Democracy in India

{{Further information|History of India (1947–present)}}

{{Main|History of democracy#Indian subcontinent}}

Early Shakyas, Koliyas, Mallakas, and Licchavis are recorded as having assemblies that were accessible to affluent men of certain social classes.Robinson, 1997, p. 23{{full citation needed|date=December 2024}} Other Sangha (Buddhism)s and ganas had councils of unelected nobles; these bodies did not conform to modern standards of democracy and functioned more similarly to elite oligarchic councils. The Greek historian Diodorus, writing approximately two centuries after the time of Alexander the Great, refers to democratic states in India.Diodorus 2.39{{full citation needed|date=December 2024}} However, there is a lack of evidence for electoral processes, and the term "democracy" in the 3rd century BCE may have referred more broadly to autonomous polities rather than representative governance.Larsen, 1973, pp. 45–46{{full citation needed|date=December 2024}}de Sainte, 2006, pp. 321–3 In the 10th century CE, inscriptions at the Vaikunda Perumal Temple suggest the election of local representatives to village councils during the Chola Empire.{{cite book|title=Uttaramerur|last=R.|first=Nagaswamy|ref=Naga|publisher=Tamil Arts Academy|location=Chennai|year=2003|pages=12–16}}{{cite book|title=Temples of Kr̥ṣṇa in South India: History, Art, and Traditions in Tamilnāḍu|page=88|first=T.|last=Padmaja|date=7 March 2024 |publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=9788170173984}}{{Cite web |date=2 September 2022 |title=Vaikunta perumal temple inscriptions, Uttiramerur, TN and democratic election practices 1000 years ago |url=https://www.navrangindia.in/2022/09/vaikunta-perumal-temple-inscriptions.html?m=1 |website=Navrang India}}

{{Main|Indian independence movement|Partition of India}}

{{See also|Communist involvement in the Indian independence movement|Women of the Indian independence movement|Pakistan Movement}}

Following nearly two centuries of British colonial rule—initially under the East India Company and later under direct governance by the British Crown—India gained independence in 1947 after a sustained nationalist anti-colonial movement.{{Cite book |last1=Metcalf |first1=Barbara |title=A Concise History of Modern India |last2=Metcalf |first2=Thomas |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |isbn=9781139458870}} This movement was predominantly led by the Indian National Congress (INC; also known simply as the "Congress") and prominent figures such as Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru.{{Cite book |last=Marshall |first=P. J. |title=The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-521-00254-7}} However, the movement was also shaped by a diverse range of ideological influences, including communism, Dalit leaders, and to a lesser extent, Hindutva, a far-right hindu nationalist ideology, though the latter's participation is debated.{{Cite book |last=Raza |first=Ali |title=Revolutionary Pasts: Communist Internationalism in Colonial India |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2020 |isbn=9781108481847}}{{Cite book |last=Omvedt |first=Gail |title=Dalits and the Democratic Revolution: Dr Ambedkar and the Dalit Movement in Colonial India |publisher=Sage Publishing |year=1994 |isbn=9780803991392}}{{Cite book |last=Krishna |first=Chaitanya |title=Fascism in India: Faces, Fangs, and Facts |publisher=Manak Publications |year=2003 |isbn=9788178270678}} Prominent figures associated with these currents included B. R. Ambedkar, a leading advocate for the abolition of the caste system, and Subhas Chandra Bose, a militant nationalist leader, allied with the Axis Powers in World War II. The independence process was marred by a surge of religious and communal divisions, culminating in a bloody partition of the Indian subcontinent in 1947. This division created two separate nations: Pakistan with a Muslim majority, and India with a Hindu majority. The partition was characterised by widespread violence, mass displacement, and one of the largest refugee crises in history.{{Cite book |last=Pandey |first=Gyanendra |title=The Construction of Communalism in Colonial North India |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2006 |isbn=9780199081097}}{{Cite book |last=Zamindar |first=Vazira Fazila-Yacoobali |title=The Long Partition and the Making of Modern South Asia: Refugees, Boundaries, Histories |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2010 |isbn=9780231138475}} India formally became a sovereign, democratic republic in 1950 with the adoption of the world's longest written constitution. The constitution was drafted by a Constituent Assembly, chaired by Ambedkar.{{Cite book |last1=Moses |first1=A. Dirk |title=Decolonization, Self-Determination, and the Rise of Global Human Rights Politics |last2=Duranti |first2=Marco |last3=Burke |first3=Roland |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2020 |isbn=9781108783170 |doi=10.1017/9781108783170}} The country held its first general election between late 1951 and early 1952, implementing universal adult franchise, and drawing heavy inspiration from the Westminster parliamentary system.{{Cite book |last=Shani |first=Ornit |title=How India Became Democratic: Citizenship and the Making of the Universal Franchise |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2017 |isbn=9781107705722 |doi=10.1017/9781107705722}}{{Cite web |date=2 December 2013 |title=How the Westminster parliamentary system was exported around the world |url=https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/features/how-the-westminster-parliamentary-system-was-exported-around-the-world |website=University of Cambridge}} The Congress secured a decisive electoral victory and Nehru was elected as the first prime minister of the country.{{Cite web |last=Yadav |first=Shyamlal |date=12 April 2024 |title=How India pulled off its first general election |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-history/india-first-general-election-nehru-9265134/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240412012153/https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-history/india-first-general-election-nehru-9265134/ |archive-date=12 April 2024 |website=The Indian Express}} This established India as the world's largest liberal democracy.{{cite book |last=Guha |first=Ramachandra |title=India After Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy |publisher=Picador |year=2008 |isbn=9780330505543 |edition=Indian |location=India}}

After independence, the Congress emerged as India's dominant political party. The reorganization of Indian states in 1956 along linguistic lines—transforming the colonial-era presidencies and provinces and fully integrating over 500 princely states—both responded to and further fueled the rise of notable regional movements.{{Cite web |last=Koshi |first=Luke |date=2 November 2016 |title=Explainer: The reorganization of states in India and why it happened |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/news/explainer-reorganization-states-india-and-why-it-happened-52273 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240305113257/https://www.thenewsminute.com/news/explainer-reorganization-states-india-and-why-it-happened-52273 |archive-date=5 March 2024 |website=The News Minute}} Congress secured a decisive victory in the 1957 general election.{{Cite web |last=Yadav |first=Shyamlal |date=17 April 2024 |title=When Election Commission overcame 'impossible' challenge, held second Lok Sabha election on time |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-history/lok-sabha-elections-1957-history-nehru-9274746/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240417042328/https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-history/lok-sabha-elections-1957-history-nehru-9274746/ |archive-date=17 April 2024 |website=The Indian Express}} Notably, 1957 also witnessed a landmark development in the state of Kerala, where the Communist Party of India (CPI), under the leadership of E. M. S. Namboodiripad, formed the government—marking one of the first democratically elected communist governments in the world.{{Cite web |date=24 May 2024 |title=Elections that shaped India {{!}} 1957: The rise of Red Kerala |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/india-election-history-1957-poll-kerala-communist-party-details/article67569056.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240401074237/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/india-election-history-1957-poll-kerala-communist-party-details/article67569056.ece |archive-date=1 April 2024 |website=The Hindu}} The Congress maintained its political dominance by winning the 1962 general election in another landslide. Nehru remains the longest-serving holder of the office of the prime minister, having led the country for sixteen years.{{Cite web |last=Yadav |first=Shyamlal |date=20 April 2024 |title=How Nehru won a third term, despite growing challenges |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/how-nehru-won-a-third-term-despite-growing-challenges-9280350/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240420013741/https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/how-nehru-won-a-third-term-despite-growing-challenges-9280350/ |archive-date=20 April 2024 |website=The Indian Express}} Nehru's premiership embraced republicanism,{{Cite book |last=Dhanapala |first=Jayantha |title=Small Arms Control: Old Weapons, New Issues |publisher=Ashgate Publishing |year=1999 |isbn=9780754620761}} secularism,{{Cite book |last=Kohli |first=Atul |title=India's Democracy: An Analysis of Changing State-Society Relations |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2014 |isbn=9781400859511}} social democracy,{{Cite web |last=Palat |first=Madhavan |date=12 February 2022 |title=Nehru's socialism was evolutionary, inclusive, and not based on class |url=https://www.thehindu.com/society/nehrus-socialism-was-evolutionary-inclusive-and-not-based-on-class/article38412870.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220212124643/https://www.thehindu.com/society/nehrus-socialism-was-evolutionary-inclusive-and-not-based-on-class/article38412870.ece |archive-date=12 February 2022 |website=The Hindu}} and a policy of non-alignment during the Cold War.{{Cite book |last=Grover |first=Verinder |title=International Relations and Foreign Policy of India: UNO, NAM, NIEO, SAARC, and India's foreign policy |publisher=Deep & Deep Publications |year=1992 |isbn=9788171003501}} The caste system persisted, despite the constitutional abolition of caste-based discrimination.{{Cite web |date=19 June 2019 |title=What is India's caste system? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-35650616 |website=BBC}} Meanwhile, some criticised the Congress for developing into an increasingly clientelist organisation.{{Cite web |last=Jaffrelot |first=Christophe |date=26 August 2021 |title=The three ages of India's democracy |url=https://press.princeton.edu/ideas/the-three-ages-of-indias-democracy?srsltid=AfmBOoqjs9QP3HAcPe5uUjtycdRCmRyaLQQSDtVaG7611w5ev637RTha |website=Princeton University Press}} Socialist government regulations expanded significantly in what became known as the Licence Raj. However, these regulations often favoured established industrialists and large corporations, while disadvantaging small businesses,{{Cite journal |last=Kapparashetty |first=B.V. |date=2020 |title=Impact of MRTP Act for Development of Nation- A Study |journal=International Journal of Research and Analytical Reviews |ssrn=3690822}} thereby contributing to the consolidation of capitalism. Nehru's leadership is considered to have failed in satisfying the urban and rural poor, the unemployed, and the Hindu nationalists and fundamentalists.{{Cite journal |last=Parekh |first=Bhiku |title=Nehru and the National Philosophy of India |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |year=1991 |volume=26 |issue=1/2 |pages=35–48 |jstor=4397189}} Nehru died in 1964 and was succeeded as prime minister by Lal Bahadur Shastri.{{Cite web |last=Anant |first=Victor |date=28 May 2013 |title=From the archive, 28 May 1964: The death of Nehru |url=https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/2013/may/28/death-of-nehru-archive-1964 |website=The Guardian}}{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Mahendra |title=Split in a Predominant Party: The Indian National Congress in 1969 |publisher=Abhinav Publications |year=1981 |isbn=9788170171409}} Shastri's untimely death just two years later, in 1966, led to his succession by Nehru's daughter, Indira Gandhi, India's first and only female prime minister.{{Cite book |last1=Derichs |first1=Claudia |title=Dynasties and Female Political Leaders in Asia: Gender, Power and Pedigree |last2=Thompson |first2=Mark |publisher=LIT Verlag Münster |year=2013 |isbn=9783643903204}} Nehru is often regarded as the architect of modern India.{{Cite web |date=8 November 2018 |title=Architect of modern India |url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/the-nation/article25402011.ece/ |website=Frontline}}

{{Further information|The Emergency (India)}}

In response to a decline in support for Congress in the 1967 general election, Indira Gandhi embraced an increasingly left-wing populist platform.{{Cite book |last=Sen |first=Suhit |title=The Paradox of Populism: The Indira Gandhi Years 1966-1977 |publisher=Primus Books |year=2019 |isbn=9789352909643}} This led to opposition from the party’s right-wing, ultimately causing Congress to split in 1969 into the conservative and anti-socialist Congress (O),{{Cite web |last=Paul |first=Sudeep |date=28 August 2020 |title=Crisis and the Congress |url=https://openthemagazine.com/cover-stories/crisis-and-the-congress/ |website=Open (Indian magazine)}} and the Gandhi-led socialist Congress (R). Gandhi's Congress (R) won a landslide victory in the 1971 general election.{{Cite web |last=Mukul |first=Sushim |date=17 December 2024 |title=When Indira Gandhi broke 'One Nation One Election' cycle |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/history-of-it/story/one-nation-one-election-simultaneous-poll-indira-gandhi-expelled-from-congress-broke-1971-nehru-bjp-ram-nath-kovind-2517913-2024-03-22 |website=India Today}} She is credited to have centralised power, and her political base has been described as a cult of personality.{{Cite book |last1=Jaffrelot |first1=Christophe |title=India's First Dictatorship |last2=Anil |first2=Pratinav |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2021 |isbn=9780197583302}} Though many praised her for her state socialism and protectionism,{{Cite book |last1=Chandra |first1=Bipan |title=India Since Independence |last2=Mukherjee |first2=Aditya |last3=Mukherjee |first3=Mridula |publisher=Penguin Books |year=2008 |isbn=9780143104094}}{{Cite book |last=Kirk |first=Jason |title=India and the World Bank: The Politics of Aid and Influence |publisher=Anthem Press |year=2011 |isbn=9780857288325}} others criticised her alleged Machiavellianism and perceived insincerity regarding her socialist stance.{{efn|Sources:

• {{Cite book |last=Rosser |first=John |title=Comparative Economics in a Transforming World Economy |publisher=MIT Press |year=2004 |isbn=9780262182348}}
• {{Cite book |last=Malik |first=Yogendra |title=India: The Years of Indira Gandhi |publisher=Brill Publishers |year=1988 |isbn=978-90-04-08681-4}}
• {{Cite book |last=Jaffrelot |first=Christophe |title=India's Silent Revolution: The Rise of the Lower Castes in North India |publisher=C. Hurst & Co. |year=2003 |isbn=9781850653981}}
• {{Cite book |title=The Indian Libertarian |publisher=University of Virginia |year=1965}}}}

Meanwhile, in 1967, an armed peasant revolt erupted in the village of Naxalbari in the state of West Bengal, led by tribals and radical Maoist-inspired communists. This event, known as the Naxalbari uprising, marked the inception of the Naxalite–Maoist insurgency—a protracted conflict that has persisted for decades.{{Cite web |last=Roychowdhury |first=Adrija |date=25 May 2018 |title=Naxalbari: How a peasant uprising triggered a pan-India political movement |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/research/51-years-of-naxalbari-how-a-peasant-uprising-triggered-a-pan-india-political-movement-5191046/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180525164851/https://indianexpress.com/article/research/51-years-of-naxalbari-how-a-peasant-uprising-triggered-a-pan-india-political-movement-5191046/ |archive-date=25 May 2018 |website=The Indian Express}}{{Cite web |last=Roy |first=Siddharthya |date=21 September 2017 |title=Half a Century of India's Maoist Insurgency |url=https://thediplomat.com/2017/09/half-a-century-of-indias-maoist-insurgency/ |website=The Diplomat}}

Rising economic turmoil led to an increase in civil unrest.{{Cite journal |date=August 1993 |title=Basic Statistics Relating to the Indian Economy |journal=Centre for Monitoring the Indian Economy}}{{Cite web |last1=Thapar |first1=Romila |last2=Schwartzberg |first2=Joseph |title=Indira Gandhi's Impact |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/India/Indira-Gandhis-impact |website=Encyclopædia Britannica}} Gandhi's increasing control over the judiciary, alongside undermining and bypassing of court rulings, sparked multiple constitutional crises.{{Cite book |last1=Chowdhury |first1=Debasish |title=To Kill a Democracy: India's Passage to Despotism |last2=Keane |first2=John |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2021 |isbn=978-9-390-74280-6}} In 1974, a wave of student-led protests in the state of Bihar, initially sparked by inflation, unemployment, and corruption, rapidly escalated into a broader movement of mass resistance, demanding systemic transformation and directly challenging Gandhi's authority. Known as the Bihar Movement, it was led by socialist leader Jayaprakash Narayan, who called for a "total revolution".{{Cite book |last=Tiwari |first=Lalan |title=Democracy and Dissent: A Case Study of the Bihar Movement, 1974-75 |publisher=Mittal Publications |year=1987 |isbn=9788170990086}}{{Cite book |last=V. Krishna |first=Ananth |title=India Since Independence: Making Sense Of Indian Politics |publisher=Pearson Education |year=2011 |isbn=9788131734650}} On 12 June 1975, the Allahabad High Court found Gandhi guilty of electoral malpractice in the Raj Narain verdict.{{Cite web |date=12 June 1975 |title=1975: Gandhi found guilty of corruption |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/12/newsid_2511000/2511691.stm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170623125017/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/12/newsid_2511000/2511691.stm |archive-date=23 June 2017 |website=BBC}} In the face of massive political opposition, disorder, and dissent across the country, Gandhi enacted a state of emergency. The Emergency began on 25 June 1975 and saw unprecedented nationwide censorship, mass arrests of dissenters and political opponents, widespread forced sterilisation, the suspension of the constitution, the nullification of fundamental rights, and a dictatorial centralisation of power.{{Cite book |last=Malik |first=Yogendra |title=India: The Years of Indira Gandhi |publisher=Brill Publishers |year=1988 |isbn=978-90-04-08681-4}} In 1977, Gandhi called for fresh elections, which resulted in a historic landslide victory for the Janata Party, a broad anti-Congress coalition. Janata Party leader Morarji Desai subsequently became the country's first non-Congress prime minister.{{Cite web |title=Morarji Desai |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Morarji-Desai |website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}

The Desai Premiership ended the state of emergency and amended the constitution to make it more difficult for the government to declare emergencies.{{Cite book |last=Brass |first=Paul |title=The Politics of India Since Independence |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-521-45970-9}}{{Cite book |last=Mirchandani |first=G.G. |title=320 Million Judges |publisher=Abhinav Publications |year=2003 |isbn=9788170170617}} Desai's economic policies were met with little success.{{Cite book |last=Tharoor |first=Shashi |title=India: From Midnight to the Millennium and Beyond |publisher=Arcade Publishing |year=2006 |isbn=9781559708036}} Significant ideological and political divisions eroded the Janata government. In 1979, Desai resigned and Charan Singh was appointed prime minister. Singh himself resigned just months later. In the 1980 election, Congress resurged, facilitating Indira Gandhi's return to power.{{Cite web |last=Yadav |first=Shyamlal |date=8 May 2024 |title=1980 Lok Sabha elections: Triumph and tragedy of Indira Gandhi |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/a-history-of-lok-sabha-elections-indiras-triumph-tragedy-9314864/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240508022412/https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/a-history-of-lok-sabha-elections-indiras-triumph-tragedy-9314864/ |archive-date=8 May 2024 |website=The Indian Express}} Gandhi was assassination in 1984 by her Sikh bodyguards in the aftermath of Operation Blue Star, a deeply controversial military action in the Golden Temple, a sacred site in Sikhism, in an attempt to crack down on Sikh separatists.{{Cite book |last1=Ganguly |first1=Sumit |title=India and Counterinsurgency: Lessons Learned |last2=Fidler |first2=David P. |publisher=Routledge |year=2009 |isbn=9781134008087}} Her followers reacted by conducting a series of nationwide anti-Sikh pogroms, leading to the deaths of thousands.{{Cite book |last1=Shaw |first1=Jeffrey M. |title=War and Religion: An Encyclopedia of Faith and Conflict [3 volumes] |last2=Demy |first2=Timothy J. |publisher=ABC-Clio |year=2017 |isbn=9781610695176}}{{Cite book |last=Brass |first=Paul R. |title=Riots and Pogroms |publisher=New York University Press |year=1996 |isbn=9780814712825}} Indira Gandhi's son, Rajiv Gandhi, succeeded her as prime minister, with the Nehru–Gandhi family evolving into a political dynasty.{{Cite web |date=9 May 2007 |title=The making of the Gandhi dynasty |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/gallery/2007/may/09/india?picture=329818381#/?picture=329818414&index=1 |website=The Guardian}} The Congress government faced criticism for its handling of the anti-Sikh violence. Many accused the party of complicity, failing to bring the majority of perpetrators to justice, and allegedly providing state support or engaging in cover-ups.{{efn|Sources:

• {{Cite journal |last=Jeffery |first=Renée |date=2020 |title=Post-Conflict Justice in Divided Democracies: The 1984 Anti-Sikh Riots in India |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=41 |issue=6 |pages=994–1011 |doi=10.1080/01436597.2020.1728686}}
• {{Cite web |date=29 October 2014 |title=India: No Justice for 1984 Anti-Sikh Bloodshed |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2014/10/29/india-no-justice-1984-anti-sikh-bloodshed |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141029191537/https://www.hrw.org/news/2014/10/29/india-no-justice-1984-anti-sikh-bloodshed |archive-date=29 October 2014 |website=Human Rights Watch}}
• {{Cite web |last=Bal |first=Hartosh Singh |date=1 October 2014 |title=Sins of Commission: How nine official inquiries obscured the truth of the 1984 anti-Sikh violence |url=https://caravanmagazine.in/reportage/sins-commission |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141004054949/https://caravanmagazine.in/reportage/sins-commission |archive-date=4 October 2014 |website=The Caravan}}
• {{Cite web |last=Agal |first=Renu |date=11 August 2005 |title=Justice delayed, justice denied |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4141524.stm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051117190451/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4141524.stm |archive-date=17 November 2005 |website=BBC}}}} The events of 1984 contributed to the intensification of the Punjab insurgency, a Sikh separatist movement that escalated into a decade-long armed conflict in Punjab, the state with the largest Sikh population.{{Cite book |last=Kumar Ray |first=Jayanta |title=Aspects of India's International Relations, 1700 to 2000: South Asia and the World |publisher=Pearson Education |year=2007 |isbn=9788131708347}}

{{Further information|Economic liberalisation in India}}

Rajiv Gandhi won a landslide victory in the 1984 election. At the age of 40, he became India's youngest prime minister. His tenure saw a shift towards economic deregulation.{{Cite journal |last1=Aghion |first1=Philippe |last2=Burgess |first2=Robin |last3=Redding |first3=Stephen J. |last4=Zilibotti |first4=Fabrizio |date=2008 |title=The Unequal Effects of Liberalization: Evidence from Dismantling the License Raj in India |journal=American Economic Review |volume=98 |issue=4 |pages=1397–1412 |doi=10.1257/aer.98.4.1397}} The Congress was defeated in 1989, and V. P. Singh of the Janata Dal coalition assumed office. His implementation of the Mandal Commission report—expanding reservations for lower caste Hindus—sparked significant social and political unrest.{{Cite book |last=Gehlot |first=N. S. |title=Current Trends in Indian Politics |publisher=Deep and Deep Publications |year=1998 |isbn=9788171007981}} The 1990s also marked the ascent of Hindu nationalism in Indian politics, with the demolition of the Babri Masjid.{{Cite book |last=Jaffrelot |first=Christophe |title=Hindu Nationalism: A Reader |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2007 |isbn=9780691130972}} Following Singh's ousting through a motion of no confidence, Chandra Shekhar briefly served as prime minister before resigning in 1991. With the 1991 election, the Congress returned to power under P. V. Narasimha Rao, whose government initiated sweeping economic liberalisation amidst a severe balance of payments crisis.{{Cite journal |last1=Cerra |first1=Valerie |last2=Saxena |first2=Sweta Chaman |date=2002 |title=What Caused the 1991 Currency Crisis in India? |url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/staffp/2002/03/pdf/cerra.pdf |journal=International Monetary Fund}}{{Cite book |last1=Corbridge |first1=Stuart |title=Reinventing India: Liberalization, Hindu Nationalism and Popular Democracy |last2=Harriss |first2=John |publisher=Wiley |year=2013 |isbn=9780745666044}} The Congress lost the 1996 election. Atal Bihari Vajpayee of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), closely affiliated with the right-wing Hindutva paramilitary organisation Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), briefly became prime minister but his government fell within days.{{Cite web |last=Karthikeyan |first=Suchitra |date=7 April 2024 |title=Elections that shaped India {{!}} The United Front experiment (1996-98) |url=https://www.thehindu.com/elections/the-united-front-experiment-elections-that-shaped-india-1996-1998-elections/article67707166.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240407044250/https://www.thehindu.com/elections/the-united-front-experiment-elections-that-shaped-india-1996-1998-elections/article67707166.ece |archive-date=7 April 2024 |website=The Hindu}} Two successive United Front coalition governments under H. D. Deve Gowda and Inder Kumar Gujral followed, both short-lived due to political instability. Vajpayee returned to power in 1998, and after another brief collapse, led the BJP-organised National Democratic Alliance (NDA) coalition to victory in the 1999 election.{{Cite web |title=The 1999 Indian Parliamentary Elections and the New BJP-led Coalition Government |url=http://asnic.utexas.edu/asnic/hardgrave/Elections1999.html |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081011235012/http://asnic.utexas.edu/asnic/hardgrave/Elections1999.html |archive-date=11 October 2008}} He became the first non-Congress prime minister to complete a full term.{{Cite web |date=14 August 2020 |title=Modi is now the longest serving non-Congress PM as he edges past Atal Bihari Vajpayee |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2020/Aug/14/modi-is-now-the-longest-serving-non-congress-pm-as-he-edges-past-atal-bihari-vajpayee-2183146.html |website=The New Indian Express}} His government conducted successful nuclear weapons tests in 1998, continued economic liberalisation, and improved diplomatic relations with the United States.{{Cite book |last=Dass |first=Sujata K. |title=Atal Bihari Vajpayee: Prime Minister of India |publisher=Gyan Publishing House |year=2004 |isbn=9788178352770}} Dependent on coalition support and led by the moderate Vajpayee,{{Cite web |last=Nag |first=Kingshuk |date=16 August 2018 |title=Atal Behari Vajpayee: A mercurial moderate |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-45205033 |website=BBC}} the BJP was unable to advance key ideological goals, which sowed dissent among hardliners within the party.{{Cite web |last1=Gupta |first1=Sharad |last2=Sinha |first2=Sanjiv |date=18 January 2000 |title=Revive Jan Sangh — BJP hardlines |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/news-archive/revive-jan-sangh-bjp-hardlines/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508224329/https://indianexpress.com/article/news-archive/revive-jan-sangh-bjp-hardlines/ |archive-date=8 May 2021 |website=The Indian Express}} In 2002, a series of widespread anti-Muslim pogroms across Gujarat, led to the deaths of over a thousand people.{{Cite book |last1=Gilly |first1=Thomas Albert |title=The Ethics of Terrorism: Innovative Approaches from an International Perspective (17 Lectures). |last2=Gilinskiy |first2=Yakov |last3=Sergevnin |first3=Vladimir |publisher=Charles C Thomas Publisher |year=2009 |isbn=9780691151779}} The state government, led by chief minister Narendra Modi, faced serious criticism for alleged complicity, negligence, and accusations of state-sponsored terrorism.{{efn|Sources:

• {{Cite book |last=Ghassem-Fachandi |first=Parvis |title=Pogrom in Gujarat: Hindu Nationalism and Anti-Muslim Violence in India |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2012 |isbn=9780691151779}}
• {{Cite book |last1=Jackson |first1=Richard |title=Contemporary State Terrorism: Theory and Practice |last2=Murphy |first2=Eamon |last3=Poynting |first3=Scott |publisher=Routledge |year=2009 |isbn=9781135245160}}
• {{Cite book |last=Pandey |first=Gyanendra |title=Routine Violence: Nations, Fragments, Histories |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=2006 |isbn=9780804752640}}
• {{Cite book |last1=Strozier |first1=Charles B. |title=The Fundamentalist Mindset: Psychological Perspectives on Religion, Violence, and History |last2=Terman |first2=David M. |last3=Jones |first3=James W. |last4=Boyd |first4=Katherine A. |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2010 |isbn=9780199702022}}}}

The 2004 general election resulted in the Congress returning to power, leading the United Progressive Alliance (UPA), a coalition of centrist and centre-left parties.{{Cite web |last=Darbhamulla |first=Sruthi |date=9 April 2024 |title=Elections that shaped India {{!}} An 'upset' victory in 2004, and the rise of the UPA |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/congress-upa-india-elections-2004-2009-politics-explainer-sonia-manmohan-vajpayee-nada-coalition-alliance/article68023875.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240409080759/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/congress-upa-india-elections-2004-2009-politics-explainer-sonia-manmohan-vajpayee-nada-coalition-alliance/article68023875.ece |archive-date=9 April 2024 |website=The Hindu}} Following the election, Manmohan Singh assumed office as the first Sikh and non-Hindu prime minister. Singh continued the process of economic liberalisation and is widely credited with contributing to a period of sustained economic growth in India.{{cite web|url=http://www.ukibc.com/ukindia2/files/India60.pdf |title=The India Report |publisher=Astaire Research |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090114195859/http://www.ukibc.com/ukindia2/files/India60.pdf |archive-date=14 January 2009 }} His administration’s handling of the Great Recession enabled the country to navigate the economic downturn more effectively than many other nations.{{Cite web |date=17 November 2008 |title=JPMorgan cuts India growth forecast, sees rate cuts |url=http://in.reuters.com/article/businessNews/idINIndia-36541420081117 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216072137/http://in.reuters.com/article/businessNews/idINIndia-36541420081117 |archive-date=16 December 2008 |website=Reuters}} He sought reconciliation with Pakistan and deepened ties with the United States.{{Cite web |last=Puri |first=Luv |date=13 January 2025 |title=Manmohan Singh: Legacy of a peacemaker |url=https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/manmohan-singh-legacy-of-a-peacemaker/article69095295.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250113145731/https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/manmohan-singh-legacy-of-a-peacemaker/article69095295.ece |archive-date=13 January 2025 |website=The Hindu}} Singh secured a second term following the UPA's victory in the 2009 general election.{{Cite web |last=Gentleman |first=Amelia |date=16 May 2009 |title=India's Congress party heads for surprise election victory |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/may/16/indian-election-congress-victory-bjp |website=The Guardian}} His government became increasingly associated with corruption, as it was implicated in several high-profile scandals.{{Cite web |date=21 December 2017 |title=2G case: A chronology of events |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/2g-case-a-chronology-of-events/article12151968.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250112135625/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/2g-case-a-chronology-of-events/article12151968.ece |archive-date=12 January 2025 |website=The Hindu}}{{Cite web |last=Banerjee |first=Shoumojit |date=18 October 2019 |title=Scams were exploding all around Manmohan Singh, says Piyush Goyal |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/scams-were-exploding-all-around-manmohan-singh-says-piyush-goyal/article29735536.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191018122052/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/scams-were-exploding-all-around-manmohan-singh-says-piyush-goyal/article29735536.ece |archive-date=18 October 2019 |website=The Hindu}}{{Cite web |last=Nessman |first=Ravi |date=23 November 2010 |title=India's famously clean leader muddied by scandals |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna40321781 |website=NBC News}} The constraints of coalition politics contributed to what was widely perceived by the public as policy paralysis, although some contended that this perception was exaggerated or manufactured.{{Cite web |last=Mishra |first=Soni |date=27 December 2024 |title=Manmohan Singh's final days in office: The shaping of a complex legacy |url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/other/obituary/manmohan-singh-upa-government-indian-congress-india-us-nuclear-talks-liberalisation-economic-reform/article69033551.ece |website=Frontline}}{{Cite web |last=Khare |first=Harish |date=27 December 2024 |title=The Silent Strength of Manmohan Singh as Prime Minister Was His Moral Compass |url=https://m.thewire.in/article/politics/the-silent-strength-of-manmohan-singh-as-prime-minister-was-his-moral-compass |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250413172132/https://m.thewire.in/article/politics/the-silent-strength-of-manmohan-singh-as-prime-minister-was-his-moral-compass |archive-date=13 April 2025 |website=The Wire}} Despite robust economic growth, increases in economic inequality and unemployment also took place.{{Cite web |last=Mody |first=Ashoka |date=9 November 2024 |title=The great inequality myth that rules India |url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/the-nation/india-economic-inequality-elite-development-model-liberalization-failure-corporate-state-nexus-public-goods-crisis/article68828054.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241111081055/https://frontline.thehindu.com/the-nation/india-economic-inequality-elite-development-model-liberalization-failure-corporate-state-nexus-public-goods-crisis/article68828054.ece |archive-date=11 November 2024 |website=Frontline}}{{Cite journal |last1=Tiwari |first1=Shivakar |last2=Kumar |first2=Surinder |date=31 July 2019 |title=Neo-liberal Macroeconomic Policy and Structural Transformation of Indian Economy: Impact on Income, Employment and Distribution |journal=The Indian Journal of Labour Economics |volume=62 |issue=2 |pages=219–238 |doi=10.1007/s41027-019-00166-9}} His later administration witnessed public disillusionment and a decline in popular support.{{Cite web |last1=Kazmin |first1=Amy |last2=Lamont |first2=James |date=27 December 2024 |title=Manmohan Singh, former Indian prime minister, 1932-2024 |url=https://www.ft.com/content/0eeb0d5e-3e6b-4f00-ba26-f7b0ac51de2c |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241228151522/https://www.ft.com/content/0eeb0d5e-3e6b-4f00-ba26-f7b0ac51de2c |archive-date=28 December 2024 |website=Financial Times}}{{Cite web |last1=Nichols |first1=Stafford |last2=Singh |first2=Puneet |date=13 March 2015 |title=India's New Leadership Faces High Expectations |url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/181973/india-new-leadership-faces-high-expectations.aspx |website=Gallup, Inc.}} Meanwhile, Hindu nationalism continued rising in the country, with many attributing the perceived failures of Singh's administration as a significant contributing factor.{{Cite web |last=Crowley |first=Thomas |date=31 December 2024 |title=Manmohan Singh: India's Last Liberal |url=https://jacobin.com/2024/12/manmohan-singh-india-liberal-obituary |website=Jacobin}} The clearance of Narendra Modi for the 2002 Gujarat riots, by a special panel of India's Supreme Court in 2012, led to anger and disbelief among the country's Muslim communities.{{Cite web |date=11 March 2012 |title=Modi's clearance in the Gujarat riots case angers Indian Muslims |url=https://www.dw.com/en/modis-clearance-in-the-gujarat-riots-case-angers-indian-muslims/a-15874606 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160117044116/https://www.dw.com/en/modis-clearance-in-the-gujarat-riots-case-angers-indian-muslims/a-15874606 |archive-date=17 January 2016 |website=Deutsche Welle}} In the 2014 general election, the BJP, led by Modi, adopted a right-wing populist platform.{{Cite journal |last=Sinha |first=Subir |date=August 2021 |title='Strong leaders', authoritarian populism and Indian developmentalism: The Modi moment in historical context |journal=Geoforum |volume=124 |pages=320–333 |doi=10.1016/j.geoforum.2021.02.019}} The party achieved a historic landslide victory, marking the first occasion since 1984 that a single party secured an outright majority in the parliament. The election was seen as the end of the dominance of the Congress in India's political landscape.{{Cite journal |last1=Mitra |first1=Subrata |last2=Schöttli |first2=Jivanta |date=2016 |title=India's 2014 General Elections: A Critical Realignment in Indian Politics? |journal=Asian Survey |publisher=University of California Press |doi=10.1525/as.2016.56.4.605}}{{Cite web |date=3 November 2022 |title=Rise and fall of the Congress |url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/politics/rise-and-fall-of-the-congress-maharashtra-uttar-pradesh-south-india-goa/article66069947.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221103055717/https://frontline.thehindu.com/politics/rise-and-fall-of-the-congress-maharashtra-uttar-pradesh-south-india-goa/article66069947.ece |archive-date=3 November 2022 |website=Frontline}}

{{Main|Premiership of Narendra Modi}}

Upon his inauguration, Narendra Modi became the first prime minister of India to be born after the country’s independence. His first term primarily focused on reducing bureaucratic red tape,{{Cite web |last=Bradsher |first=Keith |date=14 May 2019 |title=Modi Cut India's Red Tape. Now He Hopes to Win Votes for His Work. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/14/business/india-modi-business-red-tape.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190514104509/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/14/business/india-modi-business-red-tape.html |archive-date=14 May 2019 |website=The New York Times}} implementing extensive economic liberalisation,{{Cite journal |last=Ruparelia |first=Sanjay |date=2016 |title='Minimum Government, Maximum Governance': The Restructuring of Power in Modi's India |journal=Journal of South Asian Studies |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=755–775 |doi=10.1080/00856401.2015.1089974}} and overhauling the economic system. These initiatives were accompanied by an expansion of certain government handouts,{{Cite web |last=Biswas |first=Soutik |date=9 May 2024 |title=Free water, housing, food: Modi's $400bn welfare bet to win Indian elections |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-68236697 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240509020052/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-68236697 |archive-date=9 May 2024 |website=BBC}} even as several welfare programmes and government spending were scaled back.{{Cite journal |last=Manor |first=James |date=2016 |title=A Precarious Enterprise? Multiple Antagonisms during Year One of the Modi Government |journal=Journal of South Asian Studies |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=736–754 |doi=10.1080/00856401.2015.1083644}} These policies continued into his successive terms. In the 2019 general election, he secured another landslide victory.

Modi's second term witnessed a pronounced ideological shift towards Hindutva.{{Cite book |last1=Hansen |first1=Thomas Blom |title=Saffron Republic: Hindu Nationalism and State Power in India |last2=Roy |first2=Srirupa |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2022 |isbn=9781009100489}}{{Cite journal |last1=Bhatty |first1=Kiran |last2=Sundar |first2=Nandini |date=2020 |title=Sliding from majoritarianism toward fascism: Educating India under the Modi regime |journal=Sage Publishing |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=632–650 |doi=10.1177/0268580920937226}} He has been widely credited with engineering a shift in India to right-wing politics, contributing to the state-backed mainstreaming of Hindutva, previously considered to be on the political fringe.{{efn|Sources:

• {{Cite book |last1=Hansen |first1=Thomas Blom |title=Saffron Republic: Hindu Nationalism and State Power in India |last2=Roy |first2=Srirupa |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2022 |isbn=9781009100489}}
• {{Cite book |last=Komireddi |first=K. S. |title=Malevolent Republic: A Short History of the New India |publisher=C. Hurst & Co. |year=2024 |isbn=9781805261780}}
• {{Cite journal |last1=Varshney |first1=Ashutosh |last2=Staggs |first2=Connor |date=2024 |title=Hindu Nationalism and the New Jim Crow |journal=Journal of Democracy |volume=35 |pages=5–18 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|doi=10.1353/jod.2024.a915345 }}
• {{Cite web |last1=Pathi |first1=Krutika |last2=Saaliq |first2=Sheikh |date=19 April 2024 |title=Once a fringe Indian ideology, Hindu nationalism is now mainstream, thanks to Modi's decade in power |url=https://apnews.com/article/india-election-narendra-modi-hindu-nationalism-rss-79c30c8ae750a9c037d86b9e2c1b640c |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240418043227/https://apnews.com/article/india-election-narendra-modi-hindu-nationalism-rss-79c30c8ae750a9c037d86b9e2c1b640c |archive-date=18 April 2024 |website=Associated Press}}
• {{Cite web |last=Singh |first=Amit |title=Has the Hindu majority developed a 'Nazi conscience' in India? |url=https://theloop.ecpr.eu/has-the-hindu-majority-developed-a-nazi-conscience-in-india-nationalism/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927013117/https://theloop.ecpr.eu/has-the-hindu-majority-developed-a-nazi-conscience-in-india-nationalism/ |archive-date=27 September 2023 |website=European Consortium for Political Research|date=7 August 2023 }}
• {{Cite web |last=George |first=Cherian |date=28 February 2022 |title=The Rise of Hindu Nationalism |url=https://www.hindutvawatch.org/the-rise-of-hindu-nationalism/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301130129/https://www.hindutvawatch.org/the-rise-of-hindu-nationalism/ |archive-date=1 March 2022 |website=Hindutva Watch}}}} High levels of economic growth and development{{Cite web |last1=Inamdar |first1=Nikhil |last2=Alluri |first2=Aparna |date=22 June 2021 |title=India economy: Seven years of Modi in seven charts |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-57437944 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210621230421/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-57437944 |archive-date=21 June 2021 |website=BBC}} have coincided with an intensification of economic inequality, reaching levels surpassing those observed during the colonial era. This has been described by many scholars and academics as "Billionaire Raj" or India's Gilded Age, and is generally considered to be a crystallisation of trends that had emerged in the 1990s. The administration has faced criticism for allegedly fostering crony capitalism.{{Efn|name=BR|Sources:
• {{Cite book |last=Crabtree |first=James |author-link=James Crabtree |title=The Billionaire Raj: A Journey Through India's New Gilded Age |publisher=Oneworld Publications |year=2018 |isbn=9781786073808}}
• {{Cite web |last=Tillin |first=Louise |date=7 May 2024 |title=The political economy of populism in India |url=https://www.kcl.ac.uk/the-political-economy-of-populism-in-india |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240617080916/https://www.kcl.ac.uk/the-political-economy-of-populism-in-india |archive-date=17 June 2024 |website=King's College London}}
• {{Cite web |last1=Bharti |first1=Nitin Kumar |last2=Chancel |first2=Lucas |last3=Piketty |first3=Thomas |last4=Somanchi |first4=Anmol |date=18 March 2024 |title=Income and Wealth Inequality in India, 1922-2023: The Rise of the Billionaire Raj |url=https://wid.world/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/WorldInequalityLab_WP2024_09_Income-and-Wealth-Inequality-in-India-1922-2023_Final.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240614070529/https://wid.world/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/WorldInequalityLab_WP2024_09_Income-and-Wealth-Inequality-in-India-1922-2023_Final.pdf |archive-date=14 June 2024 |website=World Inequality Database}}
• {{Cite web |last=Kamble |first=Kapil S |date=20 May 2023 |title=The Anatomy of Crony Capitalism in India |url=https://www.epw.in/journal/2023/20/commentary/anatomy-crony-capitalism-india.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230523183440/https://www.epw.in/journal/2023/20/commentary/anatomy-crony-capitalism-india.html |archive-date=23 May 2023 |website=Economic and Political Weekly}}
• {{Cite web |last=Sharma |first=Yashraj |date=29 April 2024 |title=Is today's India more unequal than under British rule? |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/economy/2024/4/29/is-modis-india-more-unequal-than-under-british-rule |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240429052001/https://www.aljazeera.com/economy/2024/4/29/is-modis-india-more-unequal-than-under-british-rule |archive-date=29 April 2024 |website=Al Jazeera Media Network}}}} Modi's government was criticised for mishandling the COVID-19 pandemic.{{Cite web |date=5 May 2021 |title=India's Modi slammed for COVID handling amid spiralling crisis |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/5/5/crime-against-humanity-indias-modi-slammed-for-covid-handling |website=Al Jazeera}}{{Cite web |last=Vaid |first=Dharvi |date=10 May 2021 |title=How COVID disaster dents Modi's well-crafted image |url=https://www.dw.com/en/india-modi-covid/a-57483178 |website=Deutsche Welle}} Furthermore, the pandemic contributed to a broader cost-of-living crisis that persisted beyond its conclusion.{{Cite web |last=Shukla |first=Archana |date=14 December 2022 |title=India's middle class hit by rising cost of living |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-63821811 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221214051201/https://www.bbc.com/news/business-63821811 |archive-date=14 December 2022 |website=BBC}}{{Cite web |last=Beniwal |first=Vrishti |date=4 April 2022 |title=Cost of living rises in India as companies pass on higher prices |url=https://m.economictimes.com/news/india/cost-of-living-rises-in-india-as-companies-pass-on-higher-prices/articleshow/90632305.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220710173821/https://m.economictimes.com/news/india/cost-of-living-rises-in-india-as-companies-pass-on-higher-prices/articleshow/90632305.cms |archive-date=10 July 2022 |website=The Economic Times}}

Throughout his tenure, many observers have noted a significant and sustained decline in democratic norms in India. The Modi government has employed state power to suppress dissent across various sectors, including the arts, academia, journalism, and the political opposition, while also leading to an increasingly right-wing and pro-government mainstream media.{{efn|Sources:

• {{Cite book |last=Widmalm |first=Sten |title=Routledge Handbook of Autocratization in South Asia |publisher=Routledge |year=2021 |isbn=9781000486629}}
• {{cite journal|last1=Brunkert|first1=Lennart|last2=Kruse|first2=Stefan|last3=Welzel|first3=Christian|date=3 April 2019|title=A tale of culture-bound regime evolution: the centennial democratic trend and its recent reversal|url=http://fox.leuphana.de/portal/de/publications/a-tale-of-culturebound-regime-evolution-the-centennial-democratic-trend-and-its-recent-reversal(2b6baaf4-3942-4491-92ca-55782d455a62).html|journal=Democratization|volume=26|issue=3|pages=422–443|doi=10.1080/13510347.2018.1542430|s2cid=148625260|issn=1351-0347|access-date=4 January 2021|archive-date=10 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211010183922/http://fox.leuphana.de/portal/de/publications/a-tale-of-culturebound-regime-evolution-the-centennial-democratic-trend-and-its-recent-reversal(2b6baaf4-3942-4491-92ca-55782d455a62).html|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}
• {{cite journal|last=Khaitan|first=Tarunabh|date=26 May 2020|title=Killing a Constitution with a Thousand Cuts: Executive Aggrandizement and Party-state Fusion in India|journal=Law & Ethics of Human Rights|language=en|volume=14|issue=1|pages=49–95|doi=10.1515/lehr-2020-2009|s2cid=221083830|issn=2194-6531|doi-access=free|hdl=11343/241852|hdl-access=free}}
• {{Cite web |last=Blank |first=Jonah |date=8 August 2019 |title=India Just Put Democracy at Risk Across South Asia |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2019/08/indias-kashmir-democracy/595711/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190808085343/https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2019/08/indias-kashmir-democracy/595711/ |archive-date=8 August 2019 |website=The Atlantic}}
• {{Cite web |last=Biswas |first=Soutik |date=16 March 2021 |title='Electoral autocracy': The downgrading of India's democracy |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-56393944.amp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420185807/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-56393944.amp |archive-date=20 April 2021 |website=BBC}}
• {{Cite web |last=Ganguly |first=Sumit |date=18 September 2020 |title=India's Democracy Is Under Threat |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/09/18/indias-democracy-is-under-threat/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920000958/https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/09/18/indias-democracy-is-under-threat/ |archive-date=20 September 2020 |website=Foreign Policy}}
• {{Cite web |url=https://m.thewire.in/article/rights/farmers-protest-godi-media-channels-ground-reporters |title=At Farmers' Protest, Field Reporters of 'Godi Media' Channels Face the Heat |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221127084958/https://m.thewire.in/article/rights/farmers-protest-godi-media-channels-ground-reporters |archive-date=27 November 2022 |date=9 December 2020 |first=Ismat |last=Ara |website=The Wire (India)}}}} His political base has been compared to a cult of personality.{{Cite book |last=Jaffrelot |first=Christophe |title=Modi's India: Hindu Nationalism and the Rise of Ethnic Democracy |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2023 |isbn=9780691247908}}{{Cite web |last=Ellis-Petersen |first=Hannah |date=19 April 2024 |title='Messianic spell': how Narendra Modi created a cult of personality |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/apr/19/messianic-spell-how-narendra-modi-created-a-cult-personality |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240419152154/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/apr/19/messianic-spell-how-narendra-modi-created-a-cult-personality |archive-date=19 April 2024 |website=The Guardian}} In the 2024 general election, the BJP lost its parliamentary majority and now leads an NDA coalition government. The result coincided with a global anti-incumbency wave and a resurgence of the opposition, led by the Congress party—though gains were largely driven by regional parties rather than a full revival of the Congress.{{Cite web |last1=Rising |first1=David |last2=Lawless |first2=Jill |last3=Riccardi |first3=Nicholas |date=17 November 2024 |title=The 'super year' of elections has been super bad for incumbents as voters punish them in droves |url=https://apnews.com/article/global-elections-2024-incumbents-defeated-c80fbd4e667de86fe08aac025b333f95 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241118014309/https://apnews.com/article/global-elections-2024-incumbents-defeated-c80fbd4e667de86fe08aac025b333f95 |archive-date=18 November 2024 |website=Associated Press}}{{Cite web |last=Ranjan |first=Ashish |date=25 June 2024 |title=Rise of the regionals |url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/politics/2024-lok-sabha-election-results-regional-parties-narendra-modi-bjp-nda-india-bloc-congress-opposition/article68316397.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240626010458/https://frontline.thehindu.com/politics/2024-lok-sabha-election-results-regional-parties-narendra-modi-bjp-nda-india-bloc-congress-opposition/article68316397.ece |archive-date=26 June 2024 |website=Frontline}}

{{Main|Constitution of India}}

The constitution of India is the supreme legal document of the country and the longest written national constitution in the world. It declares India to be a sovereign, socialist, secular, and democratic republic.{{Cite web |title=Read The Preamble |url=https://www.mygov.in/read-the-preamble-india/ |website=MyGov.in}} It establishes the framework that defines the fundamental political code, structure, procedures, powers, and duties of government institutions. It also sets out fundamental rights, directive principles, and the duties of citizens. The day of adoption of the constitution is celebrated every year on 26 January as Republic Day.{{Cite book |last=Das |first=Hari |title=Political System of India |publisher=Anmol Publications Pvt. Limited |year=2002 |isbn=9788174886903}}{{Cite web |date=26 January 2025 |title=In Pictures: India celebrates 76th Republic Day |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/in-pictures-india-celebrates-76th-republic-day/article69142907.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250126133601/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/in-pictures-india-celebrates-76th-republic-day/article69142907.ece |archive-date=26 January 2025 |website=The Hindu}}

{{Main|Parliament of India}}

The parliament of India is the country's supreme legislative body and follows a bicameral structure comprising the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and the Lok Sabha (House of the People).{{Cite book |last1=Shankar |first1=B. L. |title=The Indian Parliament: A Democracy at Work |last2=Rodrigues |first2=Valerian |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2012 |isbn=9780199080434}} The president of India, who serves as the ceremonial head of state, is also a formal component of the legislature.{{Cite web |last=Biswas |first=Soutik |date=2 August 2017 |title=What is India's president actually for? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-40772945 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802132228/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-40772945 |archive-date=2 August 2017 |website=BBC}} The president is elected to a five-year term by an electoral college comprising the elected members of both houses of parliament, as well as elected members of state legislatures. Parliament House in New Delhi is the seat of India's parliament, housing both the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha.

{{Main|Lok Sabha}}

The Lok Sabha, also known as the House of the People, is the lower house of the parliament. Its members are directly elected by Indian citizens through universal adult franchise, representing parliamentary constituencies across the country under a first-past-the-post electoral system.{{Cite web |last=R. |first=Rangarajan |date=9 June 2024 |title=Is it time for proportional representation? {{!}} Explained |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/is-it-time-for-proportional-representation-explained/article68269434.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240609182159/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/is-it-time-for-proportional-representation-explained/article68269434.ece |archive-date=9 June 2024 |website=The Hindu}} General elections are held once every five years, although early elections may be called if the house is dissolved by the president on the advice of the prime minister and the council of ministers. During a state of emergency, the term of the Lok Sabha may be extended beyond five years. The Lok Sabha is the principal centre of legislative authority in India, where major national laws are introduced, debated, and passed; the executive branch is primarily responsible and accountable to this house. The prime minister typically serves as the leader of the house in Lok Sabha, and the ruling party or coalition largely drives the legislative agenda.

A motion of no confidence is a formal proposal in the Lok Sabha asserting that the ruling government no longer has the support of the majority of the house; if passed, it obliges the entire government to resign.

The current Lok Sabha, the eighteenth since independence, comprises 543 seats, all filled by members of parliament elected in the 2024 Indian general election.{{Cite web |date=5 June 2024 |title=Lok Sabha Elections 2024 Results: Full List of winners on all 543 seats |url=https://indianexpress.com/elections/2019-general-election-schedule/full-list-of-winners-in-lok-sabha-elections-2024-9364542/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240605115428/https://indianexpress.com/elections/2019-general-election-schedule/full-list-of-winners-in-lok-sabha-elections-2024-9364542/ |archive-date=5 June 2024 |website=The Indian Express}}

{{Main|Rajya Sabha}}

The Rajya Sabha, also known as the Council of States, is the upper house of the parliament.{{Cite web |title=Rajya Sabha |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rajya-Sabha |website=Encyclopædia Britannica}} It currently has 245 seats. Its members are elected by the members of the state legislative assemblies through a system of proportional representation, by means of a single transferable vote. Members serve staggered six-year terms, with one-third of the house being elected every two years. In addition, twelve members are nominated directly by the president, in recognition of their distinguished contributions to fields such as the arts and the sciences.

While the Rajya Sabha has the constitutional authority to introduce, debate, and pass most categories of national legislation—with the sole exception of money bills, which fall exclusively within the domain of the Lok Sabha—it primarily functions as a revisory chamber and rarely obstructs significant legislation approved by the lower house. Nevertheless, on occasion, it has exercised its powers to delay or seek amendments to major legislative proposals passed by the Lok Sabha.

The state legislature of India consists of the state legislative assemblies and the state legislative councils. While the majority of Indian states and union territories function under a unicameral legislature, six states maintain a bicameral system, with the state legislative councils serving as the upper house.{{Cite web |title=Constitutional structure: State and local governments |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref487341 |website=Encyclopædia Britannica}} Notably, money bills fall exclusively within the jurisdiction of the state legislative assemblies. In the event of a disagreement between the two houses of the state legislature, the decision of the state legislative assembly prevails.{{Cite web |date=11 November 2024 |title=Maharashtra Assembly Elections 2024 {{!}} FAQ: What is Legislative Assembly? |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/elections/maharashtra/maharashtra-assembly-elections-2024-faq-what-is-legislative-assembly-3238837 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250415151146/https://www.deccanherald.com/elections/maharashtra/maharashtra-assembly-elections-2024-faq-what-is-legislative-assembly-3238837 |archive-date=15 April 2025 |website=Deccan Herald}}

{{Main|State legislative assemblies of India}}

The state legislative assembly, also known as the Vidhan Sabha or the Saasana Sabha, is the legislative body that functions as the unicameral legislature in twenty-two states and all union territories of India. In six states, it serves as the lower house of a bicameral legislature.{{Cite web |title=What is Legislative Council |url=https://www.business-standard.com/about/what-is-legislative-council |website=Business Standard}} Members of the legislative assemby are directly elected by the electorate of individual constituencies through general elections held every five years, unless dissolved sooner by the governor on the advice of the chief minister.{{Cite web |date=25 November 2023 |title=Assembly Election vs. General Election: What's the difference? |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/education/learning-with-toi/assembly-election-vs-general-election-whats-the-difference/articleshow/105488608.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129125850/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/education/learning-with-toi/assembly-election-vs-general-election-whats-the-difference/articleshow/105488608.cms |archive-date=29 November 2023 |website=The Times of India}} State legislative assemblies are the locus of legislative authority in their specific states or union territories. Analogous to the Lok Sabha at the national level, a motion of no confidence may be introduced and passed within a state legislative assembly; if successful, the incumbent state government is obliged to resign.{{Cite web |title=Constitution of India |url=https://www.india.gov.in/sites/upload_files/npi/files/coi_part_full.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180425183923/https://www.india.gov.in/sites/upload_files/npi/files/coi_part_full.pdf |archive-date=25 April 2018 |access-date= |website=india.gov.in}}

{{Main|State legislative councils of India}}

The state legislative council, also known as the Vidhan Parishad or the Saasana Mandali, functions as the upper house in the bicameral legislature of select Indian states.{{Cite web |last=Achary |first=P. D. T. |author-link=P. D. T. Achary |date=19 May 2024 |title=The case for the second house: State Legislative Councils |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/karnataka/the-case-for-the-second-house-state-legislative-councils-3028680 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240519033040/https://www.deccanherald.com/india/karnataka/the-case-for-the-second-house-state-legislative-councils-3028680 |archive-date=19 May 2024 |website=Deccan Herald}} A state legislative assembly may pass a resolution by a special majority to establish or dissolve the council.{{Cite web |date=28 January 2020 |title=Explainer: Why Jagan Reddy wants to abolish the legislative council in Andhra Pradesh |url=https://www.theweek.in/news/india/2020/01/28/explainer-what-are-state-legislative-councils-and-why-did-andhra-pradesh-abolish-it.html |website=The Week (Indian magazine)}} Members of a state legislative council serve staggered terms of six years, with one-third of the members retiring every two years. The composition of the council reflects a blend of indirect election and nomination, designed to represent various interest groups and areas of expertise. Although the state legislative council performs a reviewing and advisory role, it holds limited legislative power. As of now, six Indian states possess such councils: Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Telangana, and Uttar Pradesh.

{{Main|Reservation in India}}

Reservation is a form of affirmative action that was established during the British Raj.{{Cite web |last=Laskar |first=Mehbubul |title=Rethinking Reservation in Higher Education in India |url=http://www.ili.ac.in/pdf/article_2.pdf |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425081633/http://www.ili.ac.in/pdf/article_2.pdf |archive-date=25 April 2012 |publisher=ILI Law Review}} It reserves seats for "socially and economically backward citizens" in higher education admissions, employment, political bodies, etc.{{Cite journal |last=Soren |first=Chunuram |date=July 2021 |title=Reservation in India: Rhetoric and Reality |journal=International Journal of Advanced Research |volume=9 |issue=7 |pages=507–515 |doi=10.21474/IJAR01/13149|doi-access=free }} Part XVI of the Constitution deals with reservation in the legislature.{{Cite web |last=Jeenger |first=Kailash |date=18 May 2020 |title=Reservation Is About Adequate Representation, Not Poverty Eradication |url=https://m.thewire.in/article/law/supreme-court-bench-reservation |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200524043244/https://m.thewire.in/article/law/supreme-court-bench-reservation |archive-date=24 May 2020 |website=The Wire}} In 2023, Parliament passed the One Hundred and Sixth Amendment of the Constitution of India, which reserves 33% of legislative seats for women.{{Cite web |last=Nihalani |first=Jasmin |date=24 September 2023 |title=Women Reservation Bill: In 20 States & UTs less than 10% MLAs are female {{!}} Data |url=https://www.thehindu.com/data/women-reservation-bill-in-20-states-uts-less-than-10-mlas-are-female-data/article67338512.ece |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230924095154/https://www.thehindu.com/data/women-reservation-bill-in-20-states-uts-less-than-10-mlas-are-female-data/article67338512.ece |archive-date=24 September 2023 |website=The Hindu}}{{Cite web |title=Women's Reservation Act of 2023: A Symbolic Gesture or a Significant Stride Towards Empowerment? |url=https://www.epw.in/engage/article/womens-reservation-act-2023-symbolic-gesture-or-0 |website=Economic and Political Weekly|date=20 March 2024 }}

{{Main|Premiership of Narendra Modi#Democratic backsliding}}{{See also|Godi media|Fake news in India|Internet censorship in India}}

Numerous media outlets{{Cite web |date=3 March 2021 |title=India is now only 'partly free' under Modi, says report |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-56249596 |website=BBC}}{{cite web|last=Ganguly|first=Sumit|title=India's Democracy Is Under Threat|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/09/18/indias-democracy-is-under-threat/|date=18 September 2020|access-date=27 November 2020|website=Foreign Policy|language=en-US|archive-date=4 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204223518/https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/09/18/indias-democracy-is-under-threat/|url-status=live}}{{cite news|first1=Vindu|last1=Goel|first2=Jeffrey|last2=Gettleman|date=2 April 2020|title=Under Modi, India's Press Is Not So Free Anymore|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/02/world/asia/modi-india-press-media.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200402132111/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/02/world/asia/modi-india-press-media.html|archive-date=2 April 2020|url-access=limited|url-status=live|access-date=9 March 2021|issn=0362-4331}} and academic scholars{{cite journal|last1=Brunkert|first1=Lennart|last2=Kruse|first2=Stefan|last3=Welzel|first3=Christian|date=3 April 2019|title=A tale of culture-bound regime evolution: the centennial democratic trend and its recent reversal|url=http://fox.leuphana.de/portal/de/publications/a-tale-of-culturebound-regime-evolution-the-centennial-democratic-trend-and-its-recent-reversal(2b6baaf4-3942-4491-92ca-55782d455a62).html|journal=Democratization|volume=26|issue=3|pages=422–443|doi=10.1080/13510347.2018.1542430|s2cid=148625260|issn=1351-0347|access-date=4 January 2021|archive-date=10 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211010183922/http://fox.leuphana.de/portal/de/publications/a-tale-of-culturebound-regime-evolution-the-centennial-democratic-trend-and-its-recent-reversal(2b6baaf4-3942-4491-92ca-55782d455a62).html|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}{{cite journal|last=Khaitan|first=Tarunabh|date=26 May 2020|title=Killing a Constitution with a Thousand Cuts: Executive Aggrandizement and Party-state Fusion in India|journal=Law & Ethics of Human Rights|language=en|volume=14|issue=1|pages=49–95|doi=10.1515/lehr-2020-2009|s2cid=221083830|issn=2194-6531|doi-access=free|hdl=11343/241852|hdl-access=free}} have extensively documented the democratic backsliding seen in India under the premiership of Narendra Modi.

According to V-Dem Institute, laws on sedition, defamation, and counterterrorism have been used to silence critics and dissenting voices.{{cite web|first=Lydia|last=Finzel|title=Democratic Backsliding in India, the World's Largest Democracy|url=https://www.v-dem.net/en/news/democratic-backsliding-india-worlds-largest-democracy/|date=24 February 2020|access-date=27 November 2020|website=www.v-dem.net|publisher=V-Dem Institute|archive-date=27 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227182459/https://www.v-dem.net/en/news/democratic-backsliding-india-worlds-largest-democracy/|url-status=dead}}Pillai, Shreeya and Lindberg, Staffan I. (2021) "Democracy Broken Down: India" in Democracy Report 2021: Autocratization Turns Viral pp.20–21. V-Dem Institute In 2021, V-Dem downgraded India from 'flawed democracy' to 'electoral autocracy'.{{Cite web |last=Biswas |first=Soutik |date=16 March 2021 |title='Electoral autocracy': The downgrading of India's democracy |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-56393944 |website=BBC}} In a 2023 report, the institute characterised India as "one of the worst autocratisers in the last 10 years."{{cite news |date=7 March 2023 |title=India Is 'One of the Worst Autocratisers in the Last 10 Years,' Says 2023 V-Dem Report |url=https://thewire.in/rights/india-autocratiser-v-dem-report-2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307043820/https://m.thewire.in/article/rights/india-autocratiser-v-dem-report-2023 |archive-date=7 March 2023 |work=The Wire}} In 2024, India was ranked as the 19th most electorally democratic country in Asia, amid a process of democratic backsliding, according to the V-Dem Democracy indices.{{cite web |title=Democracy Report 2025, 25 Years of Autocratization – Democracy Trumped? |url=https://v-dem.net/documents/54/v-dem_dr_2025_lowres_v1.pdf |access-date=14 March 2025}}

Aside from V-Dem, various independent sources have identified the use of sedition, defamation, and counterterrorism laws, as well as harassment and raids by tax officers, against critics of the Modi government.{{Cite web |date=6 September 2023 |title=The Modi decade and how it changed India: India's endangered democracy and freedom |url=https://www.soas.ac.uk/about/event/modi-decade-and-how-it-changed-india-indias-endangered-democracy-and-declining-press-0 |website=SOAS University of London}}{{Cite web |last=Purohit |first=Kunal |date=2 February 2021 |title=Our New Database Reveals Rise In Sedition Cases In The Modi Era |url=https://www.article-14.com/post/our-new-database-reveals-rise-in-sedition-cases-in-the-modi-era |website=Article-14}} Organisations such as the Enforcement Directorate and the Central Bureau of Investigation have been used to attack the opposition.{{Cite journal |last1=Jaffrelot |first1=Christophe |last2=Verniers |first2=Gilles |date=2020 |title=A new party system or a new political system? |journal=Contemporary South Asia |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=141–154 |doi=10.1080/09584935.2020.1765990}} The Modi administration has delayed, suppressed, and withheld official government data, such as those related to unemployment, mob lynchings, and farmer suicides, among others.{{Cite web |last=Sen |first=Jahnavi |date=30 December 2019 |title=Six Numbers the Modi Government Did Not Want You to Know in 2019 |url=https://m.thewire.in/article/politics/narendra-modi-data-npr-nrc-economy |website=The Wire}} Internet censorship has worsened, with a significant rise in the banning and blocking of websites, apps, and accounts on social media, alongside the suppression of online information, which are considered to be critical of the government.{{Cite web |last=Ellis-Petersen |first=Hannah |date=9 February 2021 |title=Twitter concerned for staff in India after row over account removals |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/feb/09/twitter-concerned-for-staff-in-india-after-row-over-account-removals |website=The Guardian}}{{Cite web |last=Barik |first=Soumyarendra |date=6 April 2023 |title=IT Ministry notifies body to flag 'fake' content about govt, PIB reference removed |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/it-ministry-body-to-flag-fake-content-8542980/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406155426/https://indianexpress.com/article/india/it-ministry-body-to-flag-fake-content-8542980/ |archive-date=6 April 2023 |website=The Indian Express}}{{Cite web |last=Mahima |first=Kapoor |date=14 May 2025 |title=India blocks Chinese, Turkish news agencies from X |url=https://www.dw.com/en/india-blocks-chinese-turkish-news-agencies-from-x/a-72536227 |website=Deutsche Welle}} Furthermore, throughout Modi's tenure as prime minister, the Indian media landscape has shifted markedly towards a right-wing and pro-government orientation. This alignment has sometimes been pejoratively referred to as 'Godi media', a term used to criticise perceived media subservience to the ruling establishment.{{Cite web |last=Ismat |first=Ara |date=9 December 2020 |title=At Farmers' Protest, Field Reporters of 'Godi Media' Channels Face the Heat |url=https://m.thewire.in/article/rights/farmers-protest-godi-media-channels-ground-reporters |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221127084958/https://m.thewire.in/article/rights/farmers-protest-godi-media-channels-ground-reporters |archive-date=27 November 2022 |website=The Wire}}{{Cite web |last=S K |first=Husain |date=24 April 2020 |title=Why India's 'Godi Media' Spreads Hatred and Fake News |url=https://clarionindia.net/why-indias-godi-media-spreads-hatred-and-fake-news/ |website=Clarion India}}

In 2023, India was ranked 161 out of 180 countries in the World Press Freedom Index, published by Reporters Without Borders.{{Cite web |date=3 May 2023 |title=India slips in World Press Freedom Index, ranks 161 out of 180 countries |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/india-slips-in-world-press-freedom-index-ranks-161-out-of-180-countries/article66806608.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230503063559/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/india-slips-in-world-press-freedom-index-ranks-161-out-of-180-countries/article66806608.ece |archive-date=3 May 2023 |website=The Hindu}} The Democracy Index, published by the Economist Group, classifies India as a 'flawed democracy'.{{cite news |last1=Dutta |first1=Anisha |date=22 June 2023 |title=India secretly works to preserve reputation on global Democracy Index |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jun/22/india-democracy-index-flawed-preserve-reputation-narendra-modi |work=The Guardian}} The Freedom House classifies India as 'partly free'.

In "Global Challenges to Democracy," Milan Vaishnav argues that India's "referee institutions," such as the judiciary, investigative agencies, the Election Commission of India, the Central Information Commission, Lokpal, and others, have been weakened through coercion and patronage. He identifies three strategies that contribute to this weakening of institutions:

1. Deference: Institutions self-censor or avoid confrontation.
2. Interference: There is direct meddling in appointments, procedures, or actions.
3. Neglect: Institutions are deprived of capacity or relevance.

Vaishnav also outlines several reasons why these institutions abdicate their responsibilities. The first is the alleged ideological alignment with the ruling party. The second is career incentives and post-retirement appointments, often referred to as the "sinecure state." The third reason is fear of retaliation, and lastly, public opinion pressures discourage opposition to a popular government.{{Citation |last=Vaishnav |first=Milan |title=Backsliding in India? |date=2025-05-15 |work=Global Challenges to Democracy |pages=35–53 |url=https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009602570.003 |access-date=2025-06-03 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/9781009602570.003 |isbn=978-1-009-60257-0}}

• Elections in India
• Politics of India
• Democratic backsliding

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Category:Elections in India