus is a three-headed, dragon-tailed watchdog who guards the gates of Hades. Dogs also feature in association with the Greek goddess Hecate.{{cite book|author= Oskar Seyffert |title= A Dictionary of Classical Antiquities: Mythology, Religion, Literature and Art |url= https://archive.org/details/b3135841x/page/270/mode/2up?view=theater|publisher=Swan Sonnenschein and Co|edition= 6|date= 1901|page= 271 |access-date= 14 January 2022}} In Norse mythology, a dog called Garmr guards Hel, a realm of the dead. In Persian mythology, two four-eyed dogs guard the Chinvat Bridge. In Welsh mythology, Cŵn Annwn guards Annwn. In Hindu mythology, Yama, the god of death, owns two watchdogs named Shyama and Sharvara, which each have four eyes—they are said to watch over the gates of Naraka.{{cite web |url= http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/iml/iml08.htm | title= Indian Myth and Legend: Chapter III: Yama, the First Man, and King of the Dead | publisher= Sacred-texts.com | access-date= 4 July 2013 | archive-date= 23 April 2021 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210423065558/https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/iml/iml08.htm | url-status= live }} A black dog is considered to be the vahana (vehicle) of Bhairava (an incarnation of Shiva).{{Cite web |date=23 August 2015 |title=Dogs in Hinduism |publisher=Hindu Human Rights Worldwide |url= https://www.hinduhumanrights.info/dogs-in-hinduism/ |access-date= 28 February 2022 |archive-date= 28 February 2022 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220228112236/https://www.hinduhumanrights.info/dogs-in-hinduism/ |url-status=live }}

In Christianity, dogs represent faithfulness. Within the Roman Catholic denomination specifically, the iconography of Saint Dominic includes a dog after the saint's mother dreamt of a dog springing from her womb and became pregnant shortly after that.{{cite web|url= https://churchpop.com/2017/08/07/hounds-of-the-lord-the-little-known-meaning-of-the-dominican-dog/|title= 'Hounds of the Lord': The Little-Known Meaning of the Dominican Dog|date= 7 August 2017|publisher= ChurchPOP|access-date= 9 December 2017|archive-date=2 September 2017|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170902173732/https://churchpop.com/2017/08/07/hounds-of-the-lord-the-little-known-meaning-of-the-dominican-dog/|url-status= live}} As such, the Dominican Order (Ecclesiastical Latin: Domini canis) means "dog of the Lord" or "hound of the Lord". In Christian folklore, a church grim often takes the form of a black dog to guard Christian churches and their churchyards from sacrilege.{{cite book|last= Dyer|first= Thomas Firminger Thiselton|title= The Ghost World|year= 1898|publisher= Ward & Downey|pages= 125–126|isbn=978-1-85958-547-4 |url= https://archive.org/details/ghostworld0000this/page/125/mode/2up}} Jewish law does not prohibit keeping dogs and other pets but requires Jews to feed dogs (and other animals that they own) before themselves and to make arrangements for feeding them before obtaining them.{{Cite web |last= Citron |first= Aryeh |title= Feeding Animals |url= https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/1008420/jewish/Feeding-Animals.htm#:~:text=In%20fact%2C%20the%20Torah%20commands,will%20eat%20and%20be%20sated.%E2%80%9D |website= Chabad |access-date= 24 March 2024 |archive-date= 24 March 2024 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240324082858/https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/1008420/jewish/Feeding-Animals.htm#:~:text=In%20fact%2C%20the%20Torah%20commands,will%20eat%20and%20be%20sated.%E2%80%9D |url-status= live }}{{Cite web |title= Judaism, Lessons, Times {{!}} Yeshiva.co |url= https://www.yeshiva.co/?ignoreuniversal=1 |access-date= 24 March 2024 |website= Yeshiva Site |language= en |archive-date=24 March 2024 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240324082858/https://www.yeshiva.co/?ignoreuniversal=1 |url-status= live }} The view on dogs in Islam is mixed, with some schools of thought viewing them as unclean, although Khaled Abou El Fadl states that this view is based on "pre-Islamic Arab mythology" and "a tradition [...] falsely attributed to the Prophet".{{cite encyclopedia|title= Dogs in the Islamic Tradition and Nature|author= Khaled Abou El Fadl|year= 2004|encyclopedia= Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature|publisher= Scholar of the House|location=New York|url= http://scholarofthehouse.org/dinistrandna.html|access-date= 19 November 2022|archive-date=2 February 2021|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210202110428/http://www.scholarofthehouse.org/dinistrandna.html |url-status= live}} The Sunni Maliki school jurists disagree with the idea that dogs are unclean.{{cite web|title=Dogs and Islam: The Devil and the Seeing-Eye Dog |url= https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/canine-corner/201003/dogs-and-islam-the-devil-and-the-seeing-eye-dog |work= Psychology Today|last= Coren|first= Stanley|date= 23 March 2010|access-date= 26 May 2014}}

Terminology

Dog – the species (or subspecies) as a whole, also any male member of the same.{{sfnp|HarperCollins|2021|loc=[https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/dog "dog"]}}
Bitch – any female member of the species (or subspecies).{{sfnp|HarperCollins|2021|loc=[https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/bitch "bitch"]}}
Puppy or pup – a young member of the species (or subspecies) under 12 months old.{{cite book |last=Alderton |first=David |author-link=David Alderton |date=1987 |title=The dog: the most complete, illustrated, practical guide to dogs and their world |location=London |publisher=New Burlington Books |pages=200–203|isbn=978-0-948872-13-6}}
Sire – the male parent of a litter.{{r|Alderton}}
Dam – the female parent of a litter.{{r|Alderton}}
Litter – all of the puppies resulting from a single whelping.{{r|Alderton}}
Whelping – the act of a bitch giving birth.{{r|Alderton}}
Whelps – puppies still dependent upon their dam.{{r|Alderton}}

References

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}}

Bibliography

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{{cite book |last=Fogle |first=Bruce |author-link=Bruce Fogle|date=2009 |title=The encyclopedia of the dog |location=New York |publisher=DK Publishing |isbn=978-0-7566-6004-8 }}
{{cite web |author=HarperCollins |title=Collins Dictionary |year=2021 |url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/ |publisher=HarperCollins Publishers L.L.C. }}
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{{cite book|last1=Wang|first1=Xiaoming|author-link1=Xiaoming Wang (paleontologist)|last2=Tedford|first2=Richard H.|author-link2=Richard H. Tedford|title=Dogs: Their Fossil Relatives and Evolutionary History|publisher=Columbia University Press, New York|year=2008|pages=1–232|isbn=978-0-231-13529-0|oclc=502410693|url={{Google books|plainurl=yes|id=LnWdpK7ctI0C|page=}}}}

External links

{{Sister project links|wikt=dog|auto=1|n=yes|s=1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dog}}

[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/name/Canis_lupus_familiaris Biodiversity Heritage Library bibliography] for Canis lupus familiaris
[http://www.fci.be/ Fédération Cynologique Internationale (FCI) – World Canine Organisation]
[https://www.worldhistory.org/article/184/dogs-in-the-ancient-world/ Dogs in the Ancient World], an article on the history of dogs
View the [http://www.ensembl.org/Canis_familiaris/Info/Index dog genome] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213145734/http://www.ensembl.org/Canis_familiaris/Info/Index |date=13 December 2013 }} on Ensembl
[https://genome.ucsc.edu/cgi-bin/hgTracks?db=canFam4&lastVirtModeType=default&lastVirtModeExtraState=&virtModeType=default&virtMode=0&nonVirtPosition=&position=chr14%3A4739511%2D11213510&hgsid=1430153621_Itf5zwuMWjkMYyVclRNzVMNAp83j Genome of Canis lupus familiaris (version UU_Cfam_GSD_1.0/canFam4)], via UCSC Genome Browser
[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genome/85 Data of the genome of Canis lupus familiaris], via NCBI
[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/assembly/GCF_011100685.1/ Data of the genome assembly of Canis lupus familiaris (version UU_Cfam_GSD_1.0/canFam4)], via NCBI