Central America#Geography

File:Flag-map of Central America.svg, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama are traditionally the seven Central American countries in political geography.]]

"Central America" may mean different things to various people, based upon different contexts:

• The United Nations geoscheme for the Americas defines Central America as all states of mainland North America south of the United States, hence grouping Mexico as a part of Central America for statistics purposes, but historically and politically Mexico is considered North American.
• Middle America is usually thought to comprise Mexico in the north and the seven states of Central America in the south, as well as the Caribbean in the east. Colombia and Venezuela of Caribbean South America are sometimes included in this subregion. The Caribbean is occasionally excluded from this subregion while The Guianas are infrequently included. According to one source, the term "Central America" was used as a synonym for "Middle America" at least as recently as 1962.
• In Ibero-America (Portuguese- and Spanish-speaking American countries), the Americas are considered a single continent (América), and Central America is considered a subregion of the continent comprising the seven countries south of Mexico and north of Colombia.{{Citation needed|date=October 2019}}
• For the people living in the five countries of Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua, formerly parts of the Federal Republic of Central America, there is a distinction between the Spanish language terms "América Central" and "Centroamérica". While both can be translated into English as "Central America", "América Central" is generally used to refer to the geographical area of the seven countries between Mexico and Colombia, while "Centroamérica" is used when referring to the former members of the Federation emphasizing the shared culture and history of the region.{{Citation needed|date=October 2019}}
• In Portuguese as a rule and occasionally in Spanish and other languages, the entirety of the Antilles is often included in the definition of Central America. Indeed, the Dominican Republic is a full member of the Central American Integration System.{{Citation needed|date=October 2019}}

{{Main|History of Central America}}

File:Tikal Temple1 2006 08 11.JPG|Tikal, Guatemala

File:HuellasdeAcahualinca.jpg|Ancient footprints of Acahualinca, Nicaragua

File:Stone spheres of Costa Rica. Museo Nacional.jpg|Stone spheres of Costa Rica

File:Tazumal 10.jpg|Tazumal, El Salvador

File:Copan HG-Treppe.jpg|Copan, Honduras

File:Altun Ha Belize.jpg|Altun Ha, Belize

File:Carta de los Estados de Centro-America. LOC 99466745.jpg

File:Proclama de libertad (indep. Centroamérica).jpg 1811]]

File:Firma del Acta de Independencia de Centroamérica.jpg

File:Próceres de la independencia Centroamérica.png Central America was formed more than 3 million years ago, as part of the Isthmus of Panama, when its portion of land connected each side of water.

In the Pre-Columbian era, the northern areas of Central America were inhabited by the indigenous peoples of Mesoamerica. Most notable among these were the Mayans, who had built numerous cities throughout the region, and the Aztecs, who had created a vast empire. The pre-Columbian cultures of eastern El Salvador, eastern Honduras, Caribbean Nicaragua, most of Costa Rica and Panama were predominantly speakers of the Chibchan languages at the time of European contact and are considered by some culturally different and grouped in the Isthmo-Colombian Area.

Following the Spanish expedition of Christopher Columbus's voyages to the Americas, the Spanish sent many expeditions to the region, and they began their conquest of Maya territory in 1523. Soon after the conquest of the Aztec Empire, Spanish conquistador Pedro de Alvarado commenced the conquest of northern Central America for the Spanish Empire. Beginning with his arrival in Soconusco in 1523, Alvarado's forces systematically conquered and subjugated most of the major Maya kingdoms, including the K'iche', Tz'utujil, Pipil, and the Kaqchikel. By 1528, the conquest of Guatemala was nearly complete, with only the Petén Basin remaining outside the Spanish sphere of influence. The last independent Maya kingdoms – the Kowoj and the Itza people – were finally defeated in 1697, as part of the Spanish conquest of Petén.{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Grant D. |title=The Conquest of the Last Maya Kingdom |date=1998 |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=Stanford, California |isbn=978-0804735223 |page=xix |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PeOWl54Mt7UC&pg=PR19 |access-date=28 January 2021}}

In 1538, Spain established the Real Audiencia of Panama, which had jurisdiction over all land from the Strait of Magellan to the Gulf of Fonseca. This entity was dissolved in 1543, and most of the territory within Central America then fell under the jurisdiction of the Audiencia Real de Guatemala. This area included the current territories of Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and the Mexican state of Chiapas, but excluded the lands that would become Belize and Panama. The president of the Audiencia, which had its seat in Antigua Guatemala, was the governor of the entire area. In 1609 the area became a captaincy general and the governor was also granted the title of captain general. The Captaincy General of Guatemala encompassed most of Central America, with the exception of present-day Belize and Panama.

The Captaincy General of Guatemala lasted for more than two centuries, but began to fray after a rebellion in 1811 which began in the Intendancy of San Salvador. The Captaincy General formally ended on 15 September 1821, with the signing of the Act of Independence of Central America. Mexican independence was achieved at virtually the same time with the signing of the Treaty of Córdoba and the Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire, and the entire region was finally independent from Spanish authority by 28 September 1821.

Slavery in Central America was a key component of the colonial economies established by Spain from the early 16th century. While Indigenous peoples were the initial targets of forced labor systems such as the encomienda, the catastrophic population decline caused by disease and exploitation led to the increasing importation of enslaved Africans. The transatlantic slave trade brought hundreds of thousands of Africans to the region, particularly to present-day Honduras, Nicaragua, Guatemala, Panama, and Costa Rica, to labor in mining, agriculture, and domestic service.

African slavery in Central America was concentrated in port cities, mining regions, and plantation zones. Panama, with its strategic location as a transit point between the Atlantic and Pacific, became an early hub for African slave importation as early as the 1510s. Enslaved people were used to build infrastructure, carry goods across the isthmus, and work in emerging urban centers. In Honduras, enslaved Africans were brought to support mining operations in Olancho and agriculture along the northern coast, where they mixed with Indigenous and later Garífuna populations (a people of mixed African and Indigenous descent). Guatemala also had a significant enslaved population in its early colonial history, particularly in the sugar-producing areas of Escuintla.

African slavery in Central America left enduring cultural, demographic, and social legacies. By the 18th century, the importation of African slaves had declined, and free Afro-descendant populations grew through manumission, escape (maroon communities), and intermarriage. Slavery was gradually abolished in the 19th century following independence from Spain. Guatemala formally ended slavery in 1824, Costa Rica in 1824, El Salvador in 1825, Honduras in 1824, and Nicaragua in 1824. However, forms of coerced Indigenous labor persisted well beyond formal abolition.

Modern Afro-descendant communities across Central America, including Afro-Costa Ricans, Afro-Nicaraguans, Afro-Hondurans, Afro-Panamanians, and Afro-Guatemalans. They part the legacy of this complex history of enslavement, resistance, and cultural resilience.

It is a well-established historical fact that approximately 1.3 million enslaved Africans were taken to Spanish Central America.[https://iupress.org/9780253217752/africans-in-colonial-mexico/?utm_source=chatgpt.com][https://utpress.utexas.edu/9781477322802/?utm_source=chatgpt.com][https://www.dukeupress.edu/blacks-and-blackness-in-central-america?utm_source=chatgpt.com][https://global.oup.com/ushe/product/african-slavery-in-latin-america-and-the-caribbean-9780195189421?utm_source=chatgpt.com][https://www.iberoamericana-vervuert.es/FichaLibro.aspx?P1=125580&utm_source=chatgpt.com][https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2021/09/atlantic-slave-trade-history-animated-interactive.html#:~:text=This%20was%20dwarfed%20by%20the%201.3%20million,and%20the%204.8%20million%20brought%20to%20Brazil.]File:Manuel José Arce de El Salvador.jpg; decorated Salvadoran General and president of the Federal Republic of Central America from 1825 to 1829]]

File:Salcoatitán, El Salvador - panoramio (9).jpg volcanic range of El Salvador, visible from the city of Sonsonate, which became the capital of the Federal Republic of Central America in 1834.]]

File:Unidas Del Centro de America Provincias Plaque.jpg

File:Bandera Militar de las Provincias Unidas del Centro de América.png

From its independence from Spain in 1821 until 1823, the former Captaincy General remained intact as part of the short-lived First Mexican Empire. When the Emperor of Mexico abdicated on 19 March 1823, Central America again became independent. On 1 July 1823, the Congress of Central America peacefully seceded from Mexico and declared absolute independence from all foreign nations, and the region formed the Federal Republic of Central America.{{citation needed|date=January 2015}}

The Federal Republic of Central America, initially known as the United Provinces of Central America, was a sovereign state that existed from 1823 to 1840. It was composed of five states: Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. The federation was established after these regions declared independence from Spain in 1821 and briefly joined the Mexican Empire before breaking away to form their own union. The republic adopted a constitution in 1824, which was inspired by the federal system of the United States. It provided for a federal capital, initially located in Guatemala City, and a president for each of the five constituent states. The constitution abolished slavery and maintained the privileges of the Roman Catholic Church, while restricting suffrage to the upper classes.{{cite web

| title = United Provinces of Central America

| website = Encyclopædia Britannica

| url = https://www.britannica.com/place/United-Provinces-of-Central-America

| access-date = 2025-02-03

| publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

}}

The territory that now makes up Belize was heavily contested in a dispute that continued for decades after Guatemala achieved independence. Spain, and later Guatemala, considered this land a Guatemalan department. In 1862, Britain formally declared it a British colony and named it British Honduras. It became independent as Belize in 1981.

Panama, situated in the southernmost part of Central America on the Isthmus of Panama, has for most of its history been culturally and politically linked to South America. Panama was part of the Province of Tierra Firme from 1510 until 1538 when it came under the jurisdiction of the newly formed Audiencia Real de Panama. Beginning in 1543, Panama was administered as part of the Viceroyalty of Peru, along with all other Spanish possessions in South America. Panama remained as part of the Viceroyalty of Peru until 1739, when it was transferred to the Viceroyalty of New Granada, the capital of which was located at Santa Fé de Bogotá. Panama remained as part of the Viceroyalty of New Granada until the disestablishment of that viceroyalty in 1819. A series of military and political struggles took place from that time until 1822, the result of which produced the republic of Gran Colombia. After the dissolution of Gran Colombia in 1830, Panama became part of a successor state, the Republic of New Granada. From 1855 until 1886, Panama existed as Panama State, first within the Republic of New Granada, then within the Granadine Confederation, and finally within the United States of Colombia. The United States of Colombia was replaced by the Republic of Colombia in 1886. As part of the Republic of Colombia, Panama State was abolished and it became the Isthmus Department. Despite the many political reorganizations, Colombia was still deeply plagued by conflict, which eventually led to the secession of Panama on 3 November 1903. Only after that time did some begin to regard Panama as a North or Central American entity.{{citation needed|date=January 2015}}

By the 1930s the United Fruit Company owned {{convert|3.5|e6acre|km2|order=flip|abbr=off}} of land in Central America and the Caribbean and was the single largest land owner in Guatemala. Such holdings gave it great power over the governments of small countries. That was one of the factors that led to the coining of the phrase banana republic.{{cite book|last=Livingstone|first=Grace|title=America's Backyard: The United States and Latin America from the Monroe Doctrine to the War on Terror|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WH5jDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT31|year=2013|publisher=Zed Books Ltd.|isbn=978-1-84813-611-3|page=31}}

After more than two hundred years of social unrest, violent conflict, and revolution, Central America today remains in a period of political transformation. Poverty, social injustice, and violence are still widespread. Nicaragua is the second poorest country in the western hemisphere, after Haiti.

File:Flag of Guatemala.svg|Guatemala

File:Flag of El Salvador.svg|El Salvador

File:Flag of Honduras.svg|Honduras

File:Flag of Nicaragua.svg|Nicaragua

File:Flag of Costa Rica.svg|Costa Rica

File:Flag of Panama.svg|Panama

File:Flag of Belize.svg|Belize

File:Coat of arms of Guatemala.svg|Guatemala

File:Coat of arms of El Salvador.svg|El Salvador

File:Coat of arms of Honduras.svg|Honduras

File:Coat of arms of Nicaragua.svg|Nicaragua

File:Coat of arms of Costa Rica.svg|Costa Rica

File:Coat of arms of Panama.svg|Panama

File:Coat of arms of Belize.svg|Belize

{{See also|Geography of Belize|Geography of Costa Rica|Geography of El Salvador|Geography of Guatemala|Geography of Honduras|Geography of Nicaragua|Geography of Panama|l1=Geography of Belize|l2=Costa Rica|l3=El Salvador|l4=Guatemala|l5=Honduras|l6=Nicaragua|l7=Panama|List of islands of Central America|List of mountain peaks of Central America}}

File:Map of Central America.png

Central America is a part of North America consisting of a tapering isthmus running from the southern extent of Mexico to the northwestern portion of South America. Central America has the Gulf of Mexico, a body of water within the Atlantic Ocean, to the north; the Caribbean Sea, also part of the Atlantic Ocean, to the northeast; and the Pacific Ocean to the southwest. Some physiographists define the Isthmus of Tehuantepec as the northern geographic border of Central America, while others use the northwestern borders of Belize and Guatemala. From there, the Central American land mass extends southeastward to the Atrato River, where it connects to the Pacific Lowlands in northwestern South America.

Central America has over 70 active volcanoes, 41 which are located in El Salvador, and Guatemala.{{Cite journal |last=Q |first=Pablo Fonseca |date=2023-12-20 |title=Central American volcanoes offer clues to Earth's geological evolution |journal=Knowable Magazine |url=https://knowablemagazine.org/content/article/physical-world/2023/central-american-volcanoes-clues-earth-geological-evolution |language=en |doi=10.1146/knowable-122023-1|doi-access=free }} The volcano with the most activity in Central America is Santa María. Still experiencing frequent eruptions to this day, with the last one beginning in 2013, and still is going on to this day.{{Cite web |title=Central America: an active volcanic arc |url=https://www.eskp.de/en/natural-hazards/central-america-an-active-volcanic-arc-935395/ |access-date=2024-05-22 |website=www.eskp.de |language=en}}

Of the many mountain ranges within Central America, the longest are the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, the Cordillera Isabelia and the Cordillera de Talamanca. At {{convert|4220|m|ft|sp=us}}, Volcán Tajumulco is the highest peak in Central America. Other high points of Central America are as listed in the table below:

File:CAmerica.gif

Between the mountain ranges lie fertile valleys that are suitable for the raising of livestock and for the production of coffee, tobacco, beans and other crops. Most of the population of Honduras, Costa Rica and Guatemala lives in valleys.{{cite book|author=IBP, Inc.|title=Central American Countries Mineral Industry Handbook Volume 1 Strategic Information and Regulations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y_PxCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA8|year=2015|isbn=978-1-329-09114-6|pages=7, 8|publisher=Lulu.com }}

Trade winds have a significant effect upon the climate of Central America. Temperatures in Central America are highest just prior to the summer wet season, and are lowest during the winter dry season, when trade winds contribute to a cooler climate. The highest temperatures occur in April, due to higher levels of sunlight, lower cloud cover and a decrease in trade winds.

{{See also|Central America bioregion}}

File:Rain forest of Petén in Guatemala.jpg|Petén–Veracruz moist forests, Guatemala

File:Forest canopy in Belize (5344010084).jpg|Chiquibul Forest Reserve, Belize

File:Zona de Acampar Parque Montecristo.jpg|Montecristo National Park, El Salvador

File:Altagracia Volcan Maderas Bosque Nuboso.jpg|Maderas forest, Nicaragua

File:Small seepage pond near the top of Cerro El Chino - ZooKeys-298-077-g004B.jpg|Texiguat Wildlife Refuge Honduras

File:Monteverde bosque.jpg|Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve, Costa Rica.

File:DirkvdM cloudforest-jungle.jpg|Parque Internacional la Amistad, Panama

File:El Chorrerón en San Fernando, Morazán, El Salvador - 2011.jpg

Central America is part of the Mesoamerican biodiversity hotspot, boasting 7% of the world's biodiversity. The Pacific Flyway is a major north–south flyway for migratory birds in the Americas, extending from Alaska to Tierra del Fuego. Due to the funnel-like shape of its land mass, migratory birds can be seen in very high concentrations in Central America, especially in the spring and autumn. As a bridge between North America and South America, Central America has many species from the Nearctic and the Neotropical realms. However the southern countries (Costa Rica and Panama) of the region have more biodiversity than the northern countries (Guatemala and Belize), meanwhile the central countries (Honduras, Nicaragua and El Salvador) have the least biodiversity. The table below shows recent statistics:

Over 300 species of the region's flora and fauna are threatened, 107 of which are classified as critically endangered. The underlying problems are deforestation, which is estimated by FAO at 1.2% per year in Central America and Mexico combined, fragmentation of rainforests and the fact that 80% of the vegetation in Central America has already been converted to agriculture.

Efforts to protect fauna and flora in the region are made by creating ecoregions and nature reserves. 36% of Belize's land territory falls under some form of official protected status, giving Belize one of the most extensive systems of terrestrial protected areas in the Americas. In addition, 13% of Belize's marine territory are also protected. A large coral reef extends from Mexico to Honduras: the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System. The Belize Barrier Reef is part of this. The Belize Barrier Reef is home to a large diversity of plants and animals, and is one of the most diverse ecosystems of the world. It is home to 70 hard coral species, 36 soft coral species, 500 species of fish and hundreds of invertebrate species.

So far only about 10% of the species in the Belize barrier reef have been discovered.

File:Lycaste virginalis forma Alba.jpg|Lycaste skinneri, Guatemala

File:Yucca - ‘Daga española’ (7625319272).jpg|Izote flower, El Salvador

File:Rhyncholaelia digbyana (16395522643).jpg|Rhyncholaelia digbyana, Honduras

File:Frangipani flower.jpg|Plumeria, Nicaragua

File:A and B Larsen orchids - Cattleya skinneri 574-24.jpg|Guarianthe skinneri, Costa Rica

File:Peristeria elata Orchi 11.jpg|Peristeria elata, Panama

File:Encyclia cochleata - flower.jpg|Prosthechea cochleata, Belize

File:Ceiba, the Maya Tree of Life Laslovarga01.JPG|Ceiba, Guatemala

File:Enterolobium cyclocarpum in Guanacaste.jpg|Enterolobium cyclocarpum, Costa Rica

File:Maquilishuat en flor.jpg|Tabebuia rosea, El Salvador

File:Árbol Panamá - Sterculia apetala - Árbol Nacional de Panamá 01.JPG|Sterculia apetala, Panama

File:Pinus oocarpa, San Rafael del Norte, Nicaragua.jpg|Pinus oocarpa, Honduras

File:Calycophyllum candidissimum in Managua.jpg|Calycophyllum candidissimum, Nicaragua

File:A big Mahogany tree.jpg|Swietenia macrophylla, Belize

File:costa rica santa elena skywalk.jpg in Monteverde, Costa Rica disappearing into the clouds]]

From 2001 to 2010, {{convert|5376|km2|sqmi|sp=us}} of forest were lost in the region. In 2010 Belize had 63% of remaining forest cover, Costa Rica 46%, Panama 45%, Honduras 41%, Guatemala 37%, Nicaragua 29%, and El Salvador 21%. Most of the loss occurred in the moist forest biome, with {{convert|12201|km2|sqmi|sp=us}}. Woody vegetation loss was partially set off by a gain in the coniferous forest biome with {{convert|4730|km2|sqmi|sp=us}}, and a gain in the dry forest biome at {{convert|2054|km2|sqmi|sp=us}}. Mangroves and deserts contributed only 1% to the loss in forest vegetation. The bulk of the deforestation was located at the Caribbean slopes of Nicaragua with a loss of {{convert|8574|km2|sqmi|sp=us}} of forest in the period from 2001 to 2010. The most significant regrowth of {{convert|3050|km2|sqmi|sp=us}} of forest was seen in the coniferous woody vegetation of Honduras.

The Central American pine-oak forests ecoregion, in the tropical and subtropical coniferous forests biome, is found in Central America and southern Mexico. The Central American pine-oak forests occupy an area of {{convert|111400|km2|sqmi|sp=us}}, extending along the mountainous spine of Central America, extending from the Sierra Madre de Chiapas in Mexico's Chiapas state through the highlands of Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras to central Nicaragua. The pine-oak forests lie between {{convert|600|-|1800|m|ft}} elevation, and are surrounded at lower elevations by tropical moist forests and tropical dry forests. Higher elevations above {{convert|1800|m|ft}} are usually covered with Central American montane forests. The Central American pine-oak forests are composed of many species characteristic of temperate North America including oak, pine, fir, and cypress.

Laurel forest is the most common type of Central American temperate evergreen cloud forest, found in almost all Central American countries, normally more than {{convert|1000|m|ft|sp=us}} above sea level. Tree species include evergreen oaks, members of the laurel family, species of Weinmannia and Magnolia, and Drimys granadensis. The cloud forest of Sierra de las Minas, Guatemala, is the largest in Central America. In some areas of southeastern Honduras there are cloud forests, the largest located near the border with Nicaragua. In Nicaragua, cloud forests are situated near the border with Honduras, but many were cleared to grow coffee. There are still some temperate evergreen hills in the north. The only cloud forest in the Pacific coastal zone of Central America is on the Mombacho volcano in Nicaragua. In Costa Rica, there are laurel forests in the Cordillera de Tilarán and Volcán Arenal, called Monteverde, also in the Cordillera de Talamanca.

The Central American montane forests are an ecoregion of the tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests biome, as defined by the World Wildlife Fund. These forests are of the moist deciduous and the semi-evergreen seasonal subtype of tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests and receive high overall rainfall with a warm summer wet season and a cooler winter dry season. Central American montane forests consist of forest patches located at altitudes ranging from {{convert|1800|-|4000|m|ft}}, on the summits and slopes of the highest mountains in Central America ranging from Southern Mexico, through Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras, to northern Nicaragua. The entire ecoregion covers an area of {{convert|13200|km2|sqmi|sp=us}} and has a temperate climate with relatively high precipitation levels.

{{See also|List of mammals of Central America|List of Central American monkey species}}

File:Male Resplendent Quetzal.jpg|Resplendent quetzal, Guatemala

File:Eumomota superciliosa.jpg|Turquoise-browed motmot, El Salvador and Nicaragua

File:Keel-billed toucan.jpg|Keel-billed toucan, Belize

File:Scarlet-Macaw.jpg|Scarlet macaw, Honduras

File:Turdus grayi 4zz.jpg|Clay-colored thrush, Costa Rica

File:Harpy Eagle.jpg|Harpy eagle, Panama

Ecoregions are not only established to protect the forests themselves but also because they are habitats for an incomparably rich and often endemic fauna. Almost half of the bird population of the Talamancan montane forests in Costa Rica and Panama are endemic to this region. Several birds are listed as threatened, most notably the resplendent quetzal (Pharomacrus mocinno), three-wattled bellbird (Procnias tricarunculata), bare-necked umbrellabird (Cephalopterus glabricollis), and black guan (Chamaepetes unicolor). Many of the amphibians are endemic and depend on the existence of forest. The golden toad that once inhabited a small region in the Monteverde Reserve, which is part of the Talamancan montane forests, has not been seen alive since 1989 and is listed as extinct by IUCN. The exact causes for its extinction are unknown. Global warming may have played a role, because the development of that frog is typical for this area may have been compromised. Seven small mammals are endemic to the Costa Rica-Chiriqui highlands within the Talamancan montane forest region. Jaguars, cougars, spider monkeys, as well as tapirs, and anteaters live in the woods of Central America. The Central American red brocket is a brocket deer found in Central America's tropical forest.

File:Tectonic plates Caribbean.png]]

{{See also|Central America Volcanic Arc|List of earthquakes in Costa Rica|List of earthquakes in El Salvador|List of earthquakes in Guatemala|List of earthquakes in Nicaragua}}

{{image frame|content=

File:Lago de coatepeque de color.jpg|Coatepeque Caldera, El Salvador

File:Atitlan Lake and Volcanoes (3746396035).jpg|Lake Atitlán, Guatemala

File:Mombacho.JPG|Mombacho, Nicaragua

File:Arenal Volcano in Costa Rica.JPG|Arenal Volcano, Costa Rica

}}

Central America is geologically very active, with volcanic eruptions and earthquakes occurring frequently, and tsunamis occurring occasionally. Many thousands of people have died as a result of these natural disasters.

Most of Central America rests atop the Caribbean Plate. This tectonic plate converges with the Cocos, Nazca, and North American plates to form the Middle America Trench, a major subduction zone. The Middle America Trench is situated some {{convert|60-160|km|mi|sp=us}} off the Pacific coast of Central America and runs roughly parallel to it. Many large earthquakes have occurred as a result of seismic activity at the Middle America Trench. For example, subduction of the Cocos Plate beneath the North American Plate at the Middle America Trench is believed to have caused the 1985 Mexico City earthquake that killed as many as 40,000 people. Seismic activity at the Middle America Trench is also responsible for earthquakes in 1902, 1942, 1956, 1972, 1982, 1992, January 2001, February 2001, 2007, 2012, 2014, and many other earthquakes throughout Central America.

The Middle America Trench is not the only source of seismic activity in Central America. The Motagua Fault is an onshore continuation of the Cayman Trough which forms part of the tectonic boundary between the North American Plate and the Caribbean Plate. This transform fault cuts right across Guatemala and then continues offshore until it merges with the Middle America Trench along the Pacific coast of Mexico, near Acapulco. Seismic activity at the Motagua Fault has been responsible for earthquakes in 1717, 1773, 1902, 1976, 1980, and 2009.

Another onshore continuation of the Cayman Trough is the Chixoy-Polochic Fault, which runs parallel to, and roughly {{convert|80|km|mi|sp=us}} to the north, of the Motagua Fault. Though less active than the Motagua Fault, seismic activity at the Chixoy-Polochic Fault is still thought to be capable of producing very large earthquakes, such as the 1816 earthquake of Guatemala.

Managua, the capital of Nicaragua, was devastated by earthquakes in 1931 and 1972.

Volcanic eruptions are also common in Central America. In 1968 the Arenal Volcano, in Costa Rica, erupted killing 87 people as the 3 villages of Tabacon, Pueblo Nuevo and San Luis were buried under pyroclastic flows and debris. Fertile soils from weathered volcanic lava have made it possible to sustain dense populations in the agriculturally productive highland areas.

File:Retrato oficial de Presidente Bernardo Arévalo (cropped 4).jpg|Bernardo Arévalo Guatemala

File:Presidente Bukele (cropped).jpg|Nayib Bukele El Salvador

File:Xiomara Castro 2022 (cropped).jpg|Xiomara Castro Honduras

File:Daniel Ortega 2014 (cropped).jpg|Daniel Ortega Nicaragua

File:CCC CPerez 87 .jpg| Rosario Murillo Nicaragua

File:Rodrigo Chaves, discurso posesión (cropped).jpg|Rodrigo Chaves Robles Costa Rica

File:José Raúl Mulino (호세 라울 물리노) 20241112.jpg|José Raúl Mulino Panama

File:Johnny Briceño (52135383761) (cropped).jpg|Johnny Briceño Belize

{{Main|Central American Integration System}}

{{Infobox geopolitical organization

| name = Central American
Integration System

| native_name = {{lower|5px|Sistema de
Integración Centroamericana}}

| image_symbol = SICA ZP.svg

| motto = "Peace, Development, Liberty and Democracy"

| anthem = La Granadera

| area_km2 = 523,780

| population_estimate = 52,176,283{{citation needed|date=February 2025}}

| population_estimate_year = 2022

| population_density_km2 = {{pop density|52176283|523780|prec=1|disp=num}}

| membership_type = Countries

| membership = {{ubl|Belize| Costa Rica| El Salvador| Guatemala| Honduras| Nicaragua| Panama| Dominican Republic}}

}}

Central America is currently undergoing a process of political, economic and cultural transformation that started in 1907 with the creation of the Central American Court of Justice.

In 1951 the integration process continued with the signature of the San Salvador Treaty, which created the ODECA, the Organization of Central American States. However, the unity of the ODECA was limited by conflicts between several member states.

In 1991, the integration agenda was further advanced by the creation of the Central American Integration System (Sistema para la Integración Centroamericana, or SICA). SICA provides a clear legal basis to avoid disputes between the member states. SICA membership includes the 7 nations of Central America plus the Dominican Republic, a state that is traditionally considered part of the Caribbean.

On 6 December 2008, SICA announced an agreement to pursue a common currency and common passport for the member nations.{{Cite news|url=http://www.france24.com/en/20081206-central-american-leaders-agree-common-currency-|title=Central American leaders agree on common currency|work=France 24|access-date=2018-03-05|language=en-US}} No timeline for implementation was discussed.

Central America already has several supranational institutions such as the Central American Parliament, the Central American Bank for Economic Integration and the Central American Common Market.

On 22 July 2011, President Mauricio Funes of El Salvador became the first president pro tempore to SICA. El Salvador also became the headquarters of SICA with the inauguration of a new building.

{{Clear}}

{{Main|Central American Parliament}}

File:Emblema del Parlamento Centroamericano.svg]]

The Central American Parliament (aka PARLACEN) is a political and parliamentary body of SICA. The parliament started around 1980, and its primary goal was to resolve conflicts in Nicaragua, Guatemala, and El Salvador. Although the group was disbanded in 1986, ideas of unity of Central Americans still remained, so a treaty was signed in 1987 to create the Central American Parliament and other political bodies. Its original members were Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua and Honduras. The parliament is the political organ of Central America, and is part of SICA. New members have since then joined including Panama and the Dominican Republic.

Costa Rica is not a member State of the Central American Parliament and its adhesion remains as a very unpopular topic at all levels of the Costa Rican society due to existing strong political criticism towards the regional parliament, since it is regarded by Costa Ricans as a menace to democratic accountability and effectiveness of integration efforts. Excessively high salaries for its members, legal immunity of jurisdiction from any member State, corruption, lack of a binding nature and effectiveness of the regional parliament's decisions, high operative costs and immediate membership of Central American Presidents once they leave their office and presidential terms, are the most common reasons invoked by Costa Ricans against the Central American Parliament.{{citation needed|date=January 2019}}

{{See also|Sino-Latin America relations}}

Until recently,{{when|date=January 2019}} all Central American countries maintained diplomatic relations with Taiwan instead of China. President Óscar Arias of Costa Rica, however, established diplomatic relations with China in 2007, severing formal diplomatic ties with Taiwan. After breaking off relations with the Republic of China in 2017, Panama established diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China. In August 2018, El Salvador also severed ties with Taiwan to formally start recognizing the People's Republic of China as sole China, a move many considered lacked transparency due to its abruptness and reports of the Chinese government's desires to invest in the department of La Union while also promising to fund the ruling party's reelection campaign.{{Cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/08/24/world/asia/taiwan-el-salvador-china.amp.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/08/24/world/asia/taiwan-el-salvador-china.amp.html |archive-date=2022-01-01 |url-access=limited | title=White House Criticizes China over el Salvador Recognition| newspaper=The New York Times| date=24 August 2018| last1=Ramzy| first1=Austin}}{{cbignore}} The President of El Salvador, Nayib Bukele, broke diplomatic relations with Taiwan and established ties with China. On 9 December 2021, Nicaragua resumed relations with the PRC.{{cite news |title=Nicaragua cuts ties with Taiwan and pivots to China |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/dec/10/nicaragua-cuts-ties-with-taiwan-and-pivots-to-china |work=The Guardian |date=10 December 2021 |language=en}}

{{Clear left}}

{{See also|Economy of Belize|Economy of Costa Rica|Economy of El Salvador|Economy of Guatemala|Economy of Honduras|Economy of Nicaragua|Economy of Panama|l1=Economy of Belize|l2=Costa Rica|l3=El Salvador|l4=Guatemala|l5=Honduras|l6=Nicaragua|l7=Panama}}

File:Banco deGuatemala.JPG|Central Bank of Guatemala

File:World Trade Center San Salvador.jpg|World Trade Center San Salvador

File:BCH.jpg|Central Bank of Honduras

File:Maqueta del Banco Central de Nicaragua.jpg|Central Bank of Nicaragua

File:Banco Nacional de Panamá, en vía España de la ciudad de Panamá.jpg|National Bank of Panama

File:Belizean Central Bank 2015.jpg|Central Bank of Belize

File:Federal Republic of Central America 1835 4 Escudos.jpg

File:LogoSieca.jpg

Signed in 2004, the Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) is an agreement between the United States, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and the Dominican Republic. The treaty is aimed at promoting free trade among its members.

Guatemala has the largest economy in the region. Its main exports are coffee, sugar, bananas, petroleum, clothing, and cardamom. Of its 10.29 billion dollar annual exports, 40.2% go to the United States, 11.1% to neighboring El Salvador, 8% to Honduras, 5.5% to Mexico, 4.7% to Nicaragua, and 4.3% to Costa Rica.

The region is particularly attractive for companies (especially clothing companies) because of its geographical proximity to the United States, very low wages and considerable tax advantages. In addition, the decline in the prices of coffee and other export products and the structural adjustment measures promoted by the international financial institutions have partly ruined agriculture, favouring the emergence of maquiladoras. This sector accounts for 42 per cent of total exports from El Salvador, 55 per cent from Guatemala, and 65 per cent from Honduras. However, its contribution to the economies of these countries is disputed; raw materials are imported, jobs are precarious and low-paid, and tax exemptions weaken public finances.{{cite web| url = https://www.insumisos.com/diplo/NODE/663.HTM| url-status = dead| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110407125941/http://www.insumisos.com/diplo/NODE/663.HTM| archive-date = 7 April 2011| title = Las "maquilas" no admiten sindicalistas {{!}} El Dipló}}

They are also criticised for the working conditions of employees: insults and physical violence, abusive dismissals (especially of pregnant workers), working hours, non-payment of overtime. According to Lucrecia Bautista, coordinator of the maquilas sector of the audit firm Coverco, "labour law regulations are regularly violated in maquilas and there is no political will to enforce their application. In the case of infringements, the labour inspectorate shows remarkable leniency. It is a question of not discouraging investors." Trade unionists are subject to pressure, and sometimes to kidnapping or murder. In some cases, business leaders have used the services of the maras. Finally, black lists containing the names of trade unionists or political activists are circulating in employers' circles.

Economic growth in Central America is projected to slow slightly in 2014–15, as country-specific domestic factors offset the positive effects from stronger economic activity in the United States.

{{See also|Tourism in Belize|Tourism in Costa Rica|Tourism in El Salvador|Tourism in Guatemala|Tourism in Honduras|Tourism in Nicaragua|Tourism in Panama|l1=Tourism in Belize|l2=Costa Rica|l3=El Salvador|l4=Guatemala|l5=Honduras|l6=Nicaragua|l7=Panama}}

File:Playa Blanca Guatemala.jpg|Playa Blanca Guatemala

File:Playa de Corral de Mulas, Usulután, El Salvador - panoramio.jpg|Jiquilisco Bay, El Salvador

File:Roatan West End 95 we 006.jpg|Roatán, Honduras

File:Pink Pearl Island-5.jpg|Pink Pearl Island Nicaragua

File:Costa Rica Playa Tamarindo and Rivermouth 2007 Aerial Photograph Tamarindowiki 01.JPG|Tamarindo, Costa Rica

File:Insel Zapatilla Panama.jpg|Cayos Zapatilla, Panama

File:Corozal Beach, Corozal, Belize.jpg|Corozal Beach, Belize

File:Great Blue Hole.jpg off the coast of Belize is a prime ecotourism destination. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site]]

File:Semuc Champey, Guatemala.jpg, Guatemala.]]

Tourism in Belize has grown considerably in more recent times, and it is now the second largest industry in the nation. Belizean Prime Minister Dean Barrow has stated his intention to use tourism to combat poverty throughout the country. The growth in tourism has positively affected the agricultural, commercial, and finance industries, as well as the construction industry. The results for Belize's tourism-driven economy have been significant, with the nation welcoming almost one million tourists in a calendar year for the first time in its history in 2012. Belize is also the only country in Central America with English as its official language, making this country a comfortable destination for English-speaking tourists.{{cite web|url=https://www.projectexpedition.com/location/belize/|title=Belize {{!}} Tours & Activities – Project Expedition|website=Project Expedition|language=en-US|access-date=2016-06-30}}

Costa Rica is the most visited nation in Central America. Tourism in Costa Rica is one of the fastest growing economic sectors of the country, having become the largest source of foreign revenue by 1995. Since 1999, tourism has earned more foreign exchange than bananas, pineapples and coffee exports combined. The tourism boom began in 1987, with the number of visitors up from 329,000 in 1988, through 1.03 million in 1999, to a historical record of 2.43 million foreign visitors and $1.92-billion in revenue in 2013. In 2012 tourism contributed with 12.5% of the country's GDP and it was responsible for 11.7% of direct and indirect employment.

Tourism in Nicaragua has grown considerably recently, and it is now the second largest industry in the nation. Nicaraguan President Daniel Ortega has stated his intention to use tourism to combat poverty throughout the country. The growth in tourism has positively affected the agricultural, commercial, and finance industries, as well as the construction industry. The results for Nicaragua's tourism-driven economy have been significant, with the nation welcoming one million tourists in a calendar year for the first time in its history in 2010.

{{See also|Transport in Belize|Transport in Costa Rica|Transport in El Salvador|Transport in Guatemala|Transport in Honduras|Transport in Nicaragua|Transport in Panama|l1=Transport in Belize|l2=Costa Rica|l3=El Salvador|l4=Guatemala|l5=Honduras|l6=Nicaragua|l7=Panama}}

{{See also|Roads in Belize}}

File:Diseños de matriculas Centroamericanas.png

File:PanAmericanHwy.png slices through Central America]]

The Inter-American Highway is the Central American section of the Pan-American Highway, and spans {{convert|5470|km|mi|sp=us}} between Nuevo Laredo, Mexico, and Panama City, Panama. Because of the {{convert|87|km|mi|adj=on|sp=us}} break in the highway known as the Darién Gap, it is not possible to cross between Central America and South America in an automobile.

{{See also|Category:Water transport in Belize|Category:Water transport in Costa Rica|Category:Water transport in Guatemala|Category:Water transport in Honduras|Category:Water transport in Nicaragua|Category:Water transport in Panama|l1=Category:Water transport in Belize|l2=Costa Rica|l3=Guatemala|l4=Honduras|l5=Nicaragua|l6=Panama|List of rivers of Belize|List of rivers of Costa Rica|List of rivers of El Salvador|List of rivers of Guatemala|List of rivers of Honduras|List of rivers of Nicaragua|List of rivers of Panama|l7=List of rivers of Belize|l8=Costa Rica|l9=El Salvador|l10=Guatemala|l11=Honduras|l12=Nicaragua|l13=Panama|Ecocanal|Nicaragua Canal|Panama Canal}}

{{See also|Ports of Belize|Category:Ports and harbours of Guatemala|Category:Ports and harbours of Panama}}

{{See also|List of airports in Belize|List of airports in Costa Rica|List of airports in El Salvador|List of airports in Guatemala|List of airports in Honduras|List of airports in Nicaragua|List of airports in Panama|l1=List of airports in Belize|l2=Costa Rica|l3=El Salvador|l4=Guatemala|l5=Honduras|l6=Nicaragua|l7=Panama}}

{{Main|Rail transport in Central America}}

{{See also|Rail transport in Belize|Rail transport in Costa Rica|Rail transport in El Salvador|Rail transport in Guatemala|Rail transport in Honduras|Rail transport in Nicaragua|Rail transport in Panama|l1=Rail transport in Belize|l2=Costa Rica|l3=El Salvador|l4=Guatemala|l5=Honduras|l6=Nicaragua|l7=Panama}}

{{See also|Ethnic groups in Central America|Latin Americans}}

{{Main|List of countries in the Americas by life expectancy}}

List of countries by life expectancy at birth for 2023, according to the World Bank Group.{{cite web|title=Life expectancy at birth, total|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN|publisher=The World Bank Group|date=15 April 2025|access-date=28 April 2025}}{{cite web|title=Life expectancy at birth, male|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.MA.IN|publisher=The World Bank Group|date=15 April 2025|access-date=28 April 2025}}{{cite web|title=Life expectancy at birth, female|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.FE.IN|publisher=The World Bank Group|date=15 April 2025|access-date=28 April 2025}}

{{static row numbers}}{{mw-datatable}}{{sort under}}{{Table alignment}}

{{Multiple image|total_width = 600

| align = center

| direction = horizontal

| image1 = Life expectancy map -Central America -2019 -with names.png

| image2 = Life expectancy map -Central America -2020 -with names.png

| image3 = Life expectancy map -Central America -2021 -with names.png

| footer_align = center

| footer = Change in life expectancy in Central America from 2019 to 2021

}}

File:Ciudad Cayala - Guatemala City.jpg|Guatemala City

File:Panoramica del Centro Histórico de San Salvador.jpg|San Salvador

File:Tegucigalpa view in october 2021.jpg|Tegucigalpa

File:Panoramica De Managua.jpg|Managua

File:4- Vue San Jose.jpg|San Jose, Costa Rica

File:HDR of Panama City, Panama.jpg|Panama City

File:Aerials Belize WHwy 02.jpg|Belmopan

The population of Central America is estimated at {{val|{{sum|{{decomma|{{UN population|Central America}}}}|-{{decomma|{{UN population|Mexico}}}}}}|fmt=commas}} as of {{UN Population|Year}}.{{UN Population|ref}} With an area of {{convert|523780|km2|sqmi|sp=us}}, it has a population density of {{convert|{{pop density|{{sum|{{decomma|{{UN population|Central America}}}}|-{{decomma|{{UN population|Mexico}}}}}}|523780|km2|prec=1|disp=num}}|/km2|/sqmi|abbr=off}}. Human Development Index values are from the estimates for 2017.{{cite web|url=http://www.hdr.undp.org/en/2018-update|title=2018 HDI Statistical Update|date=14 September 2018|access-date=2018-10-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180914203906/http://hdr.undp.org/en/2018-update|archive-date=14 September 2018|url-status=dead}}

|style="text-align:left;"|Panama City

|style="text-align:center;"|Spanish

|0.789 High

|- style="background:#F2F2F2; font-weight:bold; "

! Total

|style="text-align:right;"|{{cvt|521876|km2}}

|style="text-align:right;"|{{nts|{{sum|{{Decomma|{{UN Population|Belize}}}}|{{Decomma|{{UN Population|Costa Rica}}}}|{{Decomma|{{UN Population|El Salvador}}}}|{{Decomma|{{UN Population|Guatemala}}}}|{{Decomma|{{UN Population|Honduras}}}}|{{Decomma|{{UN Population|Nicaragua}}}}|{{Decomma|{{UN Population|Panama}}}}}}}}

|style="text-align:center;"|-

|style="text-align:center;"|-

|style="text-align:center;"|-

|style="text-align:center;"|0.699

|}

{{Clear left}}

{{See also|Central American Spanish|Misumalpan languages|Chibchan languages|l2=Misumalpan|l3=Chibchan}}

The official language majority in all Central American countries is Spanish, except in Belize, where the official language is English. Mayan languages constitute a language family consisting of about 26 related languages. Guatemala formally recognized 21 of these in 1996. Xinca, Miskito, and Garifuna are also present in Central America.

File:Centroamerica prehispanica siglo XVI.svg

File:Preparing for 2019 Seattle Fiestas Patrias Parade - 40 - women with flags.jpg

This region of the continent is very rich in terms of ethnic groups. The majority of the population is mestizo, with sizable Mayan and African descendent populations present, along with numerous other indigenous groups such as the Miskito people. The immigration of Arabs, Jews, Chinese, Europeans and others brought additional groups to the area.

{{further|Catholic Church in North America|Bahá'í Faith in Central America|Buddhism in Central America|Anglican Church in Central America}}

File:CatedralGuatemala.jpg|Cathedral of Guatemala City Guatemala

File:CATEDRAL DE LA INMACULADA CONCEPCION, MANAGUA - panoramio.jpg|Immaculate Conception Cathedral, Managua Nicaragua

File:Catedral Metropolitana de San Salvador.png|San Salvador Cathedral El Salvador

File:Metropolitan Cathedral in San Jose, Costa Rica.jpg|Metropolitan Cathedral of San José Costa Rica

File:Iglesia Catedral de Panama.jpg|Metropolitan Cathedral of Panama City Panama

File:CATEDRAL DE TEGUCIGALPA - panoramio.jpg|Tegucigalpa Cathedral Honduras

File:HRrubenFromEast fixed.jpg|Holy Redeemer Cathedral Belize

The predominant religion in Central America is Christianity (95.6%).{{Cite web|url=http://wwwgordonconwell.com/netcommunity/CSGCResources/ChristianityinitsGlobalContext.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161229040220/http://wwwgordonconwell.com/netcommunity/CSGCResources/ChristianityinitsGlobalContext.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Christianity in its Global Context|archive-date=29 December 2016}} Beginning with the Spanish colonization of Central America in the 16th century, Catholicism became the most popular religion in the region until the first half of the 20th century. Since the 1960s, there has been an increase in other Christian groups, particularly Protestantism, as well as other religious organizations, and individuals identifying themselves as having no religion.

Source: Jason Mandrik, Operation World Statistics (2020).

• Protestantism in Central America also include Independent Christian, most of total Protestants in this region (+80%) are Evangelicals, the rest follow traditional beliefs.
• Other Christian include Other Traditional Churches (Orthodox, Episcopalian, etc.) and contemporary churches (Mormons, Adventists, Scientology, etc.), also include Non-denominational Christian who are the most numerous group, specially in Guatemala.

{{div col|colwidth=30em}}

• List of architecture schools in Central America
• List of universities in Belize
• List of universities in Costa Rica
• List of universities in El Salvador
• List of universities in Guatemala
• List of universities in Honduras
• List of universities in Nicaragua
• List of universities in Panama

{{div col end}}

{{Main|Culture of Central America}}

File:JacaltecBrocade.jpg|Guatemalan textiles

File:KunaWomanWithMolas.jpg|Mola, Panama

File:Mercaditode Artesanias en el Centro Historico de Santa Ana.JPG|El Salvador La Plama art form

File:Cocinando El Pepian.jpg|Pepián Guatemala

File:Baleada.jpg|Baleada Honduras

File:Pupusas El Salvador Centro America.JPG|Pupusa El Salvador

File:SANCOCHO.jpg|Sancocho Panama

File:Gallo Pinto at breakfast.jpg|Gallo pinto Costa Rica

File:Nacatamal assembled.jpg|Nacatamal Nicaragua

File:Rice and Beans, Stew Chicken and Potato Salad - Belize.jpg|Rice and beans Belize

• Central American music
• Central American cuisine
• List of cuisines of the Americas – Central American cuisine

• Central American Games
• Central American and Caribbean Games
• 1926 Central American and Caribbean Games – the first time this event occurred
• Central American Football Union
• Surfing

{{Portal|Central America|North America|Latin America|Geography}}

{{div col}}

• Americas (terminology)
• Central American Seaway
• Index of Central America-related articles
• Index of Belize-related articles
• Index of Costa Rica-related articles
• Index of El Salvador–related articles
• Index of Guatemala-related articles
• Index of Honduras-related articles
• Index of Nicaragua-related articles
• Index of Panama-related articles
• List of largest cities in Central America
• Cantons of Costa Rica
• List of cities in Belize
• List of cities in El Salvador
• List of places in Guatemala
• List of cities in Honduras
• List of cities in Nicaragua
• List of cities in Panama
• West Indies

{{div col end}}

{{notelist}}

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{{cite web|author=British Embassy San Salvador|title=Extra-Regional Observer of Central American Integration System|work=Strengthening UK relationships with El Salvador|publisher=Government Digital Service|location=London|date=10 June 2013|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/world-location-news/extra-regional-observer-of-central-american-integration-system|access-date=4 January 2015}}

{{cite news|last=Carroll|first=R|title=Ortega banks on tourism to beat poverty|newspaper=The Guardian|location=London|date=6 January 2007|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/jan/07/rorycarroll.theobserver|access-date=3 January 2015}}

{{cite web|author=Central Intelligence Agency|author-link=Central Intelligence Agency|title=The world factbook|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|location=Washington, D.C.|year=2019|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070601020457/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 June 2007}}

{{cite web|author=Central Intelligence Agency|author-link=Central Intelligence Agency|title=World exports by country|work=The world factbook|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|location=Washington, D.C.|year=2014|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2078.html#74|access-date=1 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504222805/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2078.html#74|archive-date=4 May 2012|url-status=dead}}

{{cite web|author=Central Intelligence Agency|author-link=Central Intelligence Agency|title=Export partners of Guatemala|work=The world factbook|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|location=Washington, D.C.|year=2014|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2050.html#gt|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613004055/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2050.html#gt|url-status=dead|archive-date=13 June 2007}}

{{cite news|last=Cuellar|first=M|title=Foreign direct investments and tourism up|newspaper=Channel 5 Belize|publisher=Great Belize Productions Ltd.|location=Belize|date=1 March 2013|url=http://edition.channel5belize.com/archives/82643|access-date=4 January 2015|archive-date=19 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141019211111/http://edition.channel5belize.com/archives/82643|url-status=dead}}{{cite book|author=IBP, Inc|title=Central America Economic Integration and Cooperation Handbook Volume 1 Strategic Information, Organizations and Programs|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9AWWBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA8|year=2009|isbn=978-1-4387-4280-9|page=8|publisher=Lulu.com }}

{{cite journal|last1=Harvey|first1=CA|last2=Komar|first2=O|last3=Chazdon|first3=R|last4=Ferguson|first4=BG|title=Integrating agricultural landscapes with biodiversity conservation in the Mesoamerican hotspot|journal=Conservation Biology|volume=22|issue=1|pages=8–15|year=2008|doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2007.00863.x|pmid=18254848|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/5597044|doi-access=free|bibcode=2008ConBi..22....8H }}

{{cite conference|last=Holland|first=CL|title=Ethnic and religious diversity in Central America: a historical perspective| date=November 2005 |conference=2005 Annual Meeting of the Society for the Scientific Study of Religion|pages=1–34|url=http://www.prolades.com/Ethnic_Religious_Diversity_CAM-Holland.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081010135550/http://www.prolades.com/Ethnic_Religious_Diversity_CAM-Holland.pdf |archive-date=2008-10-10 |url-status=live|access-date=4 January 2015}}

{{cite book|author=International Monetary Fund|author-link=International Monetary Fund|title=World economic outlook October 2014: legacies, clouds, uncertainties|series=World economic and financial surveys|publisher=International Monetary Fund|location=Washington, D.C.|year=2014|isbn=978-1-4843-8066-6|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2014/02/pdf/text.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141013230451/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2014/02/pdf/text.pdf |archive-date=2014-10-13 |url-status=live|access-date=1 January 2015}}

{{cite web|author=International Monetary Fund|author-link=International Monetary Fund|title=Gross domestic product based on purchasing-power-parity (PPP) valuation of country GDP|work=World economic outlook database, April 2012|publisher=International Monetary Fund|location=Washington, D.C.|year=2012|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2012/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=50&pr.y=15&sy=2012&ey=2012&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=311%2C336%2C213%2C263%2C313%2C268%2C316%2C343%2C339%2C273%2C218%2C278%2C223%2C283%2C228%2C288%2C233%2C293%2C238%2C361%2C321%2C362%2C243%2C364%2C248%2C366%2C253%2C369%2C328%2C298%2C258%2C299&s=PPPGDP&grp=0&a=|access-date=1 January 2015}}

{{cite web|author=International Monetary Fund|author-link=International Monetary Fund|title=Report for selected countries and subjects|work=World economic outlook database, April 2012|publisher=International Monetary Fund|location=Washington, D.C.|year=2012|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2012/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=83&pr.y=7&sy=2012&ey=2012&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=311%2C336%2C213%2C263%2C313%2C268%2C316%2C343%2C339%2C273%2C218%2C278%2C223%2C283%2C228%2C288%2C233%2C293%2C238%2C361%2C321%2C362%2C243%2C364%2C248%2C366%2C253%2C369%2C328%2C298%2C258%2C299&s=NGDPD&grp=0&a=|access-date=1 January 2015}}

{{cite web|last=Inman|first=C|title=Impacts on developing countries of changing production and consumption patterns in developed countries: the case of ecotourism in Costa Rica|publisher=INCAE Business School|location=Alajuela, Costa Rica|year=1997|url=http://fama2.us.es:8080/turismo/turismonet1/economia%20del%20turismo/turismo%20y%20medio%20ambiente/ECOTOURISM%20IN%20COSTA%20RICA.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100104065920/http://fama2.us.es:8080/turismo/turismonet1/economia%20del%20turismo/turismo%20y%20medio%20ambiente/ECOTOURISM%20IN%20COSTA%20RICA.PDF |archive-date=2010-01-04 |url-status=live|access-date=1 January 2015}}

{{cite web|last=Butler|first=RA|title=Belize forest information and data|work=Tropical rainforests: deforestation rates tables and charts|publisher=Mongabay.com|location=Menlo Park, California|year=2006|url=http://rainforests.mongabay.com/deforestation/2000/Belize.htm|access-date=1 January 2015}}

{{cite web|last=Butler|first=RA|title=Costa Rica forest information and data|work=Tropical rainforests: deforestation rates tables and charts|publisher=Mongabay.com|location=Menlo Park, California|year=2006|url=http://rainforests.mongabay.com/deforestation/2000/Costa_Rica.htm|access-date=1 January 2015}}

{{cite web|last=Butler|first=RA|title=El Salvador forest information and data|work=Tropical rainforests: deforestation rates tables and charts|publisher=Mongabay.com|location=Menlo Park, California|year=2006|url=http://rainforests.mongabay.com/deforestation/2000/El_Salvador.htm|access-date=1 January 2015}}

{{cite web|last=Butler|first=RA|title=Guatemala forest information and data|work=Tropical rainforests: deforestation rates tables and charts|publisher=Mongabay.com|location=Menlo Park, California|year=2006|url=http://rainforests.mongabay.com/deforestation/2000/Guatemala.htm|access-date=1 January 2015}}

{{cite web|last=Butler|first=RA|title=Honduras forest information and data|work=Tropical rainforests: deforestation rates tables and charts|publisher=Mongabay.com|location=Menlo Park, California|year=2006|url=http://rainforests.mongabay.com/deforestation/2000/Honduras.htm|access-date=1 January 2015}}

{{cite web|last=Butler|first=RA|title=Nicaragua forest information and data|work=Tropical rainforests: deforestation rates tables and charts|publisher=Mongabay.com|location=Menlo Park, California|year=2006|url=http://rainforests.mongabay.com/deforestation/2000/Nicaragua.htm|access-date=1 January 2015}}

{{cite web|last=Butler|first=RA|title=Panama forest information and data|work=Tropical rainforests: deforestation rates tables and charts|publisher=Mongabay.com|location=Menlo Park, California|year=2006|url=http://rainforests.mongabay.com/deforestation/2000/Panama.htm|access-date=1 January 2015}}

{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary|title=Central America|publisher=Merriam-Webster.com|url=http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/Central%20America|access-date=1 January 2015}}

{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of world climatology|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaworl00oliv|url-access=limited|last1=Taylor|first1=MA|last2=Alfaro|first2=EJ|editor-last=Oliver|editor-first=JE|edition=1st|series=Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series|chapter=Central America and the Caribbean, Climate of|pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaworl00oliv/page/n203 183]–9|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|location=New York|year=2005|isbn=978-1-4020-3264-6|doi=10.1007/1-4020-3266-8_37}}

{{cite news|last=Ramos |first=A |title=Belize protected areas 26% – not 40-odd percent |newspaper=Amandala |location=Belize City |date=2 July 2010 |url=http://www.amandala.com.bz/index.php?id=10030 |access-date=1 January 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514200537/http://www.amandala.com.bz/index.php?id=10030 |archive-date=14 May 2011 }}

{{cite journal|last1=Redo|first1=DJ|last2=Grau|first2=HR|last3=Aide|first3=TM|last4=Clark|first4=ML|title=Asymmetric forest transition driven by the interaction of socioeconomic development and environmental heterogeneity in Central America|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=109|issue=23|pages=8839–44|year=2012|doi=10.1073/pnas.1201664109|pmc=3384153|pmid=22615408|bibcode=2012PNAS..109.8839R|doi-access=free}}

{{cite news|last=Rodríguez|first=A|title=Costa Rica registró la llegada de más de 2,4 millones de turistas en 2013|trans-title=Costa Rica registered the arrival of more than 2.4 million tourists in 2013|newspaper=La Nación|location=San José, Costa Rica|date=16 January 2014|language=es|url=http://www.nacion.com/economia/Costa-Rica-registra-millones-turistas_0_1390861044.html|access-date=2 January 2015}}

{{cite news|last=Rojas|first=JE|title=Turismo, principal motor de la economía durante el 2004|trans-title=Tourism, the principal engine of the economy in 2004|newspaper=La Nación|location=San José, Costa Rica|date=29 December 2004|language=es|url=http://wvw.nacion.com/ln_ee/2004/diciembre/29/economia0.html|access-date=2 January 2015}}

{{cite web |url=http://www.sify.com/news/nicaragua-exceeds-one-mn-foreign-tourists-for-first-time-news-international-km4ladiidea.html |title=Nicaragua exceeds one mn foreign tourists for first time |website=Sify |access-date=30 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181017082140/http://www.sify.com/news/nicaragua-exceeds-one-mn-foreign-tourists-for-first-time-news-international-km4ladiidea.html |archive-date=17 October 2018 |url-status=dead }}

{{cite news|title=2012: a remarkable year for Belize's tourism industry|newspaper=The San Pedro Sun|location=San Pedro, Belize|date=8 February 2013|url=http://www.sanpedrosun.com/travel-and-tourism/2013/02/08/2012-a-remarkable-year-for-belizes-tourism-industry/|access-date=4 January 2015}}

{{cite news|title=Taiwan cuts ties with Costa Rica over recognition for China|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/07/world/asia/07iht-costa.1.6036203.html|work=The New York Times|date=7 June 2007 |access-date=19 October 2014}}

{{cite news|title=Extreme poverty increases in Nicaragua in 2013, study finds|agency=American Free Press|date=13 November 2014|url=http://www.ticotimes.net/2014/11/13/extreme-poverty-increases-in-nicaragua-in-2013-study-finds|access-date=2 January 2015}}

{{cite web|author=United Nations Statistics Division|author-link=United Nations Statistics Division|title=Standard country or area codes for statistical use (M49)|publisher=United Nations Statistics Division|location=New York City|year=2017|url=https://unstats.un.org/unsd/methodology/m49/|access-date=25 September 2019}}

{{cite web|author=Departamento de Estadísticas ICT|url=http://www.visitcostarica.com/ict/backoffice/treeDoc/files/Anuario%20de%20Turismo%202006%20(VERSION%20FINAL).pdf|title=Anuário estadísticas de demanda 2006|publisher=Intituto Costarricense de Turismo|year=2006|language=es|access-date=13 June 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110302194925/http://www.visitcostarica.com/ict/backoffice/treeDoc/files/Anuario%20de%20Turismo%202006%20(VERSION%20FINAL).pdf|archive-date=2 March 2011|url-status=dead}}

{{cite web|url=http://www.webng.com/jerbarker/home/eia-toolkit/downloads/Van04/RojasVancouver.pdf|title=Central America|access-date=8 December 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006185346/http://www.webng.com/jerbarker/home/eia-toolkit/downloads/Van04/RojasVancouver.pdf|archive-date=6 October 2014}}

{{cite web|url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_TT_Competitiveness_Report_2013.pdf|editor=Jennifer Blanke and Thea Chiesa|year=2013|title=Travel & tourism competitiveness report 2013|publisher=World Economic Forum, Geneva, Switzerland|access-date=14 April 2013}}

[http://www.westminster.edu/staff/athrock/BELIZE/Reef.html Belize Barrier Reef case study] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605060903/http://www.westminster.edu/staff/athrock/BELIZE/Reef.html |date=5 June 2013 }}. Westminster.edu. Retrieved on 21 October 2011.

{{cite journal|last=White|first=RA|title=The Guatemala earthquake of 1816 on the Chixoy-Polochic fault|journal=Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America|volume=75|issue=2|pages=455–73|year=1985|url=http://bssa.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/75/2/455}}

{{WWF ecoregion|id=nt0112|name=Central American montane forests|access-date=20 August 2013}}

{{WWF ecoregion|id=nt0167|name=Talamancan montane forests|access-date=19 October 2014}}{{WWF ecoregion|id=nt0303|name=Central American pine-oak forests|access-date=4 November 2012}}

}}

• Berger, Mark T. Under Northern Eyes: Latin American Studies and Us Hegemony in the Americas, 1898–1990. (Indiana UP, 1995).
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• Craig, Kern William. "Public Policy in Central America: An Empirical Analysis." Public Administration Research 2.2 (2013): 105+ [http://www.academia.edu/download/38904624/2013-Public_Policy_in_Central_America-corrected_copy.pdf online]{{dead link|date=January 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}.
• Dym, Jordana. From Sovereign Villages to National States: City, State, and Federation in Central America, 1759–1839 (UNM Press, 2006).
• von Feigenblatt, Otto Federico. "Costa Rica's Neo-Realist Foreign Policy: Lifting the Veil Hiding the Discursive Co-Optation of Human Rights, Human Security, and Cosmopolitan Official Rhetoric." International Journal of Arts & Sciences Conference, (2009). [https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1308290 online]
• Krenn, Michael L. The Chains of Interdependence: US Policy Toward Central America, 1945–1954 (ME Sharpe, 1996).
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• [https://web.archive.org/web/20070314083919/http://www.bartleby.com/61/8/C0200800.html American Heritage Dictionaries, Central America] (archived 14 March 2007)
• Central America. [http://www.columbiagazetteer.org/The Columbia Gazetteer of the World Online]{{Dead link|date=February 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}. 2006. New York: Columbia University Press.
• Hernández, Consuelo (2009). Reconstruyendo a Centroamérica a través de la poesía. Voces y perspectivas en la poesia latinoamericana del siglo XX. Madrid: Visor.

{{Sister project links|voy=Central America|d=Q27611}}

• [http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552494/search?query=geographic-region%3A%22Mexico%2C+Central+America+and+the+Caribbean%22&rpp=20&sort_by=0&order=DESC&submit=Go Central America Video Links] from the [https://web.archive.org/web/20160115205405/https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552494 Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives]
• [http://lanic.utexas.edu/country/central/LANIC Central America country pages]{{Dead link|date=February 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
• [http://www.teachingcentralamerica.org/ Teaching Central America]

{{Central America topic}}

{{Music of Central America}}

{{Central American volcanoes}}

{{Central American and Caribbean Games}}

{{Latin America topic|Cuisine of|Latin American cuisine}}

{{Latin America topic|Culture of|Latin American culture}}

{{Regions of the world}}

{{Authority control}}