Australia#Etymology

{{Main|Name of Australia}}

The name Australia (pronounced {{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|s|t|r|eɪ|l|i|ə}} in Australian English){{Harvnb|Bernard|1989|p=61}} is derived from the Latin {{Lang|la|Terra Australis Incognita}} ({{Gloss|unknown southern land}}), a name used for a hypothetical continent in the Southern Hemisphere since ancient times.{{Cite web |date=30 April 2024 |title=Where the name 'Australia' came from |url=https://www.library.gov.au/research/research-guides-0/where-name-australia-came |access-date=14 February 2024 |website=National Library of Australia}} Several 16th-century cartographers used the word Australia on maps, but not to identify modern Australia.{{Cite web |last1=Clarke |first1=Jacqueline |last2=Clarke |first2=Philip |date=10 August 2014 |title=Putting 'Australia' on the map |url=http://theconversation.com/putting-australia-on-the-map-29816 |access-date=15 January 2022 |website=The Conversation |language=en |archive-date=2 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302195128/https://theconversation.com/putting-australia-on-the-map-29816 |url-status=live }}

When the Dutch began visiting and mapping Australia in the 17th century, they called the continent New Holland. The name Australia was popularised by the explorer Matthew Flinders, who circumnavigated the continent in 1803. However, when his account of his voyage was published in 1814, the name Terra Australis was used.

New South Wales Governor Lachlan Macquarie officially recommended the name Australia to replace New Holland in December 1817. The British Admiralty adopted the name in 1824, and the British Parliament used it in legislation in 1828. The United Kingdom Hydrographic Office used the new name in The Australia Directory of 1830.{{Harvnb|Coman|2007|p=40}} The name "Commonwealth of Australia" for the new federation of the six former colonies was formalised in the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900 (UK).

Colloquial names for Australia include "Oz", "Straya" and "Down Under".{{Cite web |title="Straya", "Oz", and "Down Under" |url=http://macquariedictionary.com.au/ |url-access=subscription |access-date=12 February 2024 |website=Macquarie Dictionary}}

{{Main|History of Australia}}

{{For timeline|Timeline of Australian history}}

{{Main|Prehistory of Australia|Indigenous Australians}}

File:Bradshaw rock paintings.jpg in the Kimberley region of Western Australia]]

Indigenous Australians comprise two broad groups:

• Aboriginal Australians, who are the various Indigenous peoples of the Australian mainland and many of its islands, including Tasmania
• Torres Strait Islanders, who are a distinct Melanesian people of Torres Strait Islands

Human habitation of the Australian continent is estimated to have begun 50,000 to 65,000 years ago, with the migration of people by land bridges and short sea crossings from what is now Southeast Asia. It is uncertain how many waves of immigration may have contributed to these ancestors of modern Aboriginal Australians.{{Cite web |last=Dorey |first=Fran |title=When did modern humans get to Australia? |url=https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/the-spread-of-people-to-australia |publisher=Australian Museum |access-date=21 August 2020 |archive-date=17 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200817140725/https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/the-spread-of-people-to-australia/ |url-status=live }} The Madjedbebe rock shelter in Arnhem Land is possibly the oldest site showing the presence of humans in Australia.{{Harvnb|Flood|2019|p=217}} The oldest human remains found are the Lake Mungo remains, which have been dated to around 42,000 years ago.{{Harvnb|Flood|2019|pp=219–220}}

Aboriginal Australian culture is one of the oldest continuous cultures on Earth.{{Harvnb|Flood|2019|p=161}}{{cite web | title=DNA confirms Aboriginal culture one of Earth's oldest | website=Australian Geographic | date=23 September 2011 | url=https://www.australiangeographic.com.au/news/2011/09/dna-confirms-aboriginal-culture-one-of-earths-oldest/ | access-date=9 February 2024 | archive-date=20 January 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240120022657/https://www.australiangeographic.com.au/news/2011/09/dna-confirms-aboriginal-culture-one-of-earths-oldest/ | url-status=live }}{{cite web | last=Jozuka | first=Emiko | title=Aboriginal Australians are Earth's oldest civilization: DNA study | website=CNN | date=22 September 2016 | url=https://www.cnn.com/2016/09/22/asia/indigenous-australians-earths-oldest-civilization/index.html#:~:text=A%20new%20genomic%20study%20has,stretching%20back%20roughly%2075%2C000%20years. | access-date=9 February 2024 | archive-date=4 March 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240304225419/https://www.cnn.com/2016/09/22/asia/indigenous-australians-earths-oldest-civilization/index.html#:~:text=A%20new%20genomic%20study%20has,stretching%20back%20roughly%2075%2C000%20years. | url-status=live }}{{cite journal |last1=Malaspinas |first1=Anna-Sapfo |last2=Westaway |first2=Michael C. |last3=Muller |first3=Craig |last4=Sousa |first4=Vitor C. |last5=Lao |first5=Oscar |last6=Alves |first6=Isabel |last7=Bergström |first7=Anders |last8=Athanasiadis |first8=Georgios |last9=Cheng |first9=Jade Y. |last10=Crawford |first10=Jacob E. |last11=Heupink |first11=Tim H. |last12=Macholdt |first12=Enrico |last13=Peischl |first13=Stephan |last14=Rasmussen |first14=Simon |last15=Schiffels |first15=Stephan |display-authors=1 |date=21 September 2016 |title=A genomic history of Aboriginal Australia |journal=Nature |publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC |volume=538 |issue=7624 |pages=207–214 |bibcode=2016Natur.538..207M |doi=10.1038/nature18299 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=27654914 |hdl-access=free |hdl=10754/622366 |last16=Subramanian |first16=Sankar |last17=Wright |first17=Joanne L. |last18=Albrechtsen |first18=Anders |last19=Barbieri |first19=Chiara |last20=Dupanloup |first20=Isabelle |last21=Eriksson |first21=Anders |last22=Margaryan |first22=Ashot |last23=Moltke |first23=Ida |last24=Pugach |first24=Irina |last25=Korneliussen |first25=Thorfinn S. |last26=Levkivskyi |first26=Ivan P. |last27=Moreno-Mayar |first27=J. Víctor |last28=Ni |first28=Shengyu |last29=Racimo |first29=Fernando |last30=Sikora |first30=Martin|pmc=7617037 }} At the time of first European contact, Aboriginal Australians belonged to wide range of societies, with diverse economies spread across at least 250 different language groups.{{Cite journal |last=Williams |first=Elizabeth |year=2015 |title=Complex hunter-gatherers: a view from Australia |journal=Antiquity |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=61 |issue=232 |pages=310–321 |doi=10.1017/S0003598X00052182 |s2cid=162146349}}{{Harvnb|Sáenz|Embrick|Rodríguez|2015|p=602}} Estimates of the Aboriginal population before British settlement range from 300,000 to 3 million.{{Cite web |last1=Bradshaw |first1=Corey J. A. |last2=Williams |first2=Alan N |last3=Saltré |first3=Frédérik |last4=Norman |first4=Kasih |last5=Ulm |first5=Sean |date=30 April 2021 |title=The First Australians grew to a population of millions, much more than previous estimates |url=https://theconversation.com/the-first-australians-grew-to-a-population-of-millions-much-more-than-previous-estimates-142371 |access-date= |website=The Conversation |language=en-AU}} Aboriginal Australians cultures were (and remain) deeply connected with the land and the environment, with stories of The Dreaming maintained through oral tradition, songs, dance and paintings.{{Cite journal |last=Mawson |first=Stephanie |date=2021 |title=The Deep Past of Pre-Colonial Australia |journal=The Historical Journal |language=en |volume=64 |issue=5 |pages=1483–6 |doi=10.1017/S0018246X20000369 |issn=0018-246X |doi-access=free}} Certain groups engaged in fire-stick farming,{{Cite web |last=Wyrwoll |first=Karl-Heinz |date=11 January 2012 |title=How Aboriginal burning changed Australia's climate |url=http://theconversation.com/how-aboriginal-burning-changed-australias-climate-4454 |access-date=1 November 2023 |website=The Conversation |language=en-US |archive-date=15 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230715015907/https://theconversation.com/how-aboriginal-burning-changed-australias-climate-4454 |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |last=Williams |first=Robbie |date=21 June 2023 |title=Before the colonists came, we burned small and burned often to avoid big fires. It's time to relearn cultural burning |url=http://theconversation.com/before-the-colonists-came-we-burned-small-and-burned-often-to-avoid-big-fires-its-time-to-relearn-cultural-burning-201475 |access-date=1 November 2023 |website=The Conversation |language=en-US |archive-date=8 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240308085331/https://theconversation.com/before-the-colonists-came-we-burned-small-and-burned-often-to-avoid-big-fires-its-time-to-relearn-cultural-burning-201475 |url-status=live }} fish farming,{{Cite web |last1=Bates |first1=Badger |last2=Westaway |first2=Michael |last3=Jackson |first3=Sue |date=15 December 2022 |title=Aboriginal people have spent centuries building in the Darling River. Now there are plans to demolish these important structures |url=http://theconversation.com/aboriginal-people-have-spent-centuries-building-in-the-darling-river-now-there-are-plans-to-demolish-these-important-structures-195966 |access-date=1 November 2023 |website=The Conversation |language=en-US |archive-date=1 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231101042204/https://theconversation.com/aboriginal-people-have-spent-centuries-building-in-the-darling-river-now-there-are-plans-to-demolish-these-important-structures-195966 |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |last=Clark |first=Anna |date=31 August 2023 |title=Friday essay: traps, rites and kurrajong twine – the incredible ingenuity of Indigenous fishing knowledge |url=http://theconversation.com/friday-essay-traps-rites-and-kurrajong-twine-the-incredible-ingenuity-of-indigenous-fishing-knowledge-210467 |access-date=1 November 2023 |website=The Conversation |language=en-US |archive-date=11 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240211091555/https://theconversation.com/friday-essay-traps-rites-and-kurrajong-twine-the-incredible-ingenuity-of-indigenous-fishing-knowledge-210467 |url-status=live }} and built semi-permanent shelters.{{Harvnb|Flood|2019|pp=239–240}} These practices have variously been characterised as "hunter-gatherer", "agricultural", "natural cultivation" and "intensification".{{Cite journal |last=Mawson |first=Stephanie |date=2021 |title=The Deep Past of Pre-Colonial Australia |journal=The Historical Journal |language=en |volume=64 |issue=5 |pages=1486–1491 |doi=10.1017/S0018246X20000369 |issn=0018-246X |doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal |last=Bender |first=Barbara |date=1978 |title=Gatherer-hunter to farmer: A social perspective |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00438243.1978.9979731 |journal=World Archaeology |language=en |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=204–222 |doi=10.1080/00438243.1978.9979731 |issn=0043-8243 |url-access=subscription}}{{Cite web |last=Gammage |first=Bill |date=19 September 2023 |title=Colonists upended Aboriginal farming, growing grain and running sheep on rich yamfields, and cattle on arid grainlands |url=http://theconversation.com/colonists-upended-aboriginal-farming-growing-grain-and-running-sheep-on-rich-yamfields-and-cattle-on-arid-grainlands-207118 |access-date=1 November 2023 |website=The Conversation |language=en-US |archive-date=12 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240212095624/https://theconversation.com/colonists-upended-aboriginal-farming-growing-grain-and-running-sheep-on-rich-yamfields-and-cattle-on-arid-grainlands-207118 |url-status=live }}{{Harvnb|Flood|2019|pp=62, 64–65}}

Torres Strait Islander people first settled their islands at least 2,500 years ago.{{Harvnb|Veth|O'Connor|2013|pp=34–35}}{{Cite web |date=2023 |orig-date=1998 |title=Torres Strait Islands |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Torres-Strait-Islands |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240615102021/https://www.britannica.com/place/Torres-Strait-Islands |archive-date=15 June 2024 |access-date=17 November 2024 |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |quote=Torres Strait Islands, island group in the Torres Strait, north of Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia, and south of the island of New Guinea. [...] They have been inhabited for at least 2,500 years. The present-day inhabitants are primarily of Melanesian origin, with some mixture of Polynesians and Southeast Asians.}} Culturally and linguistically distinct from mainland Aboriginal peoples, they were seafarers and obtained their livelihood from seasonal horticulture and the resources of their reefs and seas. Agriculture also developed on some islands and villages appeared by the 1300s. By the mid-18th century in northern Australia, contact, trade and cross-cultural engagement had been established between local Aboriginal groups and Makassan trepangers, visiting from present-day Indonesia.{{Harvnb|Konishi|Nugent|2013|pp=51–54}}{{cite journal |last=Macknight |first=Charles Campbell |year=2011 |title=The view from Marege': Australian knowledge of Makassar and the impact of the trepangindustry across two centuries |journal=Aboriginal History |volume=35 |pages=134 |doi=10.22459/AH.35.2011.06 |jstor=24046930 |doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal |last=Russell |first=Denise |date=22 March 2004 |title=Aboriginal-Makassan interactions in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in northern Australia and contemporary sea rights claims |url=http://lryb.aiatsis.gov.au/PDFs/aasj04.1_%20makassan.pdf |journal=Australian Aboriginal Studies |publisher=Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies |volume=2004 |issue=1 |pages=3–17 |issn=0729-4352 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306230858/http://lryb.aiatsis.gov.au/PDFs/aasj04.1_%20makassan.pdf |archive-date=6 March 2019 |access-date=21 April 2019}}

{{Main|European maritime exploration of Australia|European land exploration of Australia|History of Australia (1788–1850)}}

File:Landing of Lieutenant James Cook at Botany Bay, 29 April 1770 (painting by E Phillips Fox).jpg at Botany Bay on 29 April 1770]]

The Dutch East India Company ship, Duyfken, captained by Willem Janszoon, made the first documented European landing in Australia in 1606.{{Harvnb|Konishi|Nugent|2013|p=47}} Later that year, Luís Vaz de Torres sailed to the north of Australia through Torres Strait, along New Guinea's southern coast.{{Cite web |date=1967 |title=Torres, Luis Vaez de (?–?) |url=https://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/torres-luis-vaez-de-2741 |access-date=16 February 2025 |website=Australian Dictionary of Biography, National Centre of Biography, Australian National University}} Abel Tasman's voyage of 1642 was the first known European expedition to reach Van Diemen's Land. On his second voyage of 1644, he mapped the north coast of Australia south of New Guinea. Following Tasman's voyages, the Dutch were able to make almost complete maps of Australia's northern and western coasts and much of its southern and south-eastern Tasmanian coasts. They named the continent New Holland.{{Harvnb|Konishi|Nugent|2013|p=49}}

In 1770, Captain James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named "New South Wales" and claimed for Great Britain.{{Harvnb|Konishi|Nugent|2013|pp=55–59}} in 1786, the British government announced its intention to establish a penal colony in New South Wales.{{Harvnb|Christopher|Maxwell-Stewart|2013|pp=77–78}} On 26 January 1788, the First Fleet commanded by Captain Arthur Phillip, arrived at Sydney Cove, Port Jackson. A camp was established and the Union Flag raised. The date later became Australia's national day.{{Harvnb|Macintyre|2020|pp=21–22}}

Most early settlers were convicts, transported for petty crimes and assigned as labourers or servants to "free settlers" (willing immigrants). Once emancipated, convicts tended to integrate into colonial society. Aboriginal resistance, convict rebellions and bushranging were sometimes suppressed under martial law.{{Harvnb|Kercher|2020|pp=26–27}}{{Harvnb|Finnane|2013|pp=391–399}} The 1808 Rum Rebellion, carried out by officers of the New South Wales Corp, led to a temporary military junta.{{Harvnb|Macintyre|2020|pp=53–54}} During the next two decades, social and economic reforms, together with the establishment of a Legislative Council and Supreme Court, saw the penal colony transition to a civil society.{{Harvnb|Karskens|2013|pp=115–120}}

The indigenous population declined for 150 years following European settlement, mainly due to infectious disease.{{Harvnb|Flood|2019|pp=82–83, 147–159}} British colonial authorities did not sign any treaties with Aboriginal groups.{{Harvnb|Flood|2019|pp=42, 111, 147–159, 300}}{{cite web |author=Rule of Law Education Centre |title=European Settlement and Terra Nullius |url=https://www.ruleoflaw.org.au/education/australian-colonies/terra-nullius/ |access-date=26 January 2024 |archive-date=26 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240126110348/https://www.ruleoflaw.org.au/education/australian-colonies/terra-nullius/ |url-status=live }} As settlement expanded, tens of thousands of Indigenous people and thousands of settlers were killed in frontier conflicts, which many historians argue included acts of genocide by settlers. Settlers dispossessed surviving Indigenous peoples of most of their land.{{Harvnb|Reynolds|2022|pp=103–104, 134, 138–141, 182–192, 241–242}}

{{Main|History of Australia (1788–1850)|History of Australia (1851–1900)}}

File:PortArthurPenitentiary.jpg; behind them on an incline are ruins, including walls and watchtowers of light-coloured stone and brick, what appear to be the foundations of walls, and grassed areas. To the right lie the outer walls of a large rectangular four-storey building dotted with regularly spaced windows. Forested land rises gently to a peak several kilometres back from the shore.|Tasmania's Port Arthur penal settlement is one of eleven UNESCO World Heritage-listed Australian Convict Sites.]]

In 1803, a settlement was established in Van Diemen's Land (present-day Tasmania),{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998|pages=464–465, 628–629}} and in 1813, Gregory Blaxland, William Lawson and William Wentworth crossed the Blue Mountains west of Sydney, opening the interior to European settlement.{{Cite book |last=Conway |first=Jill |title=Biography – Gregory Blaxland – Australian Dictionary of Biography |publisher=National Centre of Biography, Australian National University |chapter=Blaxland, Gregory (1778–1853) |access-date=14 July 2011 |chapter-url=http://adbonline.anu.edu.au/biogs/A010109b.htm?hilite=blaxland |archive-date=8 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110408201858/http://adbonline.anu.edu.au/biogs/A010109b.htm?hilite=blaxland |url-status=live }} The British claim was extended to the whole Australian continent in 1827 when Major Edmund Lockyer established a settlement on King George Sound (modern-day Albany).{{Cite web |date=1967 |title=Lockyer, Edmund (1784–1860) |url=https://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/lockyer-edmund-2366 |access-date=16 February 2025 |website=Australian Dictionary of Biography, National Centre of Biography, Australian National University}} The Swan River Colony (present-day Perth) was established in 1829, evolving into the largest Australian colony by area, Western Australia.{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998|p=678}} Separate colonies were carved from New South Wales: Tasmania in 1825, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, and Queensland in 1859.{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998|p=464}} South Australia and Victoria were founded as free colonies—they never accepted transported convicts.{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998|p=598}} Growing opposition to the convict system culminated in its abolition in the eastern colonies by the 1850s. Initially a free colony, Western Australia accepted convicts from 1850 to 1868.{{Harvnb|Macintyre|2020|pp=79–83, 113}}

The six colonies individually gained responsible government between 1855 and 1890, managing most of their own affairs while remaining part of the British Empire.{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998|p=556}} The Colonial Office in London retained control of some matters, notably foreign affairs.{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998|pages=138–39}} The colonial parliaments progressively extended voting rights to adult men from 1856, with women's suffrage on equal terms following between the 1890s and 1900s. Some colonies introduced racial restrictions on voting from 1885.{{Harvnb|Curthoys|Mitchell|2013|pp=164–169}}

In the mid-19th century, explorers such as Burke and Wills charted Australia's interior.{{Harvnb|Macintyre|2020|pp=109–110}} A series of gold rushes beginning in the early 1850s led to an influx of new migrants from China, North America and continental Europe,{{Harvnb|Jupp|2001|pp=35–36}} as well as outbreaks of bushranging and civil unrest; the latter peaked in 1854 when Ballarat miners launched the Eureka Rebellion against gold licence fees.{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998 |pages=227–29}} The 1860s saw the rise of blackbirding, where South Sea Islanders were coerced or abducted into indentured labour, mainly by Queensland colonists.[https://www.slq.qld.gov.au/discover/exhibitions/australian-south-sea-islanders "Australian South Sea Islanders"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231210065156/https://www.slq.qld.gov.au/discover/exhibitions/australian-south-sea-islanders |date=10 December 2023 }}, State Library of Queensland. Retrieved 21 February 2024.{{Cite web |last=Higginbotham |first=Will |date=17 September 2017 |title=Blackbirding: Australia's history of luring, tricking and kidnapping Pacific Islanders |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-09-17/blackbirding-australias-history-of-kidnapping-pacific-islanders/8860754 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240126044712/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-09-17/blackbirding-australias-history-of-kidnapping-pacific-islanders/8860754 |archive-date=26 January 2024 |website=ABC News}}

From 1886, Australian colonial governments began removing many Aboriginal children from their families and communities, justified on the grounds of child protection and forced assimilation policies.{{Harvnb|Banivanua Mar|Edmonds|2013|pp=355–358, 363–364}}{{Cite web |last=Marlow |first=Karina |date=1 December 2016 |title=Explainer: the Stolen Generations |url=https://www.sbs.com.au/nitv/article/explainer-the-stolen-generations/5ust2jtjy |access-date= |website=NITV |language=en}}{{Cite web |last=O'Loughlin |first=Michael |date=22 June 2020 |title=The Stolen Generation |url=https://australian.museum/learn/first-nations/stolen-generation/ |website=Australian Museum}} The Second Boer War (1899–1902) marked the largest overseas deployment of Australia's colonial forces.{{Cite web |date=2 June 2021 |title=Australia and the Boer War, 1899–1902 |url=https://www.awm.gov.au/articles/atwar/boer |access-date= |website=Australian War Memorial |archive-date=24 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180324185402/https://www.awm.gov.au/articles/atwar/boer |url-status=live }}{{Harvnb|Macintyre|2020|p=149}}

{{Main|History of Australia (1901–1945)}}

{{See also|Federation of Australia|Military history of Australia during World War I|Military history of Australia during World War II}}

File:Opening of the first parliament.jpg, a painting by Tom Roberts, depicts the opening of the first Australian Parliament in 1901.]]

On 1 January 1901, federation of the colonies was achieved after a decade of planning, constitutional conventions and referendums, resulting in the establishment of the Commonwealth of Australia as a nation under the new Australian Constitution.{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998 |pages=243–44}}

From 1901, Australia was a self-governing dominion within the British Empire.{{Cite web|title=History of the Commonwealth|url=http://www.commonwealthofnations.org/commonwealth/history/|website=Commonwealth Network|publisher=Commonwealth of Nations|access-date=16 February 2015|archive-date=25 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200425043631/http://www.commonwealthofnations.org/commonwealth/history/|url-status=live}} It was one of the founding members of the League of Nations in 1920,{{Cite web |title=The Covenant of the League of Nations |url=https://www.ungeneva.org/en/about/league-of-nations/covenant |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240127003532/https://www.ungeneva.org/en/about/league-of-nations/covenant |archive-date=27 January 2024 |access-date=8 February 2024 |website=The United Nations Office at Geneva |language=en}} and the United Nations in 1945.{{Cite web |title=Growth in United Nations membership |url=https://www.un.org/en/about-us/growth-in-un-membership |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240201204200/https://www.un.org/en/about-us/growth-in-un-membership |archive-date=1 February 2024 |access-date=8 February 2024 |website=United Nations |language=en}} The Statute of Westminster 1931 ended the ability of the UK to legislate for Australia at the federal level without Australia's consent. Australia adopted it in 1942, but it was backdated to 1939 to confirm the validity of legislation passed during World War II.{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998|p=609}}

The Australian Capital Territory was formed in 1911 as the location for the future federal capital of Canberra. While it was being constructed, Melbourne served as the temporary capital from 1901 to 1927.{{Harvnb|Souter|2000|pp=206–217}} The Northern Territory was transferred from the control of South Australia to the Commonwealth in 1911.{{Harvnb|Souter|2000|pp=|p=230}} Australia took over the administration of the Territory of Papua (which had previously been a British colony) in 1905 and of the Territory of New Guinea (formerly German New Guinea) in 1920. The two were unified as the Territory of Papua and New Guinea in 1949 and gained independence from Australia in 1975.{{Cite journal |last=McDermott |first=Peter M |date=2009 |title=Australian Citizenship and the Independence of Papua New Guinea |url=https://austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/viewdoc/au/journals/UNSWLawJl/2009/3.html |url-status=live |journal=UNSW Law Journal |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=50–2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240208072215/https://austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/viewdoc/au/journals/UNSWLawJl/2009/3.html |archive-date=8 February 2024 |access-date=8 February 2024 |via=Austlii}}

File:Darwin 42.jpg, the first of more than 100 Japanese air raids on Australia during World War II]]

In 1914, Australia joined the Allies in the First World War, and took part in the fighting on several fronts.{{Cite web |date=2 June 2021 |title=First World War 1914–18 |url=https://www.awm.gov.au/articles/atwar/first-world-war |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240120020555/https://www.awm.gov.au/articles/atwar/first-world-war |archive-date=20 January 2024 |access-date= |website=Australian War Memorial}} Of the 324,000 men who served overseas, about 60,000 were killed and another 152,000 were wounded.{{Harvnb|Garton|Stanley|2013|p=40}} Many Australians regard the defeat of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC) at Gallipoli in 1915 as the "baptism of fire" that forged the new nation's identity.{{Harvnb|Macintyre|2020|pp=168–170}}{{Cite web |date=17 January 2024 |title=The Anzac legend |url=https://anzacportal.dva.gov.au/wars-and-missions/ww1/personnel/anzac-legend |website=Department of Veterans' Affairs |access-date=9 February 2024 |archive-date=4 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240304225421/https://anzacportal.dva.gov.au/wars-and-missions/ww1/personnel/anzac-legend |url-status=live }} The beginning of the campaign is commemorated annually on Anzac Day, a date which rivals Australia Day as the nation's most important.{{Harvnb|Dennis|Grey|Morris|Prior|2008|pp=32, 38}}

From 1939 to 1945, Australia joined the Allies in fighting the Second World War. Australia's armed forces fought in the Pacific, European and Mediterranean and Middle East theatres.{{Harvnb|Macintyre|2020|pp=198–205}} The shock of Britain's defeat in Singapore in 1942, followed soon after by the bombing of Darwin and other Japanese attacks on Australian soil, led to a widespread belief in Australia that a Japanese invasion was imminent, and a shift from the United Kingdom to the United States as Australia's principal ally and security partner.{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998|pages=22–23}} Since 1951, Australia has been allied with the United States under the ANZUS treaty.{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998|p=30}}

{{Main|History of Australia (1945–present)}}

File:Dutch Migrant 1954 MariaScholte=50000thToAustraliaPostWW2.jpg from Europe arriving in Australia in 1954]]

In the three decades following World War II, Australia experienced significant increases in living standards, leisure time and suburban development.{{Harvnb|Macintyre|2020|pp=208–209, 228–229}} Governments encouraged a large wave of immigration from across Europe and called these migrants "New Australians". High immigration was justified to Australians using the slogan "populate or perish,"{{Harvnb|Macintyre|2020|pp=210–212}} and from the 1960s the white Australia policy was gradually relaxed.{{Harvnb|Macintyre|2020|pp=237–238}}

A member of the Western Bloc during the Cold War, Australia participated in the Korean War and the Malayan Emergency during the 1950s and the Vietnam War from 1962 to 1973.{{Harvnb|Dean|Moss|2021|pp=1–2}}{{Cite web |date=30 October 2023 |title=Vietnam War 1962–75 |url=https://www.awm.gov.au/articles/event/vietnam |access-date=17 February 2025 |website=Australian War Memorial}} Tensions over communist influence in society led to unsuccessful attempts by the Menzies Government to ban the Communist Party of Australia, and a bitter split in the Labor Party in 1955.{{Harvnb|Macintyre|2020|pp=223–225}}

As a result of a 1967 referendum, the federal government gained the power to legislate with regard to Aboriginal Australians, and Aboriginal Australians were fully included in the census.{{Harvnb|Broome|2019|pp=221–222}} Pre-colonial land interests (referred to as native title in Australia) was recognised in law for the first time when the High Court of Australia held in Mabo v Queensland (No 2) that Australia was neither terra nullius ({{Gloss|land belonging to no one}}) or "desert and uncultivated land" at the time of European settlement.{{Cite web |last=Galloway |first=Kate |date=26 April 2017 |title=Australian politics explainer: the Mabo decision and native title |url=http://theconversation.com/australian-politics-explainer-the-mabo-decision-and-native-title-74147 |access-date=25 January 2024 |website=The Conversation |language=en-US |archive-date=25 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240125000636/http://theconversation.com/australian-politics-explainer-the-mabo-decision-and-native-title-74147 |url-status=live }}{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998|pages=5–7, 402}}{{Harvnb|Secher|2004|pp=703–709}}

Following the abolition of the last vestiges of the White Australia policy in 1973,{{Cite web |url= http://www.border.gov.au/about/corporate/information/fact-sheets/08abolition |title= Fact Sheet – Abolition of the 'White Australia' Policy|location= Commonwealth of Australia|publisher= National Communications Branch, Department of Immigration and Citizenship|work= Australian Immigration |access-date= 27 March 2013 |archive-date= 19 September 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150919131355/http://www.border.gov.au/about/corporate/information/fact-sheets/08abolition |url-status= dead}} Australia's demography and culture transformed as a result of a large and ongoing wave of non-European immigration, mostly from Asia.{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998|pages=338–39, 442–43, 681–82}} The late 20th century also saw an increasing focus on foreign policy ties with other Asia{{En dash}}Pacific nations.{{Harvnb|Akami|Milner|2013|pp=552–560}} The Australia Acts of 1986 severed the remaining constitutional ties between Australia and the United Kingdom while maintaining the monarch in her independent capacity as Queen of Australia.{{Cite web|url=https://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item-did-32.html|title=Australia Act 1986 (Cth)|access-date=25 July 2020|work=Documenting a Democracy|publisher=Museum of Australian Democracy at Old Parliament House|archive-date=22 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190422204352/https://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item-did-32.html|url-status=live}}{{Cite web |last=Twomey |first=Anne |date=January 2008 |title=The States, the Commonwealth and the Crown—the Battle for Sovereignty |url=https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Senate/Powers_practice_n_procedures/pops/pop48/battlesovereignty |access-date= |website=Parliament of Australia |series=Papers on Parliament No. 48 |language=en-AU |quote= |archive-date=9 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220909014023/https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Senate/Powers_practice_n_procedures/pops/pop48/battlesovereignty |url-status=live }} In a 1999 constitutional referendum, 55% of voters rejected abolishing the monarchy and becoming a republic.{{Cite web |title=1999: Republic referendum: Queen and/or Country |url=https://moadoph.gov.au/explore/democracy/1999-republic-referendum |access-date=10 February 2024 |website=Museum of Australian Democracy at Old Parliament House |archive-date=17 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240117083033/https://www.moadoph.gov.au/explore/democracy/1999-republic-referendum |url-status=live }}

Following the September 11 attacks on the United States, Australia joined the United States in fighting the Afghanistan War from 2001 to 2021 and the Iraq War from 2003 to 2009.{{Cite web |date=24 September 2024 |title=Post 9/11, Afghanistan and Iraq |url=https://www.awm.gov.au/articles/event/afghanistan |access-date=18 February 2025 |website=Australian War Memorial}} The nation's trade relations also became increasingly oriented towards East Asia in the 21st century, with China becoming the nation's largest trading partner by a large margin.{{Cite web |url=https://www.dfat.gov.au/sites/default/files/fifty-years-of-Australias-trade.pdf |title=Fifty years of Australia's trade |website=Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade |access-date=11 January 2022 |archive-date=6 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221206235853/http://www.dfat.gov.au/sites/default/files/fifty-years-of-Australias-trade.pdf |url-status=live }}

In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, from March 2020 lockdowns and other restrictions on public gatherings and movement across the national and state borders were implemented by the Federal, state and territory governments. Following the rollout of vaccines in 2021, these restrictions were gradually eased. In October 2023, Australia declared that COVID-19 was no longer a communicable disease incident of national significance.{{Harvnb|COVID 19 Response Inquiry Panel|2024|pp=50–56}}

{{Main|Geography of Australia|Environment of Australia}}

{{See also|Environmental issues in Australia}}

File:Reliefmap of Australia.png

Australia consists of the mainland Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, numerous smaller offshore islands, and the remote offshore territories of Ashmore and Cartier Islands, Christmas Island, Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Coral Sea Islands, Heard and McDonald Islands, and Norfolk Island.{{Cite web |date=27 June 2024 |title=Remote Offshore Territories |url=https://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/national-location-information/dimensions/remote-offshore-territories |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250220230344/http://web.archive.org/screenshot/https://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/national-location-information/dimensions/remote-offshore-territories |archive-date=20 February 2025 |access-date=21 February 2025 |website=Australian Government, Geoscience Australia}} Australia also claims about 42% of Antarctica as the Australian Antarctic Territory, but this claim is only recognised by four other countries.{{Harvnb|Scott|2021|p=491}}

Mainland Australia lies between latitudes 9° and 44° south, and longitudes 112° and 154° east. Surrounded by the Indian and Pacific oceans, Australia is separated from Asia by the Arafura and Timor seas, with the Coral Sea lying off the Queensland coast, and the Tasman Sea lying between Australia and New Zealand. The Great Barrier Reef, the world's largest coral reef, lies a short distance off the north-east coast and extends for more than {{Cvt|2300|km}}.{{Harvnb|Blewett|2012|p=58}}

The mainland is the world's smallest continent and the country is the sixth-largest by total area.{{Harvnb|Blewett|2012|p=17}} Australia is sometimes considered the world's largest island{{Harvnb|Henderson|Johnson|2016|p=1}} and is often dubbed the "island continent".{{Harvnb|Blewett|2012|pp=1, 10, 27}} It has {{Cvt|35877|km}} of coastline (excluding all offshore islands), and claims an exclusive economic zone of {{Convert|8148250|km2|sqmi}}. This exclusive economic zone does not include the Australian Antarctic Territory.{{Cite web |title=Oceans and Seas – Geoscience Australia |url=http://www.ga.gov.au/education/geoscience-basics/dimensions/oceans-seas.jsp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090620022412/http://www.ga.gov.au/education/geoscience-basics/dimensions/oceans-seas.jsp |archive-date=20 June 2009 |publisher=Geoscience Australia}}

File:Fitzroy Island.jpg, one of the 600 islands within the main archipelago of the Great Barrier Reef]]Most of Australia is arid or semi-arid.{{Harvardnb|Blewett|2012|p=|pp=28-30}} In 2021 Australia had 10% of the global permanent meadows and pastureland.{{Cite book |url=https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en?details=cc8166en |title=World Food and Agriculture: Statistical Yearbook 2023 |date=2023 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |isbn=978-92-5-138262-2 |language=en |doi=10.4060/cc8166en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231215161116/https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en?details=cc8166en |archive-date=15 December 2023 |url-status=live}} Forest cover is around 17% of Australia's land area.{{Cite book |url=https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/a6e225da-4a31-4e06-818d-ca3aeadfd635/content |title=Terms and Definitions FRA 2025 Forest Resources Assessment, Working Paper 194 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |year=2023}}{{Cite web |title=Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020, Australia |url=https://fra-data.fao.org/assessments/fra/2020/AUS/home/overview |website=Food Agriculture Organization of the United Nations}} The Australian mainland is relatively flat, with an average height of {{Convert|325|m|ft}} compared with {{Convert|870|m|ft}} for all continents.{{Harvnb|Blewett|2012|p=234}} The Great Dividing Range runs along most of eastern Australia, dividing the central lowlands from the eastern highlands.{{Cite web |date=15 May 2014 |title=Highest Mountains |url=http://www.ga.gov.au/education/geoscience-basics/landforms/highest-mountains.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120321184228/http://ga.gov.au/education/geoscience-basics/landforms/highest-mountains.html |archive-date=21 March 2012 |access-date=2 February 2012 |publisher=Geoscience Australia}} At {{Cvt|2228|m}}, Mount Kosciuszko is the highest mountain on the mainland. Taller are Mawson Peak, at {{Cvt|2745|m}}, on Heard Island, and, in the Australian Antarctic Territory, Mount McClintock and Mount Menzies, at {{Cvt|3492|m}} and {{Cvt|3355|m}} respectively.File:Uluru, helicopter view, cropped.jpg in the semi-arid region of Central Australia]]The Murray-Darling is the major river system, draining most of inland New South Wales and Southern Queensland towards Lake Alexandrina and the sea in South Australia. There are also smaller coastal river systems, inland drainage systems such as the Lake Eyre system, and salt lake systems in central and western Australia.{{Harvnb|Henderson|Johnson|2016|pp=18–19}} Australia's rivers have the lowest discharge into the sea of any continent. The mainland's flat, arid profile also makes its rivers slow-moving, resulting in a build up of salt on the land.{{Harvnb|Blewett|2012|pp=30, 229}} Salinisation adversely affects Australia's soil which is, on average, poor in nutrients compared with world standards.{{Harvnb|Blewett|2012|pp=229, 253}}

Australia's population is concentrated on the coastal fringes. About 95% of the population lives within 100 km of the coast; the world average is 39%.{{Harvnb|Blewett|2012|p=16}} Australia's population density is 3.5 inhabitants per square kilometre,{{Cite web |date=26 March 2024 |title=Regional population 2022-2023 |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/population/regional-population/latest-release |access-date=21 February 2025 |website=Australian Bureau of Statistics}} which is one of the lowest in the world. However, there is a large concentration of the population in cities along the temperate south-eastern coastline, and population density exceeds 38 inhabitants per square kilometre in central Melbourne.

{{Main|Geology of Australia}}

File:Ausgeolbasic.jpg

Formerly part of the Rodinia and Gondwana supercontinents,{{Harvnb|Henderson|Johnson|2016|pp=109–110}} Australia completely separated from Antarctica about 35 million years ago and continued drifting northwards.{{Harvnb|Kennett|Chopping|Blewett|2018|p=4}} When the last glacial period ended, rising sea levels separated the Australian mainland from New Guinea about 8,000 years ago and from Tasmania about 6,000 years ago.

Australia lies well within the Australian tectonic plate. The mainland is relatively stable geologically, with no major mountain building, active volcanoes or tectonic faults.{{Harvnb|Henderson|Johnson|2016|p=11}} However, the Australian plate is moving north-northeast at a rate of about 6 to 7 cm a year and is currently in collision with the Eurasian plate and Pacific plate.{{Harvnb|Kennett|Chopping|Blewett|2018|p=6}} The resulting intratectonic stresses lead to relatively high seismic activity for a geologically stable landmass. There were 18 earthquakes with a moment magnitude of greater than 6 between 1901 and 2017. The Newcastle earthquake of 1989 was Australia's deadliest, killing 13 people.{{Harvnb|Henderson|Johnson|2016|p=15}} There were active volcanoes on the eastern mainland as recently as 4,600 years ago,{{Harvnb|Kennett|Chopping|Blewett|2018|p=8}} and this is reflected in Aboriginal place names and creation stories.Johnson, Sian (21 March 2020). [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-03-21/indigenous-stories-from-times-of-volcanic-eruptions/12003576 How Gunditjmara words and traditions hold stories of Victoria's rich volcanic history] ABC News. Retrieved 25 March 2025. Currently volcanism occurs in the remote Heard Island and McDonald Islands.{{Harvnb|Blewett|2012|p=22}}

The Australian continental crust was created in three cycles from the oldest Archaean cratons in the west to the younger orogenic formations in the east (built about 541 million to 252 million years ago).{{Harvnb|Henderson|Johnson|2016|p=130}} The oldest Australian surface rocks date to the Archaean period. Some in Western Australia are older than 3.7 billion years and others in South Australia are over 3.1 billion years old. The oldest zircon crystals on Earth, dating back 4.4 billion years, have been found in Western Australia. However, about 80 per cent of Australia is covered by sedimentary rocks and regolith that are less than 250 million years old.

{{Main|Climate of Australia}}

File:Australia Köppen.svg of Australia{{Cite journal|last1=Beck|first1=Hylke E.|last2=Zimmermann|first2=Niklaus E. |last3=McVicar|first3=Tim R.|last4=Vergopolan|first4=Noemi|last5=Berg|first5=Alexis|last6=Wood|first6=Eric F.|title=Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution |journal=Scientific Data|date=30 October 2018|volume=5|issue=1|page=180214|doi=10.1038/sdata.2018.214|pmid=30375988|pmc=6207062|bibcode=2018NatSD...580214B}}]]

The Australian climate ranges from wet tropical in the northeast and northwest to arid in the centre. The coastal south is temperate and humid with winter freezing and snow in the southeastern highlands and Tasmania. The climate is influenced by Australia's position in the "horse latitudes" which tends to bring arid conditions.{{Harvnb|Henderson|Johnson|2016|pp=18–20}} Overall, the Australian mainland is the driest inhabited continent, with an average annual rainfall of {{Convert|470|mm|in}}. About 70% of the country is arid or semi-arid, and about 18% is desert.{{Cite web |date=15 May 2014 |title=Deserts |url=http://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/national-location-information/landforms/deserts |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140605132206/http://www.ga.gov.au/education/geoscience-basics/landforms/deserts.html |archive-date=5 June 2014 |access-date=13 August 2018 |work=Geoscience Australia |publisher=Australian Government}}

The climate is also influenced by various systems such as the El Niño–Southern Oscillation, the Indian Ocean Dipole and the Southern Annular Mode.{{Cite web |title=State of the Climate 2024 |url=http://www.bom.gov.au/state-of-the-climate |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250225033319/http://web.archive.org/screenshot/http://www.bom.gov.au/state-of-the-climate/ |archive-date=25 February 2025 |access-date=25 February 2025 |website=Australian Government, Bureau of Meteorology}} Australia has unusual variability in rainfall within years and between years, leading to frequent droughts and flooding. Cyclones and rain depressions are common in tropical Australia. The summer monsoon brings significant rainfall to northern Australia and low pressure cells bring winter rainfall in the south. The hottest regions are in the northwest of the country and the coolest in the southeast. Bushfire conditions are common in southern Australia.

Climate change from increased greenhouse gas emissions has led to a 1.5 °C rise in Australian temperatures since 1910 and an increase in extreme heat and heavy rainfall events. There has been a reduction in rainfall from April to October in southern Australia since 1970 and a longer bushfire season since the 1950s. Rainfall has increased in northern Australia since the 1970s. The number of tropical cyclones have fallen since 1982 and alpine snow has decreased since the late 1950s. Sea levels are rising around Australia and the surrounding oceans are becoming more acidic.

{{See also|Fauna of Australia|Flora of Australia|Fungi of Australia}}

File:Koala climbing tree.jpg and Eucalyptus]]

Australia is one of 17 megadiverse countries.{{Cite journal |last1=Evans |first1=Megan C. |last2=Watson |first2=James E. M. |last3=Fuller |first3=Richard A. |last4=Venter |first4=Oscar |last5=Bennett |first5=Simon C. |last6=Marsack |first6=Peter R. |last7=Possingham |first7=Hugh P. |date=April 2011 |title=The Spatial Distribution of Threats to Species in Australia |journal=BioScience |volume=61 |issue=4 |page=282 |doi=10.1525/bio.2011.61.4.8 |doi-access=free}} Because of its long geographic isolation, much of Australia's biota is unique.{{Harvnb|Nipperess|2015|pp=7–9}} About 94% of its amphibians, 93% of its reptiles and flowering plants, 69% of its mammals and 46% of its birds are endemic.{{Harvnb|Nipperess|2015|p=4}} Australia has a wide range of ecosystems of which 89 regions and 419 subregions are recognised in the Australian bioregion framework.{{Harvnb|Murphy|van Leeuwen|2021|p=55}}{{Cite web |date=16 June 2023 |title=Australia's bioregion framework |url=https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/land/nrs/science/ibra/australias-bioregion-framework |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250303050656/https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/land/nrs/science/ibra/australias-bioregion-framework |archive-date=3 March 2025 |access-date=3 March 2025 |website=Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water}}

In January 2025 there were 168,386 named species on the Australian National Species List.{{Cite web |title=NSL Stats |url=https://test-web.biodiversity.org.au/nsl/stats |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250228050842/https://test-web.biodiversity.org.au/nsl/stats |archive-date=28 February 2025 |access-date=28 February 2025 |website=Australian National Species List}} However, it is estimated that 70% of Australian species have not been discovered and classified and that there may be 600,000 Australian native species. In general, knowledge of vertebrates and flowering plants is better than for invertebrates and fungi. It is estimated that less that 10% of Australia's fungi and insects have been named.{{Harvnb|Murphy|van Leeuwen|2021|pp=14–15}}

About 10% of the world's known plant species are found in Australia.{{Harvnb|Murphy|van Leeuwen|2021|p=22}} Many of these have adapted to the arid climate, variable rainfall and nutrient-poor soil. Deserts and xeric shrubland cover about 70% of the mainland. Acacia, banksia and eucalypts have spread over much of Australia. Many plants have hard and long-living leaves, and are rich in carbon, poor in nutrients, and well adapted to bushfires.{{Harvnb|Nipperess|2015|pp=9–11}}

About two-thirds of the world's 330 species of marsupials are native to Australia.{{Cite web |date=2 November 2018 |title=What is a marsupial? |url=https://australian.museum/learn/species-identification/ask-an-expert/what-is-a-marsupial/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250228055517/https://australian.museum/learn/species-identification/ask-an-expert/what-is-a-marsupial/ |archive-date=28 February 2025 |access-date=28 February 2025 |website=Australan Museum}} Australian placental mammals (overwhelmingly bats, rats and mice) also make up almost 47% of the world's land mammal species.{{Harvnb|Nipperess|2015|p=9}} Australia has about 10% of the world's known reptile species.{{Harvnb|Murphy|van Leeuwen|2021|p=37}} There are also about 320,500 invertebrate species, of which insects are the largest class, accounting for more than 75% of all animal species.{{Harvnb|Murphy|van Leeuwen|2021|p=45}} Australia has over 15,000 known species of fungi although it is possible that tens of thousands more exist.{{Harvnb|Murphy|van Leeuwen|2021|p=53}}

Australia's wildlife show many adaptations to their environments. As the leaves of most plants are poor in nutrients, Australia has a high proportion of birds, insects and marsupials, such as the honey possum, that feed on nectar and pollen. The koala is an exception, specialising in feeding on eucalyptus leaves.{{Cite web |date=3 July 2018 |title=World-first mapping of complete Koala genome brings hope for the icon's future |url=https://australian.museum/blog/science/world-first-mapping-of-complete-koala-genome-brings-hope-for-the-icons-future/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250302071105/https://australian.museum/blog/science/world-first-mapping-of-complete-koala-genome-brings-hope-for-the-icons-future/ |archive-date=2 March 2025 |access-date=2 March 2025 |website=Australian Museum}}{{Harvnb|Nipperess|2015|pp=9–12}} Nutritionally poor flora and variable rainfall also favour animals with lower energy requirements, including snakes, lizards, and hopping marsupials such as the kangaroo and wallaby. There is, however, evidence of convergent evolution of Australia's marsupials and the placental mammals of other continents living in similar environments. For example, the extinct thylacine (Tasmanian tiger) had similarities with the placental wolf, marsupial moles with the golden moles of Africa, and hopping mice with the hopping rodents of other arid regions.

There were major extinctions of Australia's vertebrates, including its megafauna, around 46 thousand years ago, and there is an ongoing scientific debate over the role of human activity and climate change in these extinctions. The contraction of the range of the Tasmanian tiger and Tasmanian devil to that island around 4,000 to 5,000 years ago is also consistent with changes on the mainland including an increasing human population, the introduction of the dingo, and the greater use of fire and new stone tool technologies.{{Harvnb|Nipperess|2015|pp=12–13}}{{Cite web |last1=Burrell |first1=Sue |last2=Eldridge |first2=Mark |date=11 July 2024 |title=Dingo |url=https://australian.museum/learn/animals/mammals/dingo/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250302234032/https://australian.museum/learn/animals/mammals/dingo/ |archive-date=2 March 2025 |access-date=3 March 2025 |website=The Australian Museum}}

Over the past two centuries, Australia has lost more mammal species than any other continent. Overall, 100 Australian species are listed as extinct or extinct in the wild. In June 2021, over 1,000 animal and plant species were listed by Australian governments as endangered or critically endangered.{{Harvnb|Murphy|van Leeuwen|2021|pp=12, 18}} The major threats to endangered species are landscape change, ecosystem disruption, introduced species such as the feral cat and red fox, and climate change.{{Harvnb|Nipperess|2015|pp=16–17}}

The federal Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 is the legal framework for the protection of threatened species.{{Cite web |date=5 February 2025 |title=Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act) |url=https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/epbc |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250303035240/https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/epbc |archive-date=3 March 2025 |access-date=3 March 2025 |website=Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water}} The National Reserve System is Australia's network of protected areas. As at 30 June 2022, it covered over 22% of Australia's land mass.{{Cite web |title=National Reserve System |url=https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/land/nrs |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250303040635/https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/land/nrs |archive-date=3 March 2025 |access-date=3 March 2025 |website=Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water}} Australia’s Strategy for Nature 2024–2030 is the national biodiversity plan that aims to reverse biodiversity loss in Australia by 2030 and meet the county's obligations under the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity and other international agreements.{{Cite web |date=30 September 2024 |title=Australia's Strategy for Nature 2024–2030 |url=https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/biodiversity/conservation/publications/australias-strategy-for-nature |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250303041458/https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/biodiversity/conservation/publications/australias-strategy-for-nature |archive-date=3 March 2025 |access-date=3 March 2025 |website=Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water}}{{Cite web |date=21 February 2025 |title=UN Convention on Biological Diversity |url=https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/biodiversity/international/un-convention-biological-diversity |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250303042129/https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/biodiversity/international/un-convention-biological-diversity |archive-date=3 March 2025 |access-date=3 March 2025 |website=Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water}}

{{Main|Australian Government|Politics of Australia|Monarchy of Australia}}

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| image1 = King Charles III (July 2023).jpg

| caption1 = Charles III,
King of Australia

| image2 = Sam Mostyn 2024.jpg

| caption2 = Sam Mostyn,
Governor-General

| image3 = Anthony Albanese portrait (cropped).jpg

| caption3 = Anthony Albanese,
Prime Minister

}}

Australia is a constitutional monarchy, a parliamentary democracy and a federation.{{Cite web |date=12 January 2024 |title=Australian system of government |url=https://peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/how-parliament-works/system-of-government/australian-system-of-government |access-date= |website=Parliamentary Education Office |language=en |archive-date=14 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240214204120/https://peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/how-parliament-works/system-of-government/australian-system-of-government |url-status=live }} The country has maintained its mostly unchanged constitution alongside a stable liberal democratic political system since Federation in 1901. It is one of the world's oldest federations, in which power is divided between the federal and state governments. The Australian system of government combines elements derived from the political systems of the United Kingdom (a fused executive, constitutional monarchy and strong party discipline) and the United States (federalism, a written constitution and strong bicameralism with a Senate in which states have equal representation), resulting in a distinct hybrid.{{Cite journal |last=Thompson |first=Elaine |year=1980 |title=The 'Washminster' Mutation |journal=Politics |volume=15 |issue=2 |page=32 |doi=10.1080/00323268008401755}}{{Cite web |date=14 December 2023 |title=What is the Washminster system? |url=https://peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/your-questions-on-notice/questions/what-is-the-washminster-system |access-date= |website=Parliamentary Education Office |language=en |archive-date=15 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240215070719/https://peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/your-questions-on-notice/questions/what-is-the-washminster-system |url-status=live }}

Federal government power is partially separated between three groups:{{Cite web |title=Separation of powers: Parliament, Executive and Judiciary |url=https://peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/how-parliament-works/system-of-government/separation-of-powers-parliament-executive-and-judiciary/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231031132705/https://peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/how-parliament-works/system-of-government/separation-of-powers-parliament-executive-and-judiciary/ |archive-date=31 October 2023 |access-date=8 November 2023 |website=Parliamentary Education Office |publisher= |language=en}}

• Legislature: the bicameral Parliament, comprising the monarch, the Senate, and the House of Representatives
• Executive: the Australian Government, led by the prime minister (the leader of the party or coalition with a majority in the House of Representatives), their chosen Cabinet and other ministers; formally appointed by the governor-general{{Cite CIA World Factbook |country=Australia |section=Government |access-date=16 August 2024}}
• Judiciary: the High Court and other federal courts

Charles III reigns as King of Australia and is represented in Australia by the governor-general at the federal level and by the governors at the state level, who by section 63 of the Constitution and convention act on the advice of their ministers.{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998|pages=287–88}}{{Cite web |url=http://www.gg.gov.au/governorgeneral/category.php?id=2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080804130529/http://www.gg.gov.au/governorgeneral/category.php?id=2 |archive-date=4 August 2008 |title=Governor-General's Role|publisher=Governor-General of Australia |access-date=23 April 2010}} Thus, in practice the governor-general acts as a legal figurehead for the actions of the prime minister and the Cabinet. The governor-general may in some situations exercise reserve powers: powers exercisable in the absence or contrary to ministerial advice. When these powers may be exercised is governed by convention and their precise scope is unclear. The most notable exercise of these powers was the dismissal of the Whitlam government in the constitutional crisis of 1975.{{Cite web|publisher=Parliament of Australia|date=23 January 1998 |access-date=18 June 2010|url=http://www.aph.gov.au/library/pubs/rn/1997-98/98rn25.htm |title=The Reserve Powers of the Governor-General|author=Downing, Susan |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100726170040/http://www.aph.gov.au/library/pubs/rn/1997-98/98rn25.htm |archive-date=26 July 2010 |url-status=dead}}

File:Canberra (AU), Parliament House -- 2019 -- 1746.jpg, Canberra]]

In the Senate (the upper house), there are 76 senators: twelve each from the states and two each from the mainland territories (the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory).{{Cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/elections/federal/2007/guide/senatecomposition.htm |title=Senate Summary|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |access-date=23 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100506235552/http://www.abc.net.au/elections/federal/2007/guide/senatecomposition.htm |archive-date=6 May 2010 |url-status=live}} The House of Representatives (the lower house) has 151 members elected from single-member electoral divisions, commonly known as "electorates" or "seats", allocated to states on the basis of population, with each of the current states guaranteed a minimum of five seats.{{Cite web |last=Muller |first=Damon |date=26 April 2023 |title=The process for, and consequences of, changing the size of the Commonwealth Parliament: a quick guide |url=https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/rp/rp2223/Quick_Guides/ChangingSizeCommonwealthParliament |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230511175801/https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/rp/rp2223/Quick_Guides/ChangingSizeCommonwealthParliament |archive-date=11 May 2023 |access-date= |website=Parliament of Australia |language=en-AU}} The lower house has a maximum term of three years, but this is not fixed and governments usually dissolve the house early for an election at some point in the 6 months before the maximum.{{Cite book |last=Joint Standing Committee on Electoral Matters |url=https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Joint/Completed_Inquiries/em/elect04/report |title=The 2004 Federal Election |date=10 October 2005 |publisher=Parliament of Australia |isbn=978-0-642-78705-7 |at=paras. 7.26–7.27 |language=en-AU |chapter=Parliamentary terms |chapter-url=https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Joint/Completed_Inquiries/em/elect04/chapter7 |access-date=25 January 2024 |archive-date=25 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240125005940/https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Joint/Completed_Inquiries/em/elect04/report |url-status=live }} Elections for both chambers are generally held simultaneously with senators having overlapping six-year terms except for those from the territories, whose terms are not fixed but are tied to the electoral cycle for the lower house. Thus only 40 of the 76 places in the Senate are put to each election unless the cycle is interrupted by a double dissolution.

Australia's electoral system uses preferential voting for the House of Representatives and all state and territory lower house elections (with the exception of Tasmania and the ACT which use the Hare-Clark system). The Senate and most state upper houses use the proportional system which combines preferential voting with proportional representation for each state. Voting and enrolment is compulsory for all enrolled citizens 18 years and older in every jurisdiction.{{Cite web |url=http://www.aec.gov.au/pdf/voting/compulsory_voting.pdf |title=Compulsory Voting in Australia|last=Evans|first=Tim|year=2006|publisher=Australian Electoral Commission|page=4 |access-date=21 June 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090611200653/http://www.aec.gov.au/pdf/voting/compulsory_voting.pdf |archive-date=11 June 2009 |url-status=live}}{{Cite web |url=https://aec.gov.au/FAQs/Enrolment.htm#compulsory |title=Is it compulsory to enrol, regardless of age or disability?|work=Enrolment – Frequently Asked Questions|publisher=Australian Electoral Commission |access-date=11 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210524015925/https://aec.gov.au/FAQs/Enrolment.htm |archive-date=24 May 2021 |url-status=live}}{{Cite book |first=Judith |last=Brett |title=From Secret Ballot to Democracy Sausage: How Australia Got Compulsory Voting |publisher=Text Publishing Co |year=2019 |isbn=978-1-9256-0384-2}} The party with majority support in the House of Representatives forms the government and its leader becomes Prime Minister. In cases where no party has majority support, the governor-general has the constitutional power to appoint the prime minister and, if necessary, dismiss one that has lost the confidence of Parliament.{{Cite web |url=http://www.gg.gov.au/content.php/page/id/3/title/governor-generals-role |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014171300/http://www.gg.gov.au/content.php/page/id/3/title/governor-generals-role |archive-date=14 October 2012 |title=Governor-General's Role|publisher=Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia |access-date=13 January 2012}} Due to the relatively unique position of Australia operating as a Westminster parliamentary democracy with a powerful and elected upper house, the system has sometimes been referred to as having a "Washminster mutation", or as a semi-parliamentary system.{{Cite journal |last1=Ganghof |first1=S |title=A new political system model: Semi-parliamentary government |journal=European Journal of Political Research |date=May 2018 |volume=57 |issue=2 |pages=261–281 |doi=10.1111/1475-6765.12224 |doi-access=free }}

There are two major political groups that usually form government federally: the Australian Labor Party and the Coalition, which is a formal grouping of the Liberal Party and its minor partner, the National Party.{{Cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/elections/federal/2007/guide/glossary.htm#coalition |title=Glossary of Election Terms |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |access-date=23 April 2010 |archive-date=6 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210306034515/http://www.abc.net.au/elections/federal/2007/guide/glossary.htm#coalition |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/elections/federal/2007/results/sop.htm |title=State of the Parties|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |access-date=23 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100418163914/http://www.abc.net.au/elections/federal/2007/results/sop.htm |archive-date= 18 April 2010 |url-status=live}} At the state level of government, the relationship between the Nationals and the Liberal Party differs, with the parties merged in Queensland and the Northern Territory (federal parliamentarians sit in either the Liberal or National partyroom however); in coalition in New South Wales, Victoria and Western Australia; and in competition with the Liberals in South Australia and Tasmania.{{Cite web |date=30 July 2008 |title=The Liberal-National Party – a new model party? |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2008-07-30/the-liberal-national-party---a-new-model-party/457812 |access-date=8 September 2021 |website=ABC News |language=en-AU |archive-date=7 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221007033647/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2008-07-30/the-liberal-national-party---a-new-model-party/457812 |url-status=live }} Within Australian political culture, the Coalition is considered centre-right and the Labor Party is considered centre-left.{{Cite book|last1=Fenna|first1=Alan|last2=Robbins|first2=Jane|last3=Summers|first3=John |title=Government Politics in Australia|publisher=Pearson Higher Education AU|location=London|year=2013|isbn=978-1-4860-0138-5|page=139}} Independent members and several minor parties have achieved representation in Australian parliaments, mostly in upper houses. The Australian Greens are the third largest party by both vote and membership and the fourth largest by parliamentary representation.{{Cite web|url=https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/old-greens-wounds-reopen-as-members-vote-on-directly-electing-leader-20200422-p54m5r.html|title=Old Greens wounds reopen as members vote on directly electing leader|last=Harris|first=Rob|date=22 April 2020|newspaper=The Sydney Morning Herald|access-date=24 April 2020|archive-date=22 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200422080256/https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/old-greens-wounds-reopen-as-members-vote-on-directly-electing-leader-20200422-p54m5r.html|url-status=live}}{{Cite book |last1=Jackson |first1=Stewart |title=The Australian Greens : from activism to Australia's third party |date=2016 |publisher=Melbourne University Press |isbn=978-0-5228-6794-7}} The most recent federal election was held on 21 May 2022 and resulted in the Australian Labor Party, led by Anthony Albanese, being elected to government.{{Cite news |date=22 May 2022 |title=Anthony Albanese sworn in as Prime Minister |language=en-AU |work=ABC News |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-05-23/anthony-albanese-to-be-sworn-in-prime-minister/101089902 |access-date=22 May 2022 |archive-date=22 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220522182422/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-05-23/anthony-albanese-to-be-sworn-in-prime-minister/101089902 |url-status=live }}

{{Main|States and territories of Australia}}

File:Australia states and territories labelled.svg

Australia has six states—New South Wales (NSW), Victoria (Vic), Queensland (Qld), Western Australia (WA), South Australia (SA) and Tasmania (Tas)—and two mainland self-governing territories—the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) and the Northern Territory (NT).{{Cite web |date=14 December 2023 |title=What's the difference between a territory and a state parliament? |url=https://peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/your-questions-on-notice |access-date= |website=Parliamentary Education Office |language=en |archive-date=18 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240318145108/https://peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/your-questions-on-notice |url-status=live }}

The states have the general power to make laws except in the few areas where the constitution grants the Commonwealth (the federal level of government) exclusive powers.{{Cite book |last=Pyke |first=John |title=Government powers under a Federal Constitution: constitutional law in Australia |date=2020 |publisher=Lawbook Co |isbn=978-0-455-24415-0 |edition=2nd |location=Pyrmont, NSW |pages=405–6}}{{Cite web |date=19 July 2022 |title=Three levels of government: governing Australia |url=https://peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/how-parliament-works/three-levels-of-government/three-levels-of-government-governing-australia |access-date=25 January 2024 |website=Parliamentary Education Office |language=en |archive-date=4 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240104073724/https://peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/how-parliament-works/three-levels-of-government/three-levels-of-government-governing-australia |url-status=live }} The Commonwealth can only make laws on topics listed in the constitution but its laws prevail over those of the states to the extent of any inconsistency.{{Cite book |last=Pyke |first=John |title=Government powers under a Federal Constitution: constitutional law in Australia |date=2020 |publisher=Lawbook Co |isbn=978-0-455-24415-0 |edition=2nd |location=Pyrmont, NSW |pages=528–30, 577–80}}{{Cite Legislation AU|Cth|act|coaca430|Australian Constitution|109}}. "When a law of a State is inconsistent with a law of the Commonwealth, the latter shall prevail, and the former shall, to the extent of the inconsistency, be invalid." Since Federation, the Commonwealth's power relative to the states has significantly increased due to the increasingly wide interpretation given to listed Commonwealth powers{{snd}}and because of the states' heavy financial reliance on Commonwealth grants.{{Cite book |last=Pyke |first=John |title=Government powers under a Federal Constitution: constitutional law in Australia |date=2020 |publisher=Lawbook Co |isbn=978-0-455-24415-0 |edition=2nd |location=Pyrmont, NSW |pages=607–9}}{{Cite book |last=Beck |first=Luke |title=Australian constitutional law: concepts and cases |date=2020 |publisher=Cambridge university press |isbn=978-1-108-70103-7 |location=Port Melbourne, VIC |pages=521–8}}

Each state and major mainland territory has its own parliament—unicameral in the Northern Territory, the ACT and Queensland, and bicameral in the other states. The lower houses are known as the Legislative Assembly (the House of Assembly in South Australia and Tasmania); the upper houses are known as the Legislative Council. The head of the government in each state is the premier and in each territory the chief minister. The King is represented in each state by a governor. At the Commonwealth level, the King's representative is the governor-general.

The Commonwealth government directly administers the internal Jervis Bay Territory and the external territories: the Ashmore and Cartier Islands, the Coral Sea Islands, the Heard Island and McDonald Islands, the Indian Ocean territories (Christmas Island and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands), Norfolk Island,{{Refn|Norfolk Island previously was self-governed, however this was revoked in 2015.{{Cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080806021653/http://ag.gov.au/www/agd/agd.nsf/Page/Territories_of_AustraliaNorfolk_IslandAdministrator_of_Norfolk_Island|url=http://ag.gov.au/www/agd/agd.nsf/Page/Territories_of_AustraliaNorfolk_Island|publisher=Australian Government Attorney-General's Department |title=Administrator of Norfolk Island |archive-date=6 August 2008}}{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2015/may/12/norfolk-island-loses-its-parliament-as-canberra-takes-control|title=Norfolk Island loses its parliament as Canberra takes control|first1=Monica|last1=Tan|author2=Australian Associated Press|date=12 May 2015|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=21 October 2015|archive-date=28 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151028072820/http://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2015/may/12/norfolk-island-loses-its-parliament-as-canberra-takes-control|url-status=live}}}} and the Australian Antarctic Territory.{{Refn|This Antarctic claim is recognised by only by New Zealand, the United Kingdom, France, and Norway.}}{{Cite web |title=Australian Territories |url=https://www.infrastructure.gov.au/territories-regions-cities/australian-territories |access-date=16 February 2024 |website=Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development, Communications and the Arts |archive-date=8 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240308213252/https://www.infrastructure.gov.au/territories-regions-cities/australian-territories |url-status=live }} The remote Macquarie Island and Lord Howe Island are part of Tasmania and New South Wales respectively.{{Cite news|title=Macquarie Island research station to be closed in 2017|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-09-13/macquarie-island-research-station-to-be-closed-in-2017/7839640|work=ABC News|date=13 September 2016|access-date=19 October 2019|archive-date=25 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191025034637/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-09-13/macquarie-island-research-station-to-be-closed-in-2017/7839640|url-status=live}}{{Cite web |last=Southerden |first=Louise |date=8 November 2017 |title=Which island should you visit - Lord Howe or Norfolk? A guide to both |url=https://www.smh.com.au/traveller/inspiration/a-tale-of-two-islands-lord-howe-v-norfolk-20171107-gzg8tz.html |access-date= |website=The Sydney Morning Herald |language=en |archive-date=16 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240216030715/https://www.smh.com.au/traveller/inspiration/a-tale-of-two-islands-lord-howe-v-norfolk-20171107-gzg8tz.html |url-status=live }}

{{Main|Foreign relations of Australia}}

File:Diplomatic missions of Australia.png]]

Australia is a middle power,{{Cite report |url=https://power.lowyinstitute.org/downloads/lowy-institute-2023-asia-power-index-key-findings-report.pdf |title=Lowy Institute Asian Power Index |date=2023 |page=29 |isbn=978-0-6480189-3-3 |access-date=4 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240220212559/https://power.lowyinstitute.org/downloads/lowy-institute-2023-asia-power-index-key-findings-report.pdf |archive-date=20 February 2024 |url-status=live}} whose foreign relations has three core bi-partisan pillars: commitment to the US alliance, engagement with the Indo-Pacific and support for international institutions, rules and co-operation.{{Cite web |last=Gyngell |first=Allan |date=31 July 2022 |title=A new Australian foreign policy agenda under Albanese |url=https://eastasiaforum.org/2022/07/31/a-new-australian-foreign-policy-agenda-under-albanese/ |access-date= |website=East Asia Forum |language=en-AU |archive-date=17 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240217023926/https://eastasiaforum.org/2022/07/31/a-new-australian-foreign-policy-agenda-under-albanese/ |url-status=live }}{{Cite report |url=https://www.dfat.gov.au/sites/default/files/2017-foreign-policy-white-paper.pdf |title=2017 Foreign Policy White Paper |date=2017 |publisher=Australian Government |pages=1–8 |access-date=17 February 2024 |archive-date=19 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240119034716/https://www.dfat.gov.au/sites/default/files/2017-foreign-policy-white-paper.pdf |url-status=live }}{{Cite book |last=Firth |first=Stewart |title=Australia in international politics: an introduction to Australian foreign policy |date=2011 |publisher=Allen & Unwin |isbn=978-1-74237-263-1 |edition=3rd |location=Crows Nest, NSW |pages=332–8 |language=en-AU}} Through the ANZUS pact and its status as a major non-NATO ally, Australia maintains a close relationship with the US, which encompasses strong defence, security and trade ties.{{Cite web |title=Australia and the United States |url=https://usa.embassy.gov.au/australia-and-united-states |access-date=17 February 2024 |website=Australian Embassy and Consulates |archive-date=17 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240217023926/https://usa.embassy.gov.au/australia-and-united-states |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |last=Bureau of Political-Military Affairs |date=20 January 2021 |title=Major Non-NATO Ally Status |url=https://www.state.gov/major-non-nato-ally-status/ |access-date=25 January 2024 |website=United States Department of State |language=en-US |archive-date=27 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220227062358/https://www.state.gov/major-non-nato-ally-status/ |url-status=live }} In the Indo-Pacific, the country seeks to increase its trade ties through the open flow of trade and capital, while managing the rise of Chinese power by supporting the existing rules based order. Regionally, the country is a member of the Pacific Islands Forum, the Pacific Community, the ASEAN+6 mechanism and the East Asia Summit. Internationally, the country is a member of the United Nations (of which it was a founding member), the Commonwealth of Nations, the OECD and the G20. This reflects the country's generally strong commitment to multilateralism.{{Cite web |last=Page |first=Mercedes |date=31 May 2022 |title=Multilateralism matters again |url=https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/multilateralism-matters-again |access-date= |website=The Interpreter |publisher=Lowy Institute |language=en |archive-date=15 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240215011829/https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/multilateralism-matters-again |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |last=Watson |first=Mark R |date=30 October 2023 |title=Australia and the Quad: A Watering Can or a Hammer? |url=https://www.nbr.org/publication/australia-and-the-quad-a-watering-can-or-a-hammer/ |access-date=15 February 2024 |website=The National Bureau of Asian Research |language=en |archive-date=15 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240215011829/https://www.nbr.org/publication/australia-and-the-quad-a-watering-can-or-a-hammer/ |url-status=live }}

Australia is a member of several defence, intelligence and security groupings including the Five Eyes intelligence alliance with the United States, United Kingdom, Canada and New Zealand; the ANZUS alliance with the United States and New Zealand; the AUKUS security treaty with the United States and United Kingdom; the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue with the United States, India and Japan; the Five Power Defence Arrangements with New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Malaysia and Singapore; and the Reciprocal Access defence and security agreement with Japan.{{Cite web|last=Caloca|first=Natalie|url=https://www.cfr.org/in-brief/australias-growing-defense-and-security-role-indo-pacific#:~:text=Beyond%20AUKUS%2C%20Australia%20is%20otherwise%20deeply%20integrated,Philippines%20in%20the%20tumultuous%20South%20China%20Sea|title=Australia's Growing Defense and Security Role in the Indo-Pacific|website=Council on Foreign Relations|date=1 August 2024|access-date=22 January 2025}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/japan-australia-sign-defence-cooperation-pact-2022-01-06/|title=Japan, Australia sign defence pact for closer cooperation|website=Reuters|date=6 January 2022|access-date=22 January 2025}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.nlb.gov.sg/main/article-detail?cmsuuid=39e900b6-73cb-4a4e-a3fb-19c44fe3fff6|title=The Five Power Defence Arrangement comes into force|website=National Library Board|access-date=22 January 2025}}

File:P20220524AS-1533 (52245766080).jpg with American President Joe Biden in 2022]]

Australia has pursued the cause of international trade liberalisation.{{Cite book|last=Capling|first=Ann |title=Australia and the Global Trade System: From Havana to Seattle|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-5217-8525-9|page=116}} It led the formation of the Cairns Group and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation,{{Cite journal|author=Gallagher, P. W.|title=Setting the agenda for trade negotiations: Australia and the Cairns group|journal=Australian Journal of International Affairs|volume=42|issue=1 April 1988|pages=3–8|doi=10.1080/10357718808444955|year=1988}}{{Cite web|url=http://www.apec2007.org/aa.htm|title=APEC and Australia|publisher=APEC 2007|date=1 June 2007|access-date=23 April 2010|archive-date=21 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421170701/http://www.apec2007.org/aa.htm|url-status=dead}} and is a member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the World Trade Organization (WTO).{{Cite web |url=http://www.oecd.org/about/0,3347,en_33873108_33873229_1_1_1_1_1,00.html |title=Australia:About|publisher=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development |access-date=23 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100420083545/http://www.oecd.org/about/0%2C3347%2Cen_33873108_33873229_1_1_1_1_1%2C00.html |archive-date=20 April 2010 |url-status=live}}{{Cite web |url=http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/australia_e.htm |title=Australia – Member information|publisher=World Trade Organization |access-date=23 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100525011833/http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/australia_e.htm |archive-date=25 May 2010 |url-status=live}} Beginning in the 2000s, Australia entered into the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership and the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership multilateral free trade agreements as well as bilateral free trade agreements with the United States, China, Japan, South Korea, Indonesia, the United Kingdom and New Zealand, with the most recent deal signed in 2023 with the UK.{{Cite web |title=Australia's free trade agreements (FTAs) |url=https://www.dfat.gov.au/trade/agreements/trade-agreements |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240119034906/https://www.dfat.gov.au/trade/agreements/trade-agreements |archive-date=19 January 2024 |access-date=25 January 2024 |website=Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade}}

Australia maintains a deeply integrated relationship with neighbouring New Zealand, with free mobility of citizens between the two countries under the Trans-Tasman Travel Arrangement and free trade under the Closer Economic Relations agreement.{{Cite web |title=Trans-Tasman Roadmap to 2035 |url=https://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/new-zealand/trans-tasman-roadmap-2035 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230726060824/https://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/new-zealand/trans-tasman-roadmap-2035 |archive-date=26 July 2023 |access-date=7 February 2024 |website=Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade}} The most favourably viewed countries by the Australian people in 2021 include New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Japan, Germany, Taiwan, Thailand, the United States and South Korea.{{Cite web|url=https://poll.lowyinstitute.org/files/lowyinsitutepoll-2021.pdf|title=2021 Lowy Institute Poll|last=Kassam|first=Natasha|date=2021|publisher=Lowy Institute|access-date=16 January 2022|archive-date=19 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319051732/https://poll.lowyinstitute.org/files/lowyinsitutepoll-2021.pdf|url-status=live}} It also maintains an international aid program under which some 75 countries receive assistance.{{Cite web |title=Australian Aid |url=https://www.dfat.gov.au/about-us/publications/Pages/australian-aid |website=Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade |access-date=15 February 2024 |archive-date=15 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240215012143/https://www.dfat.gov.au/about-us/publications/Pages/australian-aid |url-status=live }} Australia ranked fourth in the Center for Global Development's 2021 Commitment to Development Index.{{Cite web|url=https://www.cgdev.org/publication/commitment-development-index-2021|title=The Commitment to Development Index 2021|last1=Mitchell|first1=Ian|last2=Robinson|first2=Lee|last3=Cichocka|first3=Beata|last4=Ritchie|first4=Euan|date=13 September 2021|access-date=17 August 2022|publisher=Center for Global Development|location=Washington, D.C.|archive-date=5 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221005091011/https://www.cgdev.org/publication/commitment-development-index-2021|url-status=live}}

The power over foreign policy is highly concentrated in the prime minister and the national security committee, with major decision such as joining the 2003 invasion of Iraq made with without prior Cabinet approval.{{Cite web |last=Lee |first=David |date=31 December 2023 |title=Cabinet papers 2003: Howard government sends Australia into the Iraq war |url=http://theconversation.com/cabinet-papers-2003-howard-government-sends-australia-into-the-iraq-war-217812 |access-date=17 February 2024 |website=The Conversation |language=en-US |archive-date=17 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240217023925/http://theconversation.com/cabinet-papers-2003-howard-government-sends-australia-into-the-iraq-war-217812 |url-status=live }}{{Cite book |last=Firth |first=Stewart |title=Australia in international politics: an introduction to Australian foreign policy |date=2011 |publisher=Allen & Unwin |isbn=978-1-74237-263-1 |edition=3rd |location=Crows Nest, NSW |pages=78–84 |language=en-AU}} Similarly, the Parliament does not play a formal role in foreign policy and the power to declare war lies solely with the executive government.{{Cite web |last=Appleby |first=Gabrielle |date=2 September 2014 |title=Explainer: Australia's war powers and the role of parliament |url=http://theconversation.com/explainer-australias-war-powers-and-the-role-of-parliament-31112 |access-date=17 February 2024 |website=The Conversation |language=en-US |archive-date=6 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906181159/https://theconversation.com/explainer-australias-war-powers-and-the-role-of-parliament-31112 |url-status=live }} The Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade supports the executive in its policy decisions.{{Cite web |date=June 2013 |title=Capability review: Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade |url=https://www.apsc.gov.au/capability-review-department-foreign-affairs-and-trade |access-date=20 December 2024 |website=Australian Public Service Commission |publisher= |page=2}}

{{Main|Australian Defence Force}}

File:HMAS Arunta and Canberra sailing in formation with other warships.jpg, a Canberra-class landing helicopter dock, and HMAS Arunta, an Anzac-class frigate, sailing in formation]]

The two main institutions involved in the management of Australia's armed forces are the Australian Defence Force (ADF) and the Department of Defence, together known as "Defence".{{Cite web |title=Organisation structure |url=https://www.defence.gov.au/about/who-we-are/organisation-structure |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231103154937/https://www.defence.gov.au/about/who-we-are/organisation-structure |archive-date=3 November 2023 |access-date=16 February 2024 |website=Australian Government: Defence}} The Australian Defence Force is the military wing, headed by the chief of the defence force, and contains three branches: the Royal Australian Navy, the Australian Army and the Royal Australian Air Force. In 2021, it had 84,865 currently serving personnel (including 60,286 regulars and 24,581 reservists).{{Cite web |date=29 June 2022 |title=Australian Defence Force service |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/articles/australian-defence-force-service |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231119193626/https://www.abs.gov.au/articles/australian-defence-force-service |archive-date=19 November 2023 |website=Australian Bureau of Statistics}} The Department of Defence is the civilian wing and is headed by the secretary of defence. These two leaders collective manage Defence as a diarchy, with shared and joint responsibilities.{{Cite report |url=https://www.defence.gov.au/sites/default/files/2023-10/Defence-Annual-Report-2022-23.pdf |title=Defence Annual Report 2022–23 |date=18 September 2023 |publisher=Australian Government: Defence |page=23 |isbn=978-1-925890-47-1 |issn=1323-5036 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231217203427/https://www.defence.gov.au/sites/default/files/2023-10/Defence-Annual-Report-2022-23.pdf |archive-date=17 December 2023 |url-status=live}} The titular role of commander-in-chief is held by the governor-general; however, actual command is vested in the chief of the Defence Force.{{Cite Legislation AU|Cth|act|da190356|Defence Act 1903|9}} The executive branch of the Commonwealth government has overall control of the military through the minister of defence, who is subject to the decisions of Cabinet and its National Security Committee.{{Cite report |url=https://ad-aspi.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/import/12_53_35_PM_ASPI_defence_almanac_2011_12.pdf?VersionId=vNzXEQtA5bqdxWO9r60xyDAD45g2_d1H |title=Australian Defence Almanac: 2011–2012 |last=Khosa |first=Raspal |date=July 2011 |publisher=Australian Strategic Policy Institute |pages=2, 12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002182101/https://ad-aspi.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/import/12_53_35_PM_ASPI_defence_almanac_2011_12.pdf?VersionId=vNzXEQtA5bqdxWO9r60xyDAD45g2_d1H |archive-date=2 October 2023 |url-status=live}} Major Australian intelligence agencies include the Australian Secret Intelligence Service (foreign intelligence), the Australian Signals Directorate (signals intelligence) and the Australian Security Intelligence Organisation (domestic security).

In 2022, defence spending was 1.9% of GDP, representing the world's 13th-largest defence budget.{{cite web |date=April 2023 |title=Trends in World Military Expenditure, 2022 |url=https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2023-04/2304_fs_milex_2022.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423231601/https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2023-04/2304_fs_milex_2022.pdf |archive-date=23 April 2023 |access-date=29 April 2023 |publisher=Stockholm International Peace Research Institute |url-status=live }} In 2024, the ADF had active operations in the Middle East and the Indo-Pacific (including security and aid provisions); was contributing to UN forces in relation to South Sudan, Syria–Israel peacekeeping, and North Korea; and domestically was assisting in preventing asylum-seekers from entering the country and assisting in natural disaster relief.{{Cite web |title=Operations |url=https://www.defence.gov.au/defence-activities/operations |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240130011529/https://www.defence.gov.au/defence-activities/operations |archive-date=30 January 2024 |access-date=25 February 2024 |website=Defence |publisher=Australian Government}}

{{See also|Human rights in Australia}}

Australia has generally strong protections for civil and political rights, and the country has signed up to a wide range of international rights treaties.{{Cite web |title=Australia: Events of 2023 |url=https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2024/country-chapters/australia |access-date=30 August 2024 |website=World Report 2024 |publisher=Human Rights Watch}} Important documents protecting human rights include the Constitution, the Racial Discrimination Act 1975, the Sex Discrimination Act 1984, the Disability Discrimination Act 1992, and the Age Discrimination Act 2004.{{cite web |title=Legal - Legislation |url=https://humanrights.gov.au/our-work/legal/legislation |access-date=3 September 2023 |website=Australian Human Rights Commission}} Same-sex marriage has been legal in the nation since 2017.{{cite news |date=26 June 2013 |title=The 20 most and least gay-friendly countries in the world |url=https://www.pri.org/stories/2013-06-26/20-most-and-least-gay-friendly-countries-world |access-date=31 December 2017 |work=Public Radio International}}{{cite web |title=Same-Sex Marriage Around the World |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/fact-sheet/gay-marriage-around-the-world/ |access-date=3 September 2023 |website=Pew Research Center}} Unlike other comparable Western democracies, Australia does not have a single federal charter of rights in the Constitution or under legislation; however, the ACT, Victoria, and Queensland have state-based ones.

International organisations such as Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International have expressed concerns in areas including asylum-seeker policy, Indigenous deaths in custody, the lack of entrenched rights protection, and laws restricting protesting.{{Cite web |date=28 March 2023 |title=Amnesty International Report 2022/23: The state of the world's human rights |url=https://www.amnesty.org.au/amnesty-international-report-2022-23-the-state-of-the-worlds-human-rights/ |access-date=25 January 2024 |website=Amnesty International Australia |language=en-AU}}{{Cite web |date=11 January 2024 |title=Australia: Setbacks, Inaction on Key Rights Issues |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2024/01/11/australia-setbacks-inaction-key-rights-issues |access-date=25 January 2024 |website=Human Rights Watch |language=en-AU}}

{{Main|Economy of Australia}}

{{Further|Economic history of Australia|Tourism in Australia}}

File:Sydney central business district skyline, August 2021.jpg is the financial centre of Australia.]]

Australia's high-income mixed-market economy is rich in natural resources.{{Cite web|last=Russell|first=Clyde|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-column-russell-commodities-australia-idUKKBN2BM0WC |title=Column: Resource-rich Australia shows vagaries of any commodity supercycle|date=30 March 2021|work=Reuters |access-date=14 August 2022}} It is the world's fourteenth-largest by nominal terms, and the 18th-largest by PPP. {{As of|2021}}, Australia has the second-highest amount of wealth per adult, after Luxembourg,{{Cite web |title=Global Wealth Databook 2021|url=https://www.credit-suisse.com/media/assets/corporate/docs/about-us/research/publications/global-wealth-databook-2021.pdf |access-date=14 August 2022|publisher=Credit Suisse}} and the thirteenth-highest financial assets per capita.{{Cite web|last1=Carrera|first1=Jordi Bosco|last2=Grimm|first2=Michaela|last3=Halzhausen|first3=Arne|last4=Pelaya|first4=Patricia|url=https://www.allianz.com/content/dam/onemarketing/azcom/Allianz_com/economic-research/publications/specials/en/2021/october/2021_10_07_Global-Wealth-Report.pdf |title=ALLIANZ GLOBAL WEALTH REPORT 2021|date=7 October 2021|publisher=Allianz |access-date=14 August 2022}} Australia has a labour force of some 13.5 million, with an unemployment rate of 3.5% as of June 2022.{{Cite web|website=Australian Bureau of Statistics|url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/labour/employment-and-unemployment/labour-force-australia/latest-release |title=Labour Force, Australia|date=14 July 2022 |access-date=14 August 2022}} According to the Australian Council of Social Service, the poverty rate of Australia exceeds 13.6% of the population, encompassing 3.2 million. It also estimated that there were 774,000 (17.7%) children under the age of 15 living in relative poverty.{{Cite web|url=https://povertyandinequality.acoss.org.au/poverty/|title=Poverty – Poverty and Inequality}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.acoss.org.au/media_release/report-shows-three-million-people-in-poverty-in-australia-and-why-we-must-act-to-support-each-other/|title=Report shows three million people in poverty in Australia and why we must act to support each other|date=21 February 2020|website=ACOSS}} The Australian dollar is the national currency, which is also used by three island states in the Pacific: Kiribati, Nauru, and Tuvalu.{{Cite web |url=https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/30205/ado2013-small-island-economies.pdf |title=Small island economies|year=2013|publisher=Asian Development Bank |access-date=14 August 2022|quote=All three countries use the Australian dollar as legal tender.}}

Australian government debt, about $963 billion in June 2022, exceeds 45.1% of the country's total GDP, and is the world's eighth-highest.{{Cite web|last=Dossor|first=Rob|url=https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/rp/BudgetReview202122/CommonwealthDebt |title=Commonwealth debt|publisher=Parliament of Australia |access-date=14 August 2022}} Australia had the second-highest level of household debt in the world in 2020, after Switzerland.{{Cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/HH_LS@GDD/AUS/CHE |title=Household debt, loans and debt securities|publisher=International Monetary Fund |access-date=14 August 2022}} Its house prices are among the highest in the world, especially in the large urban areas.{{Cite web|last=Neubauer|first=Ian|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/economy/2022/4/6/australians-home-ownership-dream-turns-soar-as-prices-soar |title='Ridiculous prices': Australians' home ownership dreams turn sour|work=Al Jazeera|date=6 April 2022 |access-date=14 August 2022}} The large service sector accounts for about 71.2% of total GDP, followed by the industrial sector (25.3%), while its agriculture sector makes up 3.6% of total GDP.{{Cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/australia |title=Australia. CIA – The World Factbook |work=The World Factbook|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |access-date=22 January 2011}} Australia is the world's 21st-largest exporter and 24th-largest importer.{{Cite web |url=https://www.trademap.org/Country_SelProductCountry.aspx?nvpm=1%7c036%7c%7c%7c%7cTOTAL%7c%7c%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1 |title=List of importing markets for the product exported by Austral1ia in 2021|publisher=International Trade Centre |access-date=14 August 2022}}{{Cite web |url=https://www.trademap.org/Country_SelProductCountry.aspx?nvpm=1%7c036%7c%7c%7c%7cTOTAL%7c%7c%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1%7c1%7c%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1 |title=List of supplying markets for the product imported by Australia in 2021|publisher=International Trade Centre |access-date=14 August 2022}} China is Australia's largest trading partner, accounting for roughly 40% of the country's exports and 17.6% of its imports.{{Cite web |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2020/12/29/trade-war-with-china-australias-economy-after-covid-19-pandemic.html |title=Australia's growth may 'never return' to its pre-virus path after trade trouble with China, says economist|last=Tan|first=Weizhen|date=29 December 2020|publisher=CNBC |access-date=10 February 2021}} Other major export markets include Japan, the United States, and South Korea.{{Cite web |url=https://www.dfat.gov.au/publications/trade-and-investment/trade-and-investment-glance-2020 |title=Trade and investment at a glance 2020|publisher=Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade |access-date=14 August 2022}}

Australia has high levels of competitiveness and economic freedom, and was ranked tenth in the Human Development Index in 2022.{{Cite web |last=United Nations Development Programme |date=September 2022 |title=United Nations Development Programme, The 2021/2022 Human Development Report: Uncertain times, unsettled lives, Shaping our future in a transforming world (p 272) |url=https://hdr.undp.org/content/human-development-report-2021-22 |access-date=13 August 2023 |website=United Nations}} {{As of|2022}}, it is ranked twelfth in the Index of Economic Freedom and nineteenth in the Global Competitiveness Report.{{Cite web|title=Country Rankings|url=https://www.heritage.org/index/ranking|publisher=The Heritage Foundation|access-date=14 August 2022|archive-date=30 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200430170123/https://www.heritage.org/index/ranking|url-status=unfit}}{{Cite web |url=https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_TheGlobalCompetitivenessReport2022.pdf |title=The Global Competitiveness Report|publisher=World Economic Forum|last=Schwab|first=Klaus|author-link=Klaus Schwab|year=2022}} It attracted 9.5 million international tourists in 2019,{{Cite web |url=https://statistics.jnto.go.jp/en/graph/#graph--inbound--travelers--transition |title=Trends in the Visitor Arrivals to Japan by Year|publisher=JNTO |access-date=11 December 2020}} and was ranked thirteenth among the countries of Asia-Pacific in 2019 for inbound tourism.{{Cite journal|date=August–September 2020|publisher=UNWTO |title=Statistical Annex|journal=UNWTO World Tourism Barometer|volume=18|issue=5|page=18|doi=10.18111/wtobarometereng.2020.18.1.5|doi-access=free}} The 2021 Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report ranked Australia seventh-highest in the world out of 117 countries.{{Cite web |title=The Travel & Tourism Development Index 2021 |date=May 2022|publisher=World Economic Forum|url=https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Travel_Tourism_Development_2021.pdf |access-date=31 July 2022}} Its international tourism receipts in 2019 amounted to $45.7 billion.

{{Main|Energy policy of Australia|Renewable energy in Australia}}

In 2021–22, Australia's generation of electricity was sourced from black coal (37.2%), brown coal (12%), natural gas (18.8%), hydro (6.5%), wind (11.1%), solar (13.3%), bio-energy (1.2%) and others (1.7%).{{Cite web |title=Australian electricity generation - fuel mix |url=https://www.energy.gov.au/energy-data/australian-energy-statistics/data-charts/australian-electricity-generation-fuel-mix |access-date=5 February 2024 |website=energy.gov.au}}{{Cite web |title=Australian electricity generation renewable sources |url=https://www.energy.gov.au/energy-data/australian-energy-statistics/data-charts/australian-electricity-generation-renewable-sources |access-date=5 February 2024 |website=energy.gov.au}} Total consumption of energy in this period was sourced from coal (28.4%), oil (37.3%), gas (27.4%) and renewables (7%).{{Cite web |title=Australian energy mix by state and territory 2021-22 |url=https://www.energy.gov.au/energy-data/australian-energy-statistics/data-charts/australian-energy-mix-state-and-territory-2021-22 |access-date=5 February 2024 |website=energy.gov.au}} From 2012 to 2022, the energy sourced from renewables has increased 5.7%, while energy sourced from coal has decreased 2.6%. The use of gas also increased by 1.5% and the use of oil stayed relatively stable with a reduction of only 0.2%.{{Cite web |title=Energy consumption |url=https://www.energy.gov.au/energy-data/australian-energy-statistics/energy-consumption |access-date=5 February 2024 |website=energy.gov.au}}

In 2020, Australia produced 27.7% of its electricity from renewable sources, exceeding the target set by the Commonwealth government in 2009 of 20% renewable energy by 2020.{{Cite web |title=Renewable Energy Target Scheme Design |url=http://www.climatechange.gov.au/renewabletarget/pubs/RET-scheme-design.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090515035607/http://www.climatechange.gov.au/renewabletarget/pubs/RET-scheme-design.pdf |archive-date=15 May 2009 |access-date=15 May 2009}}{{Cite web |last1=Clean Energy Council Australia |title=Clean Energy Australia Report 2021 |url=https://assets.cleanenergycouncil.org.au/documents/resources/reports/clean-energy-australia/clean-energy-australia-report-2021.pdf |access-date=3 June 2021 |website=Clean Energy Australia}} A new target of 82% per cent renewable energy by 2030 was set in 2022{{Cite news |date=5 August 2023 |title=Australia will fall well short of 82 per cent renewable energy by 2030, analysts predict, as problems mount |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-08-06/australia-likely-to-fall-short-of-82pc-renewable-energy-target/102689392 |access-date=5 February 2024 |work=ABC News |language=en-AU}} and a target for net zero emissions by 2050 was set in 2021.{{Cite news |last=Evans |first=Jake |date=26 October 2021 |title=What is the government's plan to get Australia to net zero? |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-10-26/how-will-australia-reach-net-zero-by-2050-and-2030-targets/100565342 |access-date=11 February 2024 |work=ABC News (Australia) |language=en-AU}}

In 2019, Australia spent $35.6 billion on research and development, allocating about 1.79% of GDP.{{Cite web |date=9 March 2021 |title=Research and Experimental Development, Businesses, Australia, 2019–20 financial year |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/industry/technology-and-innovation/research-and-experimental-development-businesses-australia/latest-release |access-date=20 May 2022 |website=Australian Bureau of Statistics}} A 2022 study by Accenture for the Tech Council shows that the Australian tech sector combined contributes $167 billion a year to the economy and employs 861,000 people.{{Cite web |date=12 April 2022 |title=Australia wants a place in ranks of global tech nations |url=https://www.afr.com/technology/australia-wants-a-place-in-ranks-of-global-tech-nations-20220328-p5a8kh |access-date=20 May 2022 |website=Australian Financial Review |language=en}} In addition, recent startup ecosystems in Sydney and Melbourne are valued at $34 billion combined.{{Cite web |date=23 September 2021 |title=Sydney's startup ecosystem is worth $24 billion, Melbourne's $10.5bn |url=https://www.startupdaily.net/2021/09/sydneys-startup-ecosystem-is-worth-24-billion-melbournes-10-5bn |access-date=20 May 2022 |website=Startup Daily |language=en-US}} Australia ranked 23rd in the Global Innovation Index 2024.{{Cite book |year=2024 |title=Global Innovation Index 2024: Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship |url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2024/en/ |access-date=6 October 2024 |page=18 |publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization |language=en |doi=10.34667/tind.50062 |isbn=978-92-805-3681-2 |author1=World Intellectual Property Organization. |last2=Dutta |first2=Soumitra. |last3=Lanvin |first3=Bruno. |last4=Rivera León |first4=Lorena. |last5=Wunsch-Vincent |first5=Sacha. }}

With only 0.3% of the world's population, Australia contributed 4.1% of the world's published research in 2020, making it one of the top 10 research contributors in the world.{{Cite web |title=Research Output {{!}} Australian Innovation System Monitor |url=https://publications.industry.gov.au/publications/australianinnovationsystemmonitor/science-and-research/research-output/index.html |access-date=24 July 2022 |website=publications.industry.gov.au}}{{Cite web |last=Berthold |first=Emma |date=17 May 2021 |title=Science in Australia |url=https://www.science.org.au/curious/policy-features/science-australia |access-date=24 July 2022 |website=Curious |language=en}} CSIRO, Australia's national science agency, contributes 10% of all research in the country, while the rest is carried out by universities. Its most notable contributions include the invention of atomic absorption spectroscopy,{{Cite web |last=Hannaford |first=Peter |title=Alan Walsh 1916–1998 |url=http://www.science.org.au/academy/memoirs/walsh2.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070224214248/http://www.science.org.au/academy/memoirs/walsh2.htm |archive-date=24 February 2007 |access-date=5 December 2022 |website=AAS Biographical Memoirs |publisher=Australian Academy of Science}} the essential components of Wi-Fi technology,{{Cite web |title= Wi-fi |url=https://www.nma.gov.au/defining-moments/resources/wi-fi |access-date=6 December 2022 |website=National Museum of Australia |publisher= |language=en}} and the development of the first commercially successful polymer banknote.{{Cite web |date=25 November 2014 |title=Proceeds of crime: how polymer banknotes were invented |url=https://blog.csiro.au/proceeds-of-crime-how-polymer-banknotes-were-invented |access-date=6 December 2022 |website=CSIROscope |language=en-AU}} {{As of|2024}}, 13 Australian scientists have been awarded the Nobel Prize in physics, chemistry or medicine,{{Cite web |title=Nobel Australians |url=https://www.science.org.au/education/history-australian-science/nobel-australians |access-date=21 December 2024 |website=Australian Academy of Science |language=}} and two have been awarded the Fields Medal.{{Cite web |last=Watson |first=Laura |date=1 August 2018 |title=AMSI Congratulates Australia's Second Ever Fields Medallist |url=https://amsi.org.au/2018/08/02/amsi-congratulates-australias-second-ever-fields-medallist/ |access-date=21 December 2024 |website=Australian Mathematical Sciences Institute |language=}}

Australia is a key player in supporting space exploration. Facilities such as the Square Kilometre Array and Australia Telescope Compact Array radio telescopes, telescopes such as the Siding Spring Observatory, and ground stations such as the Canberra Deep Space Communication Complex are of great assistance in deep space exploration missions, primarily by NASA.{{Cite web |last=Williams |first=Dave |title=Australia's part in 50 years of space exploration with NASA |url=http://theconversation.com/australias-part-in-50-years-of-space-exploration-with-nasa-24530 |access-date=13 December 2022 |website=The Conversation |date=19 March 2014 |language=en}}

{{Main|Demographics of Australia}}

Australia has a population density of 3.4 persons per square kilometre of total land area, which makes it one of the most sparsely populated countries in the world. The population is heavily concentrated on the east coast, and in particular in the south-eastern region between South East Queensland to the north-east and Adelaide to the south-west.

Australia is also highly urbanised, with 67% of the population living in the Greater Capital City Statistical Areas (metropolitan areas of the state and mainland territorial capital cities) in 2018.{{Cite news|url=https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/3218.0 |title=Main Features – Main Features |publisher=Commonwealth of Australia |agency=Australian Bureau of Statistics |date=27 March 2019|work=3218.0 – Regional Population Growth, Australia, 2017–18}} Metropolitan areas with more than one million inhabitants are Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth and Adelaide.

In common with many other developed countries, Australia is experiencing a demographic shift towards an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2021, the average age of the population was 39 years.{{Cite web |date=28 June 2022 |title=Population: Census |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/population/population-census/latest-release |publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics}}

{{Main|List of cities in Australia by population|List of cities in Australia}}

Australia has five cities (including their suburbs) that have populations larger than one million people. The majority of Australia's population lives near coastlines.{{cite web |url=http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/beach/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100226144234/http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/beach/ |archive-date=26 February 2010 |title=The Beach |work=Australian Government: Culture Portal |publisher=Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Commonwealth of Australia |date=17 March 2008 }}

{{Largest cities of Australia}}

{{Main|Immigration to Australia}}

File:Australian Residents by Country of Birth 2021 Census.svg

Between 1788 and the Second World War, the vast majority of settlers and immigrants came from the British Isles (principally England, Ireland and Scotland), although there was significant immigration from China and Germany during the 19th century. Following Federation in 1901, the white Australia policy was strengthened, restricting further migration from these areas. However, this policy was relaxed following WW2, and in the decades following, Australia received a large wave of immigration from across Europe, with many more immigrants arriving from Southern and Eastern Europe than in previous decades. All overt racial discrimination ended in 1973, with multiculturalism becoming official policy.{{Cite web |url=http://www.immi.gov.au/facts/06evolution.htm |title=The Evolution of Australia's Multicultural Policy |access-date=18 September 2007|year=2005|publisher=Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060219130703/http://www.immi.gov.au/facts/06evolution.htm |archive-date=19 February 2006}} Subsequently, there has been a large and continuing wave of immigration from across the world, with Asia being the largest source of immigrants in the 21st century.{{Cite web |url=https://www.homeaffairs.gov.au/research-and-stats/files/report-migration-program-2018-19.pdf |title=2018–19 Migration Program Report|website=Australian Government Department of Home Affairs|date=30 June 2019}}

Today, Australia has the world's eighth-largest immigrant population, with immigrants accounting for 30% of the population, the highest proportion among major Western nations.{{Cite news |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/population/migration-australia/2019-20#australia-s-population-by-country-of-birth |title=Main Features – Australia's Population by Country of Birth|publisher=Commonwealth of Australia |agency=Australian Bureau of Statistics |date=23 April 2021 |work=3412.0 – Migration, Australia, 2019–20}}{{Cite web |title=International migrant stock 2017: maps |website=United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division|url=https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/data/estimates2/estimatesmaps.shtml?1t1 |access-date=15 January 2022 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181209122006/https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/data/estimates2/estimatesmaps.shtml?1t1 |archive-date= 9 December 2018 }} In 2022–23, 212,789 permanent migrants were admitted to Australia, with a net migration population gain of 518,000 people inclusive of non-permanent residents.{{Cite web |date=15 December 2023 |title=Overseas Migration |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/population/overseas-migration/latest-release |access-date=7 February 2024 |website=Australian Bureau of Statistics |language=en-AU}}{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=Australia's Migration Trends 2022–23 |url=https://www.homeaffairs.gov.au/research-and-stats/files/migration-trends-2022-23.PDF |publisher=Department of Home Affairs}} Most entered on skilled visas, however the immigration program also offers visas for family members and refugees.{{Cite web |title=Net Overseas Migration |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Latestproducts/3412.0Main%20Features52018-19?opendocument&tabname=Summary&prodno=3412.0&issue=2018-19&num=&view= |access-date=4 May 2020 |publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics}}

The Australian Bureau of Statistics asks each Australian resident to nominate up to two ancestries each census and the responses are classified into broad ancestry groups.{{Cite web |date=28 June 2022 |title=Understanding and using Ancestry data |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/detailed-methodology-information/information-papers/understanding-and-using-ancestry-data |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240209190954/https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/detailed-methodology-information/information-papers/understanding-and-using-ancestry-data |archive-date=9 February 2024 |website=Australian Bureau of Statistics}}{{Cite web | url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/classifications/australian-standard-classification-cultural-and-ethnic-groups-ascceg/latest-release | title=Australian Standard Classification of Cultural and Ethnic Groups (ASCCEG), 2019 |website=Australian Bureau of Statistics | date=18 December 2019 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20231121023512/https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/classifications/australian-standard-classification-cultural-and-ethnic-groups-ascceg/latest-release |archive-date= 21 November 2023 }} At the 2021 census, the most commonly nominated ancestry groups as a proportion of the total population were:[https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/people-and-communities/cultural-diversity-census/2021/Cultural%20diversity%20data%20summary.xlsx Cultural diversity data summary]. 2021. Australian Bureau of Statistics. 57.2% European (including 46% North-West European and 11.2% Southern and Eastern European), 33.8% Oceanian,{{Refn|group="N"|Includes those who nominate "Australian" as their ancestry. The Australian Bureau of Statistics has stated that most who nominate "Australian" as their ancestry have at least partial Anglo-Celtic European ancestry.{{Cite news|url=http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/94713ad445ff1425ca25682000192af2/49f609c83cf34d69ca2569de0025c182!OpenDocument |title=Feature Article – Ethnic and Cultural Diversity in Australia (Feature Article) |publisher=Commonwealth of Australia |agency=Australian Bureau of Statistics |work=1301.0 – Year Book Australia, 1995}}}} 17.4% Asian (including 6.5% Southern and Central Asian, 6.4% North-East Asian, and 4.5% South-East Asian), 3.2% North African and Middle Eastern, 1.4% Peoples of the Americas, and 1.3% Sub-Saharan African. At the 2021 census, the most commonly nominated individual ancestries as a proportion of the total population were:{{Refn|group="N"|Each person may nominate more than one ancestry, so the total may exceed 100%.{{cite web | title=Understanding and using Ancestry data | website=Australian Bureau of Statistics | date=28 June 2022 | url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/detailed-methodology-information/information-papers/understanding-and-using-ancestry-data | access-date=30 May 2024}}}}

{{Columns-list|colwidth=12em|

• English (33%)
• Australian (29.9%){{Refn|group="N"|The Australian Bureau of Statistics has stated that most who nominate "Australian" as their ancestry have at least partial Anglo-Celtic European ancestry.}}
• Irish (9.5%)
• Scottish (8.6%)
• Chinese (5.5%)
• Italian (4.4%)
• German (4%)
• Indian (3.1%)
• Aboriginal (2.9%){{Refn|group="N"|Those who nominated their ancestry as "Australian Aboriginal". Does not include Torres Strait Islanders. This relates to nomination of ancestry and is distinct from persons who identify as Indigenous (Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander) which is a separate question.}}
• Greek (1.7%)
• Filipino (1.6%)
• Dutch (1.5%)
• Vietnamese (1.3%)
• Lebanese (1%)

}}

At the 2021 census, 3.8% of the Australian population identified as being Indigenous—Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders.{{Refn|group="N"|Indigenous identification is separate to the ancestry question on the Australian Census and persons identifying as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander may identify any ancestry.}}

{{Main|Languages of Australia}}

Although English is not the official language of Australia in law, it is the de facto official and national language.{{Cite web |title=Pluralist Nations: Pluralist Language Policies? |url=http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/multicultural/confer/04/speech18b.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081220020910/http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/multicultural/confer/04/speech18b.htm |archive-date=20 December 2008 |access-date=11 January 2009 |work=1995 Global Cultural Diversity Conference Proceedings, Sydney |publisher=Department of Immigration and Citizenship}} "English has no de jure status but it is so entrenched as the common language that it is de facto the official language as well as the national language."{{Cite journal |last=Ward |first=Rowena |date=2019 |title='National' and 'Official' Languages Across the Independent Asia-Pacific |journal=Journal of Multidisciplinary International Studies |volume=16 |issue=1/2 |pages=83–4 |doi=10.5130/pjmis.v16i1-2.6510 | doi-access=free |quote=The use of English in Australia is one example of both a de facto national and official language: it is widely used and is the language of government and the courts, but has never been legally designated as the country's official language.}} Australian English is a major variety of the language with a distinctive accent and lexicon,{{Cite web |last=Moore |first=Bruce |title=The Vocabulary Of Australian English |url=http://www.nma.gov.au/libraries/attachments/exhibitions/vocabulary_of_australian_english/files/5471/Vocabulary%20of%20Australian%20English.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110320004658/http://www.nma.gov.au/libraries/attachments/exhibitions/vocabulary_of_australian_english/files/5471/Vocabulary%20of%20Australian%20English.pdf |archive-date=20 March 2011 |access-date=5 April 2010 |publisher=National Museum of Australia}} and differs slightly from other varieties of English in grammar and spelling."The Macquarie Dictionary", Fourth Edition. The Macquarie Library Pty Ltd, 2005. General Australian serves as the standard dialect.{{Cite web |last=Lalande |first=Line |date=4 May 2020 |title=Australian English in a nutshell |url=https://www.noslangues-ourlanguages.gc.ca/en/blogue-blog/australian-english-eng |publisher=Government of Canada}} The Australian sign language known as Auslan was used at home by 16,242 people at the time of the 2021 census.{{Cite web |title=Census of Population and Housing: Cultural diversity data summary, 2021, TABLE 5. LANGUAGE USED AT HOME BY STATE AND TERRITORY |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/people-and-communities/cultural-diversity-census/2021#data-downloads |access-date=7 May 2021 |website=Australian Bureau of Statistics}}

At the 2021 census, English was the only language spoken in the home for 72% of the population. The next most common languages spoken at home were Mandarin (2.7%), Arabic (1.4%), Vietnamese (1.3%), Cantonese (1.2%) and Punjabi (0.9%).{{Cite web |title=2021 Australia, Census All persons QuickStats |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/census/find-census-data/quickstats/2021/AUS |website=Australian Bureau of Statistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240315155123/https://www.abs.gov.au/census/find-census-data/quickstats/2021/AUS |archive-date= 15 March 2024 }}

More than 250 Australian Aboriginal languages are thought to have existed at the time of first European contact.{{Cite book|url=https://www.arts.gov.au/what-we-do/indigenous-arts-and-languages/indigenous-languages-and-arts-program/national-indigenous-languages-report |title=National Indigenous Languages Report |publisher=Commonwealth of Australia |year=2020 |location=Canberra |pages=13}} The National Indigenous Languages Survey (NILS) for 2018–19 found that more than 120 Indigenous language varieties were in use or being revived, although 70 of those in use were endangered.National Indigenous Language Report (2020). pp. 42, 65 The 2021 census found that 167 Indigenous languages were spoken at home by 76,978 Indigenous Australians — Yumplatok (Torres Strait Creole), Djambarrpuyngu (a Yolŋu language) and Pitjantjatjara (a Western Desert language) were among the most widely spoken.{{Cite web |date=28 June 2022 |title=Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people: Census |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-peoples/aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-people-census/2021 |access-date=7 May 2023 |website=Australian Bureau of Statistics}} NILS and the Australian Bureau of Statistics use different classifications for Indigenous Australian languages.National Indigenous Languages Report (2020). p. 46

{{Main|Religion in Australia}}

File:St Mary's Cathedral as viewed from Hyde Park, Sydney b.jpg in Sydney belongs to the Roman Catholic Church, Australia's largest religious denomination.]]

Australia has no state religion; section 116 of the Australian Constitution prohibits federal legislation

that would establish any religion, impose any religious observance, or prohibit the free exercise of any religion.{{Cite web |title=About Australia: Religious Freedom |url=http://www.dfat.gov.au/facts/religion.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110806061716/http://www.dfat.gov.au/facts/religion.html |archive-date=6 August 2011 |access-date=31 December 2011 |publisher=Dfat.gov.au}} However, the states still retain the power to pass religiously discriminatory laws.{{Cite journal |last=Puls |first=Joshua |date=1998 |title=The Wall of Separation: Section 116, the First Amendment and Constitutional Religious Guarantees |url=https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/FedLRev/1998/6.pdf |journal=Federal Law Review |page=160 |via=Austlii}}

At the 2021 census, 38.9% of the population identified as having no religion,{{Cite web |date=2022 |title=General Community Profile |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/census/find-census-data/community-profiles/2021/AUS/download/GCP_AUS.xlsx |series=2021 Census of Population and Housing |publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics |type=Excel file}} up from 15.5% in 2001.{{Cite web | url=https://www.abs.gov.au/census/find-census-data/quickstats/2001/0 | title=2001 Australia, Census All persons QuickStats |website=Australian Bureau of Statistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240308064233/https://www.abs.gov.au/census/find-census-data/quickstats/2001/0 |archive-date= 8 March 2024 }} The largest religion is Christianity (43.9% of the population). The largest Christian denominations are the Roman Catholic Church (20% of the population) and the Anglican Church of Australia (9.8%). Non-British immigration since the Second World War has led to the growth of non-Christian religions, the largest of which are Islam (3.2%), Hinduism (2.7%), Buddhism (2.4%), Sikhism (0.8%), and Judaism (0.4%).{{Cite web |date=7 April 2022 |title=Religious affiliation in Australia |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/articles/religious-affiliation-australia |access-date= |website=Australian Bureau of Statistics |language=en}}

In 2021, just under 8,000 people declared an affiliation with traditional Aboriginal religions. In Australian Aboriginal mythology and the animist framework developed in Aboriginal Australia, the Dreaming is a sacred era in which ancestral totemic spirit beings formed The Creation. The Dreaming established the laws and structures of society and the ceremonies performed to ensure continuity of life and land.{{Harvnb|Flood|2019|pp=163–169}}

{{See also|Health care in Australia}}

Australia's life expectancy of 83 years (81 years for males and 85 years for females){{Cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN?locations=AU |title=Life expectancy at birth, total (years) – Australia|publisher=World Bank |access-date=17 August 2022}} is the fifth-highest in the world. It has the highest rate of skin cancer in the world,{{Cite web |url=http://www.health.gov.au/internet/skincancer/publishing.nsf/Content/fact-2 |title=Skin cancer – key statistics|year=2008|publisher=Department of Health and Ageing |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140208171642/http://www.health.gov.au/internet/skincancer/publishing.nsf/Content/fact-2 |archive-date=8 February 2014}} while cigarette smoking is the largest preventable cause of death and disease, responsible for 7.8% of the total mortality and disease. Ranked second in preventable causes is hypertension at 7.6%, with obesity third at 7.5%.{{Cite web |url=http://www.aihw.gov.au/publications/hwe/bodaiia03/bodaiia03-c05.pdf |title=Risks to health in Australia|website=Australian Institute of Health and Welfare|date=26 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110226105813/http://www.aihw.gov.au/publications/hwe/bodaiia03/bodaiia03-c05.pdf |archive-date=26 February 2011}}{{Cite web |date=19 February 2011 |title=quitnow – Smoking – A Leading Cause of Death |url=http://quitnow.info.au/internet/quitnow/publishing.nsf/Content/warnings-graph |access-date=15 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110219073743/http://quitnow.info.au/internet/quitnow/publishing.nsf/Content/warnings-graph |archive-date=19 February 2011 |url-status=dead}} Australia ranked 35th in the world in 2012 for its proportion of obese women{{Cite web |title= Global prevalence of adult obesity | date=January 2012 |url=http://www.iaso.org/site_media/uploads/Global_prevalence_of_adult_obesity_Ranking_by_country_2012.pdf |access-date=15 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120829014750/http://www.iaso.org/site_media/uploads/Global_prevalence_of_adult_obesity_Ranking_by_country_2012.pdf |archive-date=29 August 2012 |url-status=dead}} and near the top of developed nations for its proportion of obese adults;{{Cite web |url=http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/Publishing.nsf/Content/health-pubhlth-strateg-hlthwt-obesity.htm |title=About Overweight and Obesity|publisher=Department of Health and Ageing |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100507033011/http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/health-pubhlth-strateg-hlthwt-obesity.htm |archive-date=7 May 2010 |url-status=dead |access-date=11 May 2010}} 63% of its adult population is either overweight or obese.{{Cite web |url=http://www.aihw.gov.au/overweight-and-obesity |title=Overweight and obesity|date=25 February 2021 |publisher=Australian Institute of Health and Welfare}}

Australia spent around 9.91% of its total GDP to health care in 2021.{{Cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.XPD.CHEX.GD.ZS?locations=AU |title=Current healthcare expenditure (% of GDP) – Australia|publisher=World Bank |access-date=17 August 2022}} It introduced a national insurance scheme in 1975.{{Cite web |url=http://www.aph.gov.au/library/intguide/SP/medicare.htm |title=Medicare – Background Brief|last=Biggs|first=Amanda|date=29 October 2004|publisher=Commonwealth of Australia|location=Canberra, ACT|work=Parliament of Australia: Parliamentary Library |access-date=16 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100414012007/http://www.aph.gov.au/library/intguide/SP/medicare.htm |archive-date=14 April 2010 |url-status=dead}} Following a period in which access to the scheme was restricted, the scheme became universal once more in 1981 under the name of Medicare.{{Cite web |date=5 June 2020 |title=International Health Care System Profiles: Australia |url=https://www.commonwealthfund.org/international-health-policy-center/countries/australia |access-date=7 February 2024 |website=The Commonwealth Fund |language=en}} The program is nominally funded by an income tax surcharge known as the Medicare levy, currently at 2%.{{Cite web |url=https://www.ato.gov.au/Individuals/Medicare-levy |title=Medicare levy|publisher=Australian Taxation Office|date=18 October 2017 |access-date=9 April 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130629085049/http://www.ato.gov.au/Individuals/Medicare-levy/ |archive-date=29 June 2013}} The states manage hospitals and attached outpatient services, while the Commonwealth funds the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (subsidising the costs of medicines) and general practice.

{{Main|Education in Australia}}

File:Parkville - University of Melbourne (Ormond College).jpg (University of Melbourne pictured).]]

School attendance, or registration for home schooling,{{Cite news|last1=Townsend|first1=Ian |title=Thousands of parents illegally home schooling|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2012-01-28/thousands-of-parents-illegally-home-schooling/3798008 |access-date=2 December 2015|work=ABC News|date=30 January 2012}} is compulsory throughout Australia. Education is primarily the responsibility of the individual states and territories; however, the Commonwealth has significant influence through funding agreements.{{Cite web |title=The Australian Education System |url=https://www.dfat.gov.au/sites/default/files/australian-education-system-foundation.pdf |access-date=6 February 2024 |publisher=Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade |pages=7–9}} Since 2014, a national curriculum developed by the Commonwealth has been implemented by the states and territories.{{Cite web |last=Ross |first=Emily |date=18 November 2021 |title=Why do Australian states need a national curriculum, and do teachers even use it? |url=http://theconversation.com/why-do-australian-states-need-a-national-curriculum-and-do-teachers-even-use-it-171745 |access-date=6 February 2024 |website=The Conversation |language=en-US}} Attendance rules vary between states, but in general children are required to attend school from the age of about 5 until about 16.{{Cite web |url=http://www.immi.gov.au/living-in-australia/settle-in-australia/everyday-life/education |title=Education|publisher=Department of Immigration and Citizenship |access-date=14 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140218220904/http://www.immi.gov.au/living-in-australia/settle-in-australia/everyday-life/education |archive-date=18 February 2014}}{{Cite web |url=http://www.dfat.gov.au/facts/education_in_australia.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514101140/http://www.dfat.gov.au/facts/education_in_australia.html |archive-date=14 May 2011 |title=Our system of education|publisher=Australian Government: Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade |access-date=13 January 2012}} In some states (Western Australia, Northern Territory and New South Wales), children aged 16–17 are required to either attend school or participate in vocational training, such as an apprenticeship.{{Cite web |url=http://det.wa.edu.au/schoolsandyou/detcms/navigation/parents-and-community/schooling/?oid=Category-id-3869597 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120321204923/http://det.wa.edu.au/schoolsandyou/detcms/navigation/parents-and-community/schooling/?oid=Category-id-3869597 |archive-date=21 March 2012 |title=The Department of Education – Schools and You – Schooling|website=det.wa.edu.au |access-date=31 December 2011}}{{Cite web |title=Education Act (NT) – Section 20 |url=http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nt/consol_act/ea104/s20.html|website=austlii.edu.au}}{{Cite web |title=Education Act 1990 (NSW) – Section 21 |url=http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nsw/consol_act/ea1990104/s21b.html|work=austlii.edu.au}}{{Cite web |title=Minimum school leaving age jumps to 17|url=http://news.theage.com.au/breaking-news-national/minimum-school-leaving-age-jumps-to-17-20090128-7r4d.html|publisher=The Age |access-date=30 May 2013|date=28 January 2009}} According to the 2022 PISA evaluations, Australian 15-year-olds ranked ninth in the OECD for reading and science and tenth for maths. However, less than 60% of Australian students achieved the National Proficiency Standard – 51% in maths, 58% in science and 57% in reading.{{Cite web |date=4 December 2023 |title=PISA 2022 Results (Volume I and II) - Country Notes: Australia |url=https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/2023/11/pisa-2022-results-volume-i-and-ii-country-notes_2fca04b9/australia_aa76963a.html |access-date=31 July 2024 |publisher=OECD |language=en}}{{Cite news |last=Long |first=Claudia |date=6 December 2023 |title=Australia is now in the world's top 10 academic performers – but the data paints a complex picture |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-12-05/pisa-international-school-rankings-in-maths-science-reading/103185468 |access-date=31 July 2024 |work=ABC News Australia}}

Australia has an adult literacy rate that was estimated to be 99% in 2003.{{Cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2103.html#136 |title=Literacy|work=CIA World Factbook |access-date=10 October 2013 |archive-date=24 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161124171442/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2103.html#136 |url-status=dead}} However, a 2011–2012 report for the Australian Bureau of Statistics found that 44% of the population does not have high literary and numeracy competence levels, interpreted by others as suggesting that they do not have the "skills needed for everyday life".{{Cite web |date=9 October 2013 |title=Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies, Australia |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/education/programme-international-assessment-adult-competencies-australia/latest-release |website=Australian Bureau of Statistics}}{{Cite news|url=http://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/backgroundbriefing/2013-09-22/4962902 |title=A literacy deficit|website=abc.net.au|date=22 September 2013 |access-date=10 October 2013}}{{Cite web |date=12 April 2021 |title=Australia's adult literacy crisis |url=https://ala.asn.au/stories/australias-adult-literacy-crisis/ |access-date=26 January 2024 |website=Adult Learning Australia |language=en-US}}

Australia has 37 government-funded universities and three private universities, as well as a number of other specialist institutions that provide approved courses at the higher education level.{{Cite web |url=http://www.ausitaleem.com.pk/australian-education-system.shtml |title=Australian Education {{pipe}} Australian Education System {{pipe}} Education {{pipe}} Study in Australia|publisher=Ausitaleem.com.pk |access-date=31 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119063252/http://www.ausitaleem.com.pk/australian-education-system.shtml |archive-date=19 January 2012}} The OECD places Australia among the most expensive nations to attend university.[http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/44/35/37376068.pdf Education at a Glance 2006] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160102101942/http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/44/35/37376068.pdf|date=2 January 2016}} Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development There is a state-based system of vocational training, known as TAFE, and many trades conduct apprenticeships for training new tradespeople.{{Cite web |url=http://www.australianapprenticeships.gov.au/about/default.asp |title=About Australian Apprenticeships|publisher=Australian Government |access-date=23 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091111234035/http://www.australianapprenticeships.gov.au/about/default.asp |archive-date=11 November 2009}} About 58% of Australians aged from 25 to 64 have vocational or tertiary qualifications{{Cite web|website=Australian Bureau of Statistics|url=http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/94713ad445ff1425ca25682000192af2/1a79e7ae231704f8ca256f720082feb9!OpenDocument |title=Year Book Australia 2005 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160409132916/http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs%40.nsf/94713ad445ff1425ca25682000192af2/1a79e7ae231704f8ca256f720082feb9%21OpenDocument |archive-date=9 April 2016 |date=21 January 2005 }} and the tertiary graduation rate of 49% is the highest among OECD countries. 30.9% of Australia's population has attained a higher education qualification, which is among the highest percentages in the world.{{Cite web |url=https://finance.yahoo.com/news/the-most-educated-countries-in-the-world.html;_ylt=AlaWy8IcyeBaviKi7_.WJyhE6odG;_ylu=X3oDMTJrY2d2NGZyBG1pdANDeFMgRmluYW5jaWFsbHkgRml0IEFydGljbGUgQXJ0aWNsZSBCb2R5IFByb2QEcG9zAzMEc2VjA01lZGlhQXJ0aWNsZUJvZHlBc3NlbWJseQ--;_ylg=X3oDMTNjdGVoaXJqBGludGwDdXMEbGFuZwNlbi11cwRwc3RhaWQDY2IyOTRhMGEtYmY2OS0zYTdlLThlYTUtZWFlNTU3YWI1ZTc3BHBzdGNhdANleGNsdXNpdmVzfGZpbmFuY2lhbGx5Zml0BHB0A3N0b3J5cGFnZQ--;_ylv=3?page=1 |title=The Most Educated Countries in the World – Yahoo Finance|last=Sauter|first=Michael B.|publisher=Finance.yahoo.com|date=24 September 2012 |access-date=14 November 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160204213400/http://finance.yahoo.com/news/the-most-educated-countries-in-the-world.html%3B_ylt%3DAlaWy8IcyeBaviKi7_.WJyhE6odG%3B_ylu%3DX3oDMTJrY2d2NGZyBG1pdANDeFMgRmluYW5jaWFsbHkgRml0IEFydGljbGUgQXJ0aWNsZSBCb2R5IFByb2QEcG9zAzMEc2VjA01lZGlhQXJ0aWNsZUJvZHlBc3NlbWJseQ--%3B_ylg%3DX3oDMTNjdGVoaXJqBGludGwDdXMEbGFuZwNlbi11cwRwc3RhaWQDY2IyOTRhMGEtYmY2OS0zYTdlLThlYTUtZWFlNTU3YWI1ZTc3BHBzdGNhdANleGNsdXNpdmVzfGZpbmFuY2lhbGx5Zml0BHB0A3N0b3J5cGFnZQ--%3B_ylv%3D3?page=1 |archive-date=4 February 2016}}{{Cite magazine|url=https://newsfeed.time.com/2012/09/27/and-the-worlds-most-educated-country-is/ |title=And the World's Most Educated Country Is ...|magazine=Time|first=Samantha |last=Grossman|date=27 September 2012 |access-date=14 November 2015}}{{Cite web |url=http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/census_services/getproduct/census/2016/quickstat/036 |title=2016 Census QuickStats: Australia |website=censusdata.abs.gov.au |access-date=14 February 2018 |archive-date=20 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620052901/http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/census_services/getproduct/census/2016/quickstat/036 |url-status=dead }}

Australia has the highest ratio of international students per head of population in the world by a large margin, with 812,000 international students enrolled in the nation's universities and vocational institutions in 2019.{{Cite web |url=https://www.theaustralian.com.au/subscribe/news/1/?sourceCode=TAWEB_WRE170_a&dest=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theaustralian.com.au%2Fbusiness%2Fproperty%2Fbooming-student-market-a-valuable-property%2Fnews-story%2F6bb3823260aa3443f0c26909406d089b&memtype=anonymous&mode=premium&nk=5cfb870de12779cf853780286e352a51-1587312248 |title=Subscribe to The Australian {{pipe}} Newspaper home delivery, website, iPad, iPhone & Android apps|website=theaustralian.com.au}}{{Cite web |url=https://www.macrobusiness.com.au/2019/11/australian-universities-double-down-on-international-students |title=Australian universities double down on international students|first1=Leith van OnselenLeith van Onselen is Chief Economist at the MB|last1=Fund|first2=MB Super Leith has previously worked at the Australian|last2=Treasury|first3=Victorian |last3=Treasury|first4=Goldman|last4=Sachs|date=31 October 2019|website=MacroBusiness}} Accordingly, in 2019, international students represented on average 26.7% of the student bodies of Australian universities. International education therefore represents one of the country's largest exports and has a pronounced influence on the country's demographics, with a significant proportion of international students remaining in Australia after graduation on various skill and employment visas.{{Cite news|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-07-27/temporary-graduate-visa-485-boom/10035390 |title=Record number of international students sticking around on work visas|first=political reporter Jackson|last=Gothe-Snape|date=27 July 2018|newspaper=ABC News}} Education is Australia's third-largest export, after iron ore and coal, and contributed more than $28 billion to the economy in the 2016–17 financial year.That is, 1 July 2016 to 30 June 2017.

{{Main|Culture of Australia}}

File:Sydney Opera House, botanic gardens 1.jpg was completed in 1973 and declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2007, making it the youngest building to have received the designation.Architect Magazine (August 2007), 96 (11), p. 14]]

Contemporary Australian culture is diverse{{Cite web |date=2024 |title=Culturally and linguistically Diverse Australian |url=https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports-data/population-groups/cald-australians/overview |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240219224057/https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports-data/population-groups/cald-australians/overview |archive-date=19 February 2024 |access-date=20 February 2024 |website=Australian Government, Australian Institute of Health and Welfare}} and reflects the country's Indigenous traditions, Anglo-Celtic heritage, and post-1945 history of multicultural immigration.{{Harvnb|Jupp|2001|pp=74–77, 796–802, 808–812}}{{Harvnb|Teo|White|2003|pp=118–20}} The culture of the United States has also been influential.{{Cite journal |last1=White |first1=Richard |date=1 January 1983 |title=A Backwater Awash: The Australian Experience of Americanisation |journal=Theory, Culture and Society |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=108–122 |doi=10.1177/026327648300100309 |s2cid=144339300}} The evolution of Australian culture since British colonisation has given rise to distinctive cultural traits.{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998|pages=98–99}}{{Harvnb|Teo|White|2003|pp=125–27}}

Many Australians identify egalitarianism, mateship, irreverence and a lack of formality as part of their national identity.{{Cite web |title=Cultural life |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Australia/Cultural-life |access-date=5 February 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}{{Cite web |date=2016 |title=Australian Culture: Core Concepts |url=https://culturalatlas.sbs.com.au/australian-culture/australian-culture-core-concepts |access-date=5 February 2024 |website=Cultural Atlas |language=en}}{{Cite web |title=Australian Citizenship: Our Common Bond |url=https://immi.homeaffairs.gov.au/citizenship-subsite/files/our-common-bond-testable.pdf |publisher=Australian Government |page=36}} These find expression in Australian slang, as well as Australian humour, which is often characterised as dry, irreverent and ironic.{{Cite web |last=Luu |first=Chi |date=7 February 2018 |title=Small Poppy Syndrome: Why are Australians so Obsessed With Nicknaming Things? |url=https://daily.jstor.org/australians-obsessed-nicknaming/ |access-date=12 February 2024 |website=JSTOR Daily |language=en-US}}{{Cite journal |last1=Kidd |first1=Evan |last2=Kemp |first2=Nenagh |author-link2=Nenagh Kemp |last3=Kashima |first3=Emiko S. |last4=Quinn |first4=Sara |date=June 2016 |title=Language, Culture, and Group Membership: An Investigation Into the Social Effects of Colloquial Australian English |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0022022116638175 |journal=Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology |language=en |volume=47 |issue=5 |pages=713–733 |doi=10.1177/0022022116638175 |issn=0022-0221 |s2cid=147360478 |url-access=subscription |hdl-access=free |hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-002E-24A7-F}} New citizens and visa holders are required to commit to "Australian values", which are identified by the Department of Home Affairs as including: a respect for the freedom of the individual; recognition of the rule of law; opposition to racial, gender and religious discrimination; and an understanding of the "fair go", which is said to encompass the equality of opportunity for all and compassion for those in need.{{Cite web |title=Meeting our requirements: Australian values |url=https://immi.homeaffairs.gov.au/help-support/meeting-our-requirements/australian-values |access-date=6 February 2024 |publisher=Department of Home Affairs}} What these values mean, and whether or not Australians uphold them, has been debated since before Federation.{{Cite web |last=Snow |first=Deborah |date=18 January 2019 |title=Australian values: what the bloody hell are they? |url=https://www.smh.com.au/national/australian-values-what-the-bloody-hell-are-they-20190118-p50s76.html |access-date=6 February 2024 |website=The Sydney Morning Herald |language=en}}{{Cite journal |last=Dyrenfurth |first=Nick |date=June 2007 |title=John Howard's Hegemony of Values: The Politics of 'Mateship' in the Howard Decade |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10361140701319994 |journal=Australian Journal of Political Science |language=en |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=211–230 |doi=10.1080/10361140701319994 |s2cid=154041199 |issn=1036-1146 |url-access=subscription}}{{Cite web |last=Crowe |first=Shaun |date=14 January 2015 |title=Book review: Mateship – A Very Australian History |url=http://theconversation.com/book-review-mateship-a-very-australian-history-35858 |access-date=6 February 2024 |website=The Conversation |language=en-US}}{{Cite news |last=Zhuang |first=Yan |date=19 November 2021 |title=What Does Mateship Mean to You? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/19/world/asia/what-does-mateship-mean-to-you.html |work=The New York Times}}

{{Main|Australian art|Australian literature|Theatre of Australia|Dance in Australia|Music of Australia}}

File:Sidney Nolan Snake.jpg in Hobart, Tasmania, Sidney Nolan's Snake mural (1970) is inspired by the Aboriginal creation myth of the Rainbow Serpent, as well as desert flowers in bloom after a drought."Sidney Nolan's Rainbow Serpent is larger than life" (16 June 2012), The Australasian.]]

Australia has more than 100,000 Aboriginal rock art sites,Tacon, Paul S. C.; Ouzman, Sven (2004). "Worlds within stone: the inner and outer rock-art landscapes of northern Australia and southern Africa". In Nash, George; Chippindale, Christopher (ed.). The Figured Landscapes of Rock-Art: Looking at Pictures in Place. Cambridge University Press. pp. 39–68. 9780521524247. and traditional designs, patterns and stories infuse contemporary Indigenous Australian art, "the last great art movement of the 20th century" according to critic Robert Hughes;{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/06/arts/06iht-aborigine.html |title=Powerful growth of Aboriginal art |last=Henly |first=Susan Gough |date=6 November 2005 |work=The New York Times}} its exponents include Emily Kame Kngwarreye.Smith, Terry (1996). "Kngwarreye Woman, Abstract Painter", p. 24 in Emily Kngwarreye – Paintings, North Ryde NSW: Craftsman House / G + B Arts International. {{ISBN|978-90-5703-681-1}}. Early colonial artists showed a fascination with the unfamiliar land. The impressionistic works of Arthur Streeton, Tom Roberts and other members of the 19th-century Heidelberg School—the first "distinctively Australian" movement in Western art—gave expression to nationalist sentiments in the lead-up to Federation.{{Cite web |title=Collection {{pipe}} Art Gallery of NSW|url=https://www.artgallery.nsw.gov.au/collection/ |access-date=15 January 2022|website=www.artgallery.nsw.gov.au}} While the school remained influential into the 1900s, modernists such as Margaret Preston and Clarice Beckett, and, later, Sidney Nolan, explored new artistic trends. The landscape remained central to the work of Aboriginal watercolourist Albert Namatjira,Sayers, Andrew (2001). Australian Art. Melbourne: Oxford University Press. pp. 78–88. {{ISBN|978-0-19-284214-5}}. as well as Fred Williams, Brett Whiteley and other post-war artists whose works, eclectic in style yet uniquely Australian, moved between the figurative and the abstract.{{Cite web |title=Brett Whiteley: nature :: Art Gallery NSW|url=https://www.artgallery.nsw.gov.au/exhibitions/brett-whiteley-nature/ |access-date=15 January 2022|website=www.artgallery.nsw.gov.au}}

Australian literature grew slowly in the decades following European settlement though Indigenous oral traditions, many of which have since been recorded in writing, are much older.Sarwal, Amit; Sarwal, Reema (2009). Reading Down Under: Australian Literary Studies Reader. SSS Publications. p. xii. {{ISBN|978-8-1902-2821-3}}. In the 19th century, Henry Lawson and Banjo Paterson captured the experience of the bush using a distinctive Australian vocabulary.Mulligan, Martin; Hill, Stuart (2001). Ecological Pioneers: A Social History of Australian Ecological Thought and Action. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-5210-0956-0}}, p. 72. Their works are still popular; Paterson's bush poem "Waltzing Matilda" (1895) is regarded as Australia's unofficial national anthem.O'Keeffe, Dennis (2012). Waltzing Matilda: The Secret History of Australia's Favourite Song. Allen & Unwin. p. back cover. {{ISBN|978-1-7423-7706-3}}. Miles Franklin is the namesake of Australia's most prestigious literary prize, awarded annually to the best novel about Australian life.{{Cite web |date=27 February 2012 |title=The Miles Franklin Literary Award – australia.gov.au |url=http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/miles-franklin-literary-award |access-date=15 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227135804/http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/miles-franklin-literary-award |archive-date=27 February 2012 |url-status=dead}} Its first recipient, Patrick White, went on to win the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1973.[http://www.australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/australias-nobel-laureates Australia's Nobel Laureates and the Nobel Prize] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160819205739/http://www.australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/australias-nobel-laureates |date=19 August 2016 }}, australia.gov.au. Retrieved 17 April 2015. Australian Booker Prize winners include Peter Carey, Thomas Keneally and Richard Flanagan.{{Cite web|last=Hughes-d'Aeth|first=Tony |title=Australia's Booker prize record suggests others will come in Flanagan's wake|url=http://theconversation.com/australias-booker-prize-record-suggests-others-will-come-in-flanagans-wake-33025 |access-date=15 January 2022|website=The Conversation |date=15 October 2014 |language=en}} Australian public intellectuals have also written seminal works in their respective fields, including feminist Germaine Greer and philosopher Peter Singer.Williams, Robyn (12 November 2016). [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-11-12/three-books-australian-authors-changed-20th-century/8008380 "Three Australian books that changed history"], ABC Radio National. Retrieved 12 November 2016.

File:ACDC-Hughes-long ago.jpg scene, AC/DC ranks among the world's best-selling music acts.]]

In the performing arts, Aboriginal peoples have traditions of religious and secular song, dance and rhythmic music often performed in corroborees. At the beginning of the 20th century, Nellie Melba was one of the world's leading opera singers,{{Cite web |url=http://www.themonthly.com.au/encounters-shane-maloney-nellie-melba-enrico-caruso--160 |title=Nellie Melba & Enrico Caruso |work=The Monthly|author=Maloney, Shane |date= January 2006 |access-date=23 April 2010}} and later popular music acts such as the Bee Gees, AC/DC, INXS and Kylie Minogue achieved international recognition.{{Cite web |last=Compagnoni |first=Tom |date=4 September 2022 |title=The 43-year-old invention behind 2022's biggest music sensation |url=https://www.smh.com.au/culture/music/the-sydney-invention-that-transformed-the-sound-of-music-20220904-p5bf93.html |website=The Sydney Morning Herald}} Many of Australia's performing arts companies receive funding through the Australian government's Australia Council.{{Cite web |url=http://www.australiacouncil.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/13753/Australia_Council_for_the_Arts_-_Funding_Guide_2010.pdf |year=2010 |title=Arts funding guide 2010 |publisher=Australia Council |access-date=14 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100705002654/http://www.australiacouncil.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/13753/Australia_Council_for_the_Arts_-_Funding_Guide_2010.pdf |archive-date=5 July 2010 |url-status=dead}} There is a symphony orchestra in each state,{{Cite web |url=http://www.australiacouncil.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/50231/LECG_Orchestras_Review_evaluation_summary.pdf |title=Evaluation of the Orchestras Review 2005 funding package implementation |access-date=23 April 2010 |publisher=Australia Council |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110314080534/http://www.australiacouncil.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/50231/LECG_Orchestras_Review_evaluation_summary.pdf |archive-date=14 March 2011 }} and a national opera company, Opera Australia,{{Cite web |url=http://www.australiacouncil.gov.au/the_arts/artists_and_orgs/artists/opera_australia |title=Opera Australia |publisher=Australia Council |access-date=23 April 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080723135113/http://www.australiacouncil.gov.au/the_arts/artists_and_orgs/artists/opera_australia |archive-date=23 July 2008 }} well known for its famous soprano Joan Sutherland.{{Cite web |url=http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/music/opera |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110406111552/http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/music/opera |archive-date=6 April 2011 |title=Opera in Australia |publisher=Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts |date=5 March 2007}} Ballet and dance are represented by The Australian Ballet and various state companies. Each state has a publicly funded theatre company.{{Cite web |url=http://www.minister.dbcde.gov.au/brandis/media/media_releases/2007/35_per_cent_increase_in_funding_for_australias_major_performing_arts_companies |title=35 per cent increase in funding for Australia's major performing arts companies |author=Brandis, George |publisher=Department of Communications, Information Technology and the Arts |date=8 May 2007 |access-date=23 April 2010 |author-link=George Brandis |archive-url=https://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/20071112025600/http://pandora.nla.gov.au/pan/36698/20071112-1356/www.minister.dcita.gov.au/brandis/media/media_releases/2007/35_per_cent_increase_in_funding_for_australias_major_performing_arts_companies.html |archive-date=12 November 2007}}{{Cbignore|bot=medic}}

{{Main|Cinema of Australia|Television in Australia|Media of Australia}}

File:The Story of the Kelly Gang 1906.jpg and outlaw Ned Kelly in The Story of the Kelly Gang (1906), the world's first feature-length narrative film]]

The Story of the Kelly Gang (1906), the world's first feature-length narrative film, spurred a boom in Australian cinema during the silent film era.{{Cite web |url=http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=37899&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html |title=Return of the Kelly Gang |work=UNESCO Courier |author=Chichester, Jo |publisher=UNESCO |year=2007 |access-date=1 February 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100204220758/http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID%3D37899%26URL_DO%3DDO_TOPIC%26URL_SECTION%3D201.html |archive-date= 4 February 2010 |url-status=dead}} After World War I, Hollywood monopolised the industry,{{Cite web |url=http://www.afc.gov.au/downloads/policies/early%20history_final1.pdf |title=The first wave of Australian feature film production |access-date=23 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090706104843/http://www.afc.gov.au/downloads/policies/early%20history_final1.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2009}} and by the 1960s Australian film production had effectively ceased.{{Cite web |work=Australian Government: Culture Portal |url=http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/film |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110327002350/http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/film |archive-date=27 March 2011 |title=Culture.gov.au – "Film in Australia" |publisher=Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Commonwealth of Australia |date=22 November 2007}} With the benefit of government support, the Australian New Wave of the 1970s brought provocative and successful films, many exploring themes of national identity, such as Picnic at Hanging Rock, Wake in Fright and Gallipoli,{{Cite journal |last=Krausz |first=Peter |date=2002 |title=Australian Identity: A Cinematic Roll Call |url=http://students.adelaidehs.sa.edu.au/Subjects/Issues/australianidentity.pdf |journal=Australian Screen Education Online |issue=29 |pages=24–29 |issn=1443-1629 |access-date=22 January 2016 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303200657/http://students.adelaidehs.sa.edu.au/Subjects/Issues/australianidentity.pdf |url-status=dead }} while Crocodile Dundee and the Ozploitation movement's Mad Max series became international blockbusters.Moran, Albert; Vieth, Errol (2009). The A to Z of Australian and New Zealand Cinema. Scarecrow Press. {{ISBN|978-0-8108-6347-7}}, p. 35. In a film market flooded with foreign content, Australian films delivered a 7.7% share of the local box office in 2015.{{Cite web|last=Quinn|first=Karl|date=4 December 2015 |title=Australian film has had its biggest year at the box office ever. Why? |url=https://www.smh.com.au/entertainment/movies/australian-film-has-had-its-biggest-year-at-the-box-office-ever-why-20151204-glfut3.html |access-date=15 January 2022|website=The Sydney Morning Herald |language=en}} The AACTAs are Australia's premier film and television awards, and notable Academy Award winners from Australia include Geoffrey Rush, Nicole Kidman, Cate Blanchett and Heath Ledger.[http://www.news.com.au/entertainment/awards/ten-great-australian-moments-at-the-oscars/story-e6frfpli-1226841441307 "Ten Great Australian Moments at the Oscars"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140308090335/http://www.news.com.au/entertainment/awards/ten-great-australian-moments-at-the-oscars/story-e6frfpli-1226841441307 |date=8 March 2014 }} (26 February 2014), news.com.au. Retrieved 7 February 2016.

Australia has two public broadcasters (the Australian Broadcasting Corporation and the multicultural Special Broadcasting Service), three commercial television networks, several pay-TV services,{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/1250188.stm|publisher=BBC News |title=Country profile: Australia|date=13 October 2009 |access-date=7 April 2010}} and numerous public, non-profit television and radio stations. Each major city has at least one daily newspaper, and there are two national daily newspapers, The Australian and The Australian Financial Review. In 2024, Reporters Without Borders placed Australia 39th on a list of 180 countries ranked by press freedom, behind New Zealand (19th) and the United Kingdom (23rd), but ahead of the United States (55th).{{Cite web |year=2024 |title=Press Freedom Index 2024 |url=https://rsf.org/en/index |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160424043201/https://rsf.org/en/ranking_table |archive-date=24 April 2016 |access-date=30 November 2024 |publisher=Reporters Without Borders}} This relatively low ranking is primarily because of the limited diversity of commercial media ownership in Australia;{{Cite web |title=Media Ownership In Australia – 1999 {{pipe}} AustralianPolitics.com|url=https://australianpolitics.com/1999/12/01/media-ownership-in-australia.html |access-date=15 January 2022|website=australianpolitics.com}} most print media are under the control of News Corp Australia (59%) and Nine Entertainment (23%).{{Cite web |last=Minter |first=Elizabeth |date=12 April 2021 |title=Media concentration by Murdoch, Nine and Stokes, and ABC cuts, a danger to democracy – report |url=https://michaelwest.com.au/media-concentration-by-murdoch-nine-and-stokes-and-abc-cuts-a-danger-to-democracy-report/ |access-date=7 February 2024 |website=Michael West |language=en}}

{{Main|Australian cuisine}}

File:Shiraz Wein.jpgs]]

Most Indigenous Australian groups subsisted on a diet of native fauna and flora, otherwise called bush tucker.{{Cite web |url=http://www.teachers.ash.org.au/bushtucker |title=Bush Tucker Plants, or Bush Food |publisher=Teachers.ash.org.au |access-date=26 April 2011| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511094258/http://www.teachers.ash.org.au/bushtucker/| archive-date= 11 May 2011 | url-status=live}} It has increased in popularity among non-Indigenous Australians since the 1970s, with examples such as lemon myrtle, the macadamia nut and kangaroo meat now widely available.Lockhart, Jessica Wynne (4 August 2023). [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/the-next-superfoods-may-come-from-australia-180982660/ "The Next Superfoods May Come From Australia"], Smithsonian. Retrieved 5 February 2024.McCubbing, Gus (4 November 2022). [https://www.afr.com/companies/agriculture/bush-food-industry-worth-80m-but-could-double-by-2025-study-20221104-p5bvn3#:~:text=The%20bush%20food%20industry%2C%20according,potential%20to%20double%20by%202025. "Bush food industry worth $80m but could double by 2025: study"], Australian Financial Review. Retrieved 5 February 2024.

The first colonists introduced British and Irish cuisine to the continent.{{Cite web |url=http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/foodanddrink/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100326134155/http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/foodanddrink/ |archive-date=26 March 2010 |title=Australian food and drink|publisher=Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts |date=23 September 2008}}{{Cite web |url=http://www.sbs.com.au/food/cuisineindex/RecipeByCuisineMain/383 |title=Modern Australian recipes and Modern Australian cuisine|publisher=Special Broadcasting Service |access-date=23 April 2010| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100503111747/http://www.sbs.com.au/food/cuisineindex/RecipeByCuisineMain/383| archive-date= 3 May 2010 | url-status=live}} This influence is seen in dishes such as fish and chips, and in the Australian meat pie, which is related to the British steak pie. Also during the colonial period, Chinese migrants paved the way for a distinctive Australian Chinese cuisine.{{Cite book|last=Jonsen|first=Helen |title=Kangaroo's Comments and Wallaby's Words: The Aussie Word Book|publisher=Hippocrene Books|year=1999|isbn=978-0-7818-0737-1|page=23}}

Post-war migrants transformed Australian cuisine, bringing with them their culinary traditions and contributing to new fusion dishes.Newton, John (2018). The Getting of Garlic: Australian Food from Bland to Brilliant, with Recipes Old and New. NewSouth Publishing. ISBN 9781742244365, pp. 32, 230–231. Italians introduced espresso coffee and, along with Greeks, helped develop Australia's café culture, of which the flat white and avocado toast are now considered Australian staples.Waters, Cara (15 June 2015). [https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/australia-food-blog/2015/jun/15/smashed-avo-anyone-five-australian-creations-taking-the-world-by-storm "Smashed avo, anyone? Five Australian creations taking the world by storm"], The Guardian. Retrieved 6 February 2024.{{Cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/flat-white-coffee-culture-antipodean-mcdonalds-advert-starbucks-latte-a8246111.html |title=How the flat white conquered the coffee scene|work=The Independent|date=9 April 2018 |access-date=4 October 2018}} Pavlovas, lamingtons, Vegemite and Anzac biscuits are also often called iconic Australian foods.{{Cite book|last=Santich|first=Barbara |title=Bold Palates: Australia's Gastronomic Heritage|publisher=Wakefield Press|year=2012|isbn=978-1-7430-5094-1|page=290}}

Australia is a leading exporter and consumer of wine.{{Cite web |url=https://www.wineaustralia.com/report-downloads/08d4027a-e89e-469d-bf9a-a5b548237ea4 |title=Australian wine: Production, sales and inventory report, 2018–19|date=12 February 2020|website=wineaustralia.com|publisher=Wine Australia |access-date=11 April 2020 |archive-date=11 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411112731/https://www.wineaustralia.com/report-downloads/08d4027a-e89e-469d-bf9a-a5b548237ea4 |url-status=dead}} Australian wine is produced mainly in the southern, cooler parts of the country.{{Cite web|url=https://www.cellarmasters.com.au/discover/wine-regions/australia|publisher=Cellarmasters|title=Wine Regions of Australia|access-date=2 April 2021|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414225154/https://www.cellarmasters.com.au/discover/wine-regions/australia|url-status=dead}} The nation also ranks highly in beer consumption,[http://www.kirinholdings.co.jp/english/ir/news_release051215_4.html Per Capita Beer Consumption by Country (2004)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080623213209/http://www.kirinholdings.co.jp/english/ir/news_release051215_4.html |date=23 June 2008 }}, Table 3, Kirin Research Institute of Drinking and Lifestyle – Report Vol. 29–15 December 2005, Kirin Holdings Company. with each state and territory hosting numerous breweries.

{{Main|Sport in Australia}}

File:2017 AFL Grand Final panorama during national anthem.jpg is strongly associated with the history and development of cricket and Australian rules football, Australia's two most popular spectator sports.{{Cite web |date=14 September 2009 |title=National Sports Museum – Heritage Listing |url=http://www.nsm.org.au/The%2520MCG/Heritage%2520Listing.aspx?p=1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090914092919/http://www.nsm.org.au/The%20MCG/Heritage%20Listing.aspx?p=1 |url-status=dead |archive-date=14 September 2009 |access-date=15 January 2022 |website= }}]]

The most popular sports in Australia by adult participation are: swimming, athletics, cycling, soccer, golf, tennis, basketball, surfing, netball and cricket.{{Cite web |date=October 2023 |title=Clearinghouse for sport: Ausplay National Sport and Activity Physical Participation Report 2022-23, p 9 |url=https://www.clearinghouseforsport.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/1122754/AusPlay-National-Sport-and-Physical-Activity-Participation-Report-October-2023.pdf |access-date=11 May 2024 |website=Australian Sports Commission}}

Australia is one of five nations to have participated in every Summer Olympics of the modern era,{{Cite book |last=Oxlade |first=Chris |author-link=Chris Oxlade (writer) |url=https://archive.org/details/olympics0000oxla/page/61 |title=Olympics |author2=Ballheimer, David |publisher=DK |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7566-1083-8 |series=DK Eyewitness |page=[https://archive.org/details/olympics0000oxla/page/61 61]}} and has hosted the Games twice: 1956 in Melbourne and 2000 in Sydney.{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998|pages=479–80}} It is also set to host the 2032 Games in Brisbane.{{Cite web |date=21 July 2021 |title=Brisbane announced as 2032 Olympic Games host city at IOC meeting in Tokyo |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-07-21/brisbane-queensland-announced-as-2032-olympic-games-host-city/100311320 |access-date=22 July 2021 |work=ABC News (Australia)}} Australia has also participated in every Commonwealth Games,{{Cite web |title=Flag Bearers |url=http://www.commonwealthgames.org.au/page/65/by-games |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140726210627/http://www.commonwealthgames.org.au/page/65/by-games |archive-date=26 July 2014 |access-date=23 April 2010 |publisher=Australian Commonwealth Games Association}} hosting the event in 1938, 1962, 1982, 2006 and 2018.{{Cite web |title=Past Commonwealth Games |url=http://www.thecgf.com/games/games_index.asp?linkresults=1 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100315102922/http://www.thecgf.com/games/games_index.asp?linkresults=1 |archive-date=15 March 2010 |access-date=23 April 2010 |publisher=Commonwealth Games Federation}}

The Australian national cricket team competed against England in the first Test match (1877) and the first One Day International (1971), and against New Zealand in the first Twenty20 International (2004), winning all three games.{{Cite book |last1=Harte |first1=Chris |title=The Penguin History of Australian Cricket |last2=Whimpress |first2=Bernard |publisher=Viking |year=2008 |isbn=9780670072880 |edition=3rd |location=Camberwell, Vic |pages=92–94, 528, 722}} It has also won the men's Cricket World Cup a record six times.{{Cite news |date=20 November 2023 |title=Australia stuns India to claim record-extending sixth Cricket World Cup crown in Ahmedabad |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-11-19/live-updates-cricket-world-cup-final-india-vs-australia/103124084 |access-date=20 November 2023 |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation}}

Australia has professional leagues for four football codes, whose relative popularity is divided geographically.{{Cite web |last=Fujak |first=Hunter |date=15 July 2022 |title=The Barassi Line: a globally unique divider splitting Australia's footy fans |url=http://theconversation.com/the-barassi-line-a-globally-unique-divider-splitting-australias-footy-fans-185132 |access-date=4 February 2024 |website=The Conversation |language=en-US}} Originating in Melbourne in the 1850s, Australian rules football attracts the most television viewers in all states except New South Wales and Queensland, where rugby league holds sway, followed by rugby union.{{Cite web |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273772263|date=21 December 2013 |title=The 'Barassi Line': Quantifying Australia's Great Sporting Divide |access-date=16 August 2018}} Soccer, while ranked fourth in television viewers and resources, has the highest overall participation rates.{{Cite book|last1 = Skinner |first1 = James |last2 = Zakus H. |first2 = Dwight | last3 = Edwards |first3 = Allan | editor-first= Brown|editor-last = Adam|title = Football and Community in the Global Context: Studies in Theory and Practice|publisher = Routledge|year = 2013|pages = 92–93|chapter = Coming in from the Margins: Ethnicity, Community Support and the Rebranding of Australian Soccer |isbn = 978-1-317-96905-1}}

The surf lifesaving movement originated in Australia in the early 20th century, following the relaxation of laws prohibiting daylight bathing on Australian beaches. The volunteer lifesaver is one of the country's icons.{{Cite book|last=Booth|first=Douglas|author-link=Doug Booth |title=Australian Beach Cultures: The History of Sun, Sand and Surf|publisher=Routledge|year=2012|isbn=978-0-7146-8178-8|page=39}}[http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/surflifesaving/ "Surf Life Saving - Stories from Australia's Culture and Recreation Portal"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060511163956/http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/surflifesaving/ |date=11 May 2006 }}. [Online], Commonwealth Government of Australia, 2006.

{{Portal|Australia|Oceania}}

• Outline of Australia
• Index of Australia-related articles

{{Reflist|group="N"}}

{{Reflist}}

• {{Free-content attribution

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• {{Cite book |title=The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 2: The Commonwealth of Australia. |last2=Milner |first2=Anthony |date=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781107011540 |editor-last=Bashford |editor-first=Alison |location=Port Melbourne |editor-last2=Macintyre |editor-first2=Stuart |last1=Akami |first1=Tomoko |chapter=Australia in the Asia-Pacific Region}}
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• {{Cite book |title=Shaping a Nation: a Geology of Australia |publisher=Australian National University |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-921862-82-3 |editor-last=Blewett |editor-first=Richard |location=Canberra}}
• {{Cite book |last=Broome |first=Richard |title=Aboriginal Australians |publisher=Allen and Unwin |year=2019 |isbn=9781760528218 |edition=5th |location=Crows Nest, NSW}}
• {{Cite book |last1=Christopher |first1=Emma |title=The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 1, Indigenous and Colonial Australia |date=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-1070-1153-3 |editor-last=Bashford |editor-first=Alison |chapter=Convict transportation in global context c. 1700–88 |editor-last2=Macintyre |editor-first2=Stuart|last2=Maxwell-Stewart|first2=Hamish}}
• {{Cite book|last=Coman|first=Brian J.|title=A Loose Canon: Essays on History, Modernity and Tradition|date=2007|publisher=Connor Court Publishing Pty Ltd|isbn=978-0-9802-9362-3}}
• {{Cite book |last=COVID 19 Response Inquiry Panel |title=Commonwealth Government COVID‑19 Response Inquiry Report |date=2024 |publisher=Commonwealth of Australia, Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet |isbn=978-1-925365-58-0 |location=Canberra}}
• {{Cite book |last1=Curthoys |first1=Ann |title=The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 1, Indigenous and Colonial Australia |date=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-1070-1153-3 |editor-last=Bashford |editor-first=Alison |chapter=The advent of self-government |editor-last2=Macintyre |editor-first2=Stuart|last2=Mitchell|first2=Jessie}}
• {{Cite book |title=The Oxford Companion to Australian History|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Melbourne|year=1998|isbn=978-0-1955-3597-6|last1=Davison|first1=Graeme|last2=Hirst|first2=John|author-link2=John Hirst (historian)|last3=Macintyre|first3=Stuart|author-link3=Stuart Macintyre}}
• {{Cite book |title=Fighting Australia's Cold War |date=2021 |publisher=ANU Press |isbn=978-1-76046-482-0 |editor-last=Dean |editor-first=Peter |location=Canberra |chapter=Introduction |editor-last2=Moss |editor-first2=Tristan |chapter-url=https://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/n9414/pdf/introduction.pdf |access-date=9 February 2024 |archive-date=12 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240112170033/https://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/n9414/pdf/introduction.pdf |url-status=live }}
• {{Cite book |last1=Dennis |first1=Peter |title=The Oxford Companion to Australian Military History |last2=Grey |first2=Jeffrey |last3=Morris |first3=Ewan |last4=Prior |first4=Robin |last5=Bou |first5=Jean |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-1955-1784-2 |edition=2nd |location=Melbourne |author2-link=Jeffrey Grey}}
• {{cite book | last = Finnane | first = Mark | year = 2013 | chapter = Law and regulation | editor1-last = Bashford | editor1-first = Alison | editor2-last = Macintyre | editor2-first = Stuart | title = The Cambridge History of Australia | volume = 1, Indigenous and Colonial Australia | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn = 978-1-1070-1153-3}}
• {{cite book | last=Flood | first=Josephine | title=Original Australians | publisher=Allen & Unwin | edition=2 | publication-place=Crows Nest | year=2019 | isbn=978-1-76052-707-5}}
• {{Cite book |title=The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 2: The Commonwealth of Australia. |date=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781107011540 |editor-last=Bashford |editor-first=Alison |location=Port Melbourne |editor-last2=Macintyre |editor-first2=Stuart|last1=Garton|first1=Stephen|chapter=The Great War and its aftermath, 1914-22|last2=Stanley|first2=David}}
• {{Cite book |last1=Henderson |first1=Robert |title=Geology of Australia |last2=Johnson |first2=David |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2016 |isbn=9781107432413 |edition=3rd |location=Port Melbourne}}
• {{Cite book|first=James|last=Jupp|year=2001 |title=The Australian people: an encyclopedia of the nation, its people, and their origins|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-5218-0789-0}}
• {{Cite book |last=Karskens |first=Grace |title=The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 1, Indigenous and Colonial Australia |date=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-1070-1153-3 |editor-last=Bashford |editor-first=Alison |chapter=The early colonial presence, 1788–1822 |editor-last2=Macintyre |editor-first2=Stuart}}
• {{Cite book |last1=Kennett |first1=Brian |title=The Australian Continent: A Geophysical Synthesis |last2=Chopping |first2=Richard |last3=Blewett |first3=Richard |publisher=Australian National University Press |year=2018 |isbn=9781760462468 |location=Canberra}}
• {{Cite book |last=Kercher |first=Bruce |title=An Unruly Child: A History of Law in Australia |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9781000248470 |location=London and New York |publication-date=2020}}
• {{Cite book |last1=Konishi |first1=Shino |title=The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 1, Indigenous and Colonial Australia |date=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-1070-1153-3 |editor-last=Bashford |editor-first=Alison |chapter=Newcomers, c. 1600-1800 |editor-last2=Macintyre |editor-first2=Stuart |last2=Nugent |first2=Maria}}
• {{Cite book |last=Macintyre |first=Stuart |title=A Concise History of Australia |date=2020 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781108728485 |edition=5th |location=Port Melbourne}}
• {{cite report |last1=Murphy |first1=H |last2=van Leeuwen |first2=S |date=2021 |title=Australia state of the environment 2021: biodiversity |url=https://soe.dcceew.gov.au/sites/default/files/2022-07/soe2021-biodiversity.pdf |doi=10.26194/ren9-3639|doi-broken-date=30 March 2025 }}
• {{cite book |last=Nipperess |first=David A. |date=2015 |chapter=A separate creation: diversity, distinctiveness and conservation of Australian wildlife |title=Austral Ark: The State of Wildlife in Australia and New Zealand |editor-last1=Stow |editor-first1=Adam |editor-last2=Maclean |editor-first2=Norman |editor-last3=Holwell |editor-first3=Gregory I. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1107033542}}
• {{Cite book |last=Reynolds |first=Henry |title=Forgotten War |publisher=NewSouth Publishing |year=2022 |isbn=9781742237596 |edition=2nd |location=Sydney}}
• {{Cite book |last1=Sáenz |first1=Rogelio |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v_bLCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA602 |title=The International Handbook of the Demography of Race and Ethnicity |last2=Embrick |first2=David G. |last3=Rodríguez |first3=Néstor P. |date=3 June 2015 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-9-0481-8891-8 |pages= |access-date=17 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240610132454/https://books.google.com/books?id=v_bLCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA602#v=onepage&q&f=false |archive-date=10 June 2024 |url-status=live}}
• {{Cite journal |last=Scott |first=Shirley |date=2021 |title=The Irrelevance of Non-recognition to Australia's Antarctic Territory Title |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/395CC47418FA66136D0AF5F46DF4C9C2/S0020589321000051a.pdf/irrelevance_of_nonrecognition_to_australias_antarctic_territory_title.pdf |journal=International and Comparitive Law Quarterly |volume=70 |issue=April 2021 |pages=491–503 |doi=10.1017/S0020589321000051}}
• {{Cite journal |last=Secher |first=Ulla |date=2004 |title=The Reception of Land Law into the Australian Colonies post-Mabo |url=https://www.unswlawjournal.unsw.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/27-3-18.pdf |journal=UNSW Law Journal |volume=27 |issue=3 |via=University of New South Wales}}
• {{Cite book |title=Australian painting 1788–1990|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Melbourne|year=1991|isbn=978-0-1955-4901-0|author1=Smith, Bernard|author2=Smith, Terry|ref=Smith|url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/work/6028116/}}
• {{Cite book |last=Souter |first=Gavin |title=Lion and Kangaroo: the Initiation of Australia |publisher=Text Publishing |year=2000 |isbn=1876485434 |edition=2nd |location=Melbourne}}
• {{Cite book|last1=Teo|first1=Hsu-Ming |last2=White|first2=Richard|year=2003 |title=Cultural history in Australia|publisher=University of New South Wales Press|isbn=978-0-8684-0589-6}}
• {{Cite book |last1=Veth |first1=Peter |title=The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 1, Indigenous and Colonial Australia |date=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-1070-1153-3 |editor-last=Bashford |editor-first=Alison |chapter=The past 50,000 years: an archaeological view |editor-last2=Macintyre |editor-first2=Stuart |last2=O'Connor |first2=Sue}}

{{Refend}}

{{Further|Bibliography of Australian history}}

{{Refbegin}}

• Blainey, Geoffrey (2015). The Story of Australia's People, Volume 1: The Rise and Fall of Ancient Australia, Penguin Books Australia Ltd., Vic. {{ISBN|978-0-6700-7871-4}}
• Denoon, Donald, et al. (2000). A History of Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific. Oxford: Blackwell. {{ISBN|978-0-631-17962-7}}.
• Goad, Philip and Julie Willis (eds.) (2011). The Encyclopedia of Australian Architecture. Port Melbourne, Victoria: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-5218-8857-8}}.
• Hughes, Robert (1986). The Fatal Shore: The Epic of Australia's Founding. Knopf. {{ISBN|978-0-394-50668-5}}.
• {{Cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=Louise C. |title=The Story of Australia: A New History of People and Place |last2=Luckins |first2=Tanja |last3=Walker |first3=David |publisher=Routledge |year=2022 |isbn=9781760297084 |location=London and New York}}
• Milne, John (1886). [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/69580 Colonial facts and fictions: Humorous sketches]. United Kingdom: Chatto and Windus.
• {{Cite book |last=Kemp |first=David |title=The Land of Dreams: How Australians Won Their Freedom, 1788–1860 |url={{GBurl|id=LUVvDwAAQBAJ}} |year=2018 |publisher=Melbourne University Publishing |isbn=978-0-5228-7334-4 |oclc=1088319758}}
• Powell, J.M. (1988). An Historical Geography of Modern Australia: The Restive Fringe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-521-25619-3}}
• Robinson, G.M., Loughran, R.J., and Tranter, P.J. (2000). Australia and New Zealand: Economy, Society and Environment. London: Arnold; New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-340-72033-2}} paperback, {{ISBN|978-0-340-72032-5}} hardback.

{{Refend}}

{{Spoken Wikipedia|date=17 January 2006|AustraliaPart1.ogg|AustraliaPart2.ogg}}

{{Sister project links|voy=Australia|d=Q408|collapsible=collapsed}}

• [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/australia/ Australia profile] on The World Factbook
• [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-15674351 Australia profile] from BBC News
• [https://www.oecd.org/australia/ Australia profile] from the OECD
• {{Wikiatlas|Australia}}
• {{Osmrelation-inline|80500}}

Government

• [https://www.aph.gov.au/ Parliament of Australia]
• [https://www.dfat.gov.au/ Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade]
• [https://www.naa.gov.au/ National Archives of Australia]
• [https://www.abs.gov.au/ Australian Bureau of Statistics]

Travel

• {{official website|https://www.australia.com/}} of Tourism Australia

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