Geography of Australia

Australia is a country located in Oceania, in the Southern Hemisphere of the Earth. Its continental extents lies between latitudes 10° 41' 21‘ and 43° 38' 40’ S (39° 08' 20‘ S if only the mainland area is considered, excluding Tasmania), and longitudes 113° 09' 18’ and 153° 38' 14" E.{{Cite web|url=https://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/national-location-information/dimensions/continental-extremities|title=Continental Extremities|website=Geoscience Australia|access-date=30 May 2025}} Properly called the Commonwealth of Australia, its territory consists of a mainland portion, the insular state of Tasmania and around 8222 smaller fringing islands and numerous larger ones. This makes it the sixth-largest country in the world by area of jurisdiction, which comprises {{convert|7688287|km2|abbr=on}}.{{Cite web|url=https://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/national-location-information/landforms/islands|title=Islands|website=Geoscience Australia|access-date=4 June 2025}} Although it has no land borders, Australia shares, through its maritimal jurisdiction, boundaries with Timor Leste, Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, New Caledonia (France) and New Zealand.{{Cite web|url=https://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/marine/jurisdiction/map-series|title=Australia's Maritime Jurisdiction Map Series|website=Geoscience Australia|access-date=1 June 2025}} Australia's continental extents lengths approximately {{convert|3860|km|mi|abbr=on}} from its most northerly point to its most southerly point in Tasmania, and it's almost {{convert|4000|km|mi|abbr=on}} wide, from east to west.

File:Reliefmap of Australia.png

Continental Australia can be broken into four major landform regions: the Coastal Plains, the Eastern Highlands, the Central Lowlands and the Western Plateau.

Along the eastern seaboard of the mainland are the Coastal Plains; a narrow strip of land along the east continental coastline of Australia from Queensland to Victoria. This area is flat and has relatively high rainfall, making it suitable for human settlement.{{cite web |title=Landforms of Australia |url=https://www.skwirk.com.au/skwirk/uploadFiles/content/database/files/chapter.2820.body.html |website=Skwirk.com.au |date=2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331131547/https://www.skwirk.com.au/skwirk/uploadFiles/content/database/files/chapter.2820.body.html|archive-date=31 March 2022}} It is the most densely populated area in Australia.{{Cite web|last=Capuano|first=Glenn|url=https://blog.id.com.au/2015/population/demographic-trends/australian-population-grid-a-new-view-of-population-density|title=Australian Population Grid – a new view of population density|website=id.com.au|date=22 January 2015|access-date=3 June 2025}} Much of the centre of mainland Australia is also flat, but there are numerous ranges such as the MacDonnell and Musgrave Ranges, as well as some individual structures, of which the best known is Uluru. Towards the east, the flat land rises to the Great Divide which runs parallel to the east coast from the tip of the Cape York Peninsula in Queensland almost 4000km south to the Grampians in Victoria. This separates rivers flowing to the west and north from those flowing to the Pacific. The Eastern Highlands are made up of a series of mountains in the south topped by Mount Kosciuszko and volcanic plugs, ash domes and flow remnants further north. The Western Plateau is a relatively flat area about {{cvt|183|m}} above sea level with low mountainous ranges in the north of Western Australia and isolated uplands in the Northern Territory. This area makes up more than half of the country.{{Cite web|url=https://turkey.embassy.gov.au/files/anka/TellMeAboutAustralia.pdf|title=Tell me about Australia|website=turkey.embassy.gov.au|page=4|access-date=2 June 2025}}

File:Topography of Tasmania.jpg

Tasmania, the island state, has its own topological distinctions. The Tasmanian central east area, known as the Midlands, is fairly flat by comparison and is predominantly used for agriculture. The most mountainous region is the Central Highlands area, which covers most of the central west parts of the state. Tasmanian mountain ranges has a 'rounded smoothness', similar to that of mainland.{{Cite web|url=https://www.ourtasmania.com.au/natural-tasmania.html|title=Natural Tasmania|website=Our Tasmania|access-date=3 June 2025}}

Australia is the lowest continent in the world with an average elevation of only {{cvt|330|m}}; around 86.77% of the country's surface (excluding islands) does not exceed an altitude of {{cvt|500|m}}.{{Cite web|url=https://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/national-location-information/landforms/elevations|title=Elevations|website=Geoscience Australia|access-date=1 June 2025}} Mainland Australia's highest point is Mount Kosciuszko ({{cvt|2745|m}} high), located within the Australian Alps, while the highest point on Australian sovereign territory is Mawson Peak on Heard Island, which is {{cvt|2745|m}} high and forms the summit of an active volcano called Big Ben.{{Cite web|url=https://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/national-location-information/landforms/highest-mountains#heading-5|title=Highest Mountains|website=Geoscience Australia|access-date=1 June 2025}}

{{main|Regions of Australia|Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation for Australia}}

{{See also|Ecoregions in Australia}}File:Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation for Australia, version 7.pdf]]

The Australian continental landmass consists of six distinct landform divisions.{{cite book|title=Australia:Portrait of a continent|last=Loffler|first=Ernst|author2=Anneliese Loffler |author3=A. J. Rose |author4=Denis Warner |year=1983|publisher=Hutchinson Group|isbn=0-09-130460-1|pages=18}}

These are:

• The Eastern Highlands—including the Great Dividing Range, the fertile Brigalow Belt strip of grassland behind the east coast, and the Eastern Uplands
• The Eastern alluvial Plains and Lowlands—the Murray Darling basin covers the southern part; also includes parts of the Lake Eyre Basin and extends to the Gulf of Carpentaria
• The South Australian Highlands—including the Flinders Range, Eyre Peninsula, and Yorke Peninsula
• The Western Plateau—including the Nullarbor Plain
• The Central Deserts
• Northern Plateau and Basins—including the Top End

Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation for Australia (IBRA) classifies Australia's landscapes into 89 large geographically distinct bioregions and 419 subregions based on common climate, geology, landform, native vegetation and species information.{{Cite web|url=https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/land/nrs/science/ibra|title=Australia's bioregions (IBRA)|website=Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water|access-date=5 June 2025}}

{{main|Geology of Australia}}

File:Ausgeolbasic.jpg

Australia is the lowest, flattest, and oldest continental landmass on EarthPain, C.F., Villans, B.J., Roach, I.C., Worrall, L. & Wilford, J.R. (2012): Old, flat and red – Australia's distinctive landscape. In: Shaping a Nation: A Geology of Australia. Blewitt, R.S. (Ed.) Geoscience Australia and ANU E Press, Canberra. pp. 227–275 {{ISBN|978-1-922103-43-7}} and it has had a relatively stable geological history. Although the shape of Australia is due largely to tectonic Earth movements and long-term changes in sea level, most of its topography is a result of prolonged erosion by wind and water.{{Cite web|url=https://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/national-location-information/landforms/australian-landforms-and-their-history|title=Australian Landforms and their History|website=Geoscience Australia|access-date=29 May 2025}} Geological forces such as the tectonic uplift of mountain ranges and clashes between tectonic plates occurred mainly in Australia's early prehistory, when it was still a part of Gondwana.{{Cite web|url=https://theaustralianalpsnationalparks.org/the-alps-partnership/education/geology/|title=Geology|website=Australian Alps National Parks|access-date=29 May 2025}} The Gondwana landmass began to break up about 165 million years ago; however, the Australian plate took a long time to separate. In fact, it was, along with the Antarctic plate, the last major continental plates of Gondwana to separate, 45 million years ago. Today, the Australian continent is moving northwards at about 3 cm per year.{{Cite web|url=https://nre.tas.gov.au/documents/gondwana.pdf|title=Gondwana: The great supercontinent|website=Parks and Wildlife Service Tasmania|format=PDF|access-date=29 May 2025}}

The on-shore geology of Australia is dominated by five provinces: Archaean to Paleoproterozoic cratons, Palaeo to Mesoproterozoic orogenic belts, Meso to Neoproterozoic sedimentary basins, Paleozoic rocks of the Tasman Foldbelt, and Mesozoic rocks of the Great Artesian Basin.{{Cite journal|url=https://eolss.net/sample-chapters/C01/E6-15-07-04.pdf|last=Geoffrey L.|first=Clarke|title=The Geology of Australia|journal=Geology|volume=4|format=PDF}} Charles Rowland Twidale estimates that between 10% and 20% of Australia's modern landscapes formed during the Mesozoic when the continent was part of Gondwana.{{cite journal |last1=Rowland |first1=C.R. |author-link=Charles Rowland Twidale |title=Gondwanan (Late Jurassic and Cretaceous) palaeosurfaces of the Australian craton|journal=Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology |volume=112 |issue=1–2 |pages=157–186 |date=1994 |doi=10.1016/0031-0182(94)90139-2|bibcode=1994PPP...112..157T}}

Mainland Australia is situated in the middle of the tectonic plate, and therefore currently has no active volcanism; although it is home to the Newer Volcanics Province, a volcanic field on the southeast of the country, it has been dormant for the past 5000 years. However, there are two active volcanoes located {{convert|4000|km|mi|abbr=on}} southwest of Perth in the Australian Antarctic Territory: Heard Island and the nearby McDonald Islands.{{Cite web|url=https://www.ga.gov.au/education/natural-hazards/volcano|title=Volcano|website=Geoscience Australia|access-date=2 June 2025}} Minor earthquakes which produce no damage occur frequently, while major earthquakes measuring greater than magnitude 6 occur on average every five years.{{cite web |last=Mccue |first=Kevin |title=Land of earthquakes and volcanoes? |url=http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/journal/land-of-earthquakes-and-volcanoes.htm |url-status=dead |publisher=Australian Geographic |date=26 February 2010 |access-date=25 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100306150520/http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/journal/land-of-earthquakes-and-volcanoes.htm |archive-date=6 March 2010}}

{{see also|Water security in Australia}}

File:Drainage_Divisions_of_Australia.svg as defined by the Bureau of Meteorology{{Cite web|url=http://www.bom.gov.au/water/geofabric/documents/BOM002_Map_Poster_A3_Web.pdf|title=Australian Hydrological Geospatial Fabric (Geofabric): Topographic Drainage Divisions and River Regions|access-date=27 May 2023|website=Bureau de Meteorología|year=2012|format=PDF}}]]

As the driest inhabited continent, Australia does not have many large, fast-flowing rivers or large permanent lakes. Many of Australia's rivers do not have a regular flow; they can have years of very low flows, followed by one or more years of flooding.{{Cite web|url=https://soe.dcceew.gov.au/inland-water/environment/natural-water-systems|title=Natural water systems|website=dcceew.gov.au|access-date=27 May 2025}} Australia's rainfall regime is highly variable, with low mean annual rainfall over most of the continent and heavy seasonal falls in the tropics, concentric around the continent's extensive arid core. The effects of this varied rainfall pattern and Australia's drainage system can result in parts of the continent being in drought, but inundated by water from rainfall thousands of kilometres away.{{Cite web|url=https://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/national-location-information/dimensions/climatic-extremes|title=Climatic Extremes|website=Geoscience Australia|access-date=26 May 2025}} On average, only 9% of Australia's rainfall is converted to surface runoff, and about 2% percolates through the ground to recharge groundwater. About 50% of Australia's rivers drain inland and often end in ephemeral salt lakes.

The Australian continent is divided into drainage divisions, which are subdivided into water regions and then into river basins. The drainage divisions depict where water flows across the continent and identify the major hydrological basins.{{Cite web|url=https://soe.dcceew.gov.au/inland-water/environment/water-sources#rainfall|title=Water sources|website=Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water|access-date=1 June 2025}} Due to Australia’s high variation in rainfall and streamflow, large reservoirs have been built to ensure reliable supply; in fact, the national per-person surface-water storage capacity in 2018 was about 3.25 ML, relatively high compared to other countries. Groundwater also plays a significant role as a supply for drinking water, industry, farming and other primary industries in the many regions where it is the only reliable water source. The Great Artesian Basin is one of the largest underground freshwater resources in the world and Australia’s largest groundwater basin. It spans almost {{cvt|1700000|km2}} which is over one-fifth of the Australian continent.{{Cite web|url=https://www.dcceew.gov.au/water/policy/national/great-artesian-basin|title=Great Artesian Basin|website=Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water|access-date=1 June 2025}}

Billabong is the Australian name given to the oxbow lakes that can form along a meandering river's course.{{Cite web |title=Billabongs| publisher=University of Melbourne| date=28 May 2020 | url=https://indigenousknowledge.unimelb.edu.au/curriculum/resources/billabongs|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240314011438/https://indigenousknowledge.unimelb.edu.au/curriculum/resources/billabongs|archive-date=14 March 2024}} In a worldwide comparison of height, Australia's waterfalls are relatively insignificant, with the longest drop ranked 135th according to the World Waterfall Database.{{cite web |url=http://www.ga.gov.au/education/geoscience-basics/landforms/tallest-waterfalls.jsp |title=Significant Waterfalls |access-date=11 June 2010 |website=Geoscience Australia|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100525195932/http://www.ga.gov.au/education/geoscience-basics/landforms/tallest-waterfalls.jsp |archive-date=25 May 2010}} There are 758 estuaries around the country with most located in the tropical and sub-tropical zones.{{cite book |last1=Dennison |first1=William C. |last2=Abal |first2=Eva G. |title=Moreton Bay Study: A Scientific Basis for the Healthy Waterways Campaign |publisher=South East Queensland Regional Water Quality Management Strategy Team |location=Brisbane |year=1999 |page=220 |isbn=0-9586368-1-8}}

File:Australian ocean currents.png, gyres and eddies around Australia]]

Australia's oceans and seas include those off the mainland and its offshore territories in the Pacific, Indian and Southern oceans as well as the Timor, Tasman, Coral and Arafura seas.{{Cite web|url=https://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/national-location-information/dimensions/oceans-and-seas|title=Oceans and Seas|website=Geoscience Australia|access-date=1 June 2025}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/archive/archive-management-system/OAS/bin/prd/jquery/seaname/details/37#|title=OAS seaname Detail for Arafura Sea|website=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|access-date=5 June 2025}} The Australian mainland has a total coastline length of {{convert|35821|km|mi|abbr=on}} with an additional {{convert|23860|km|mi|abbr=on}} of island coastlines.{{cite web|url=http://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/national-location-information/dimensions/border-lengths#heading-1|title=Border Lengths – States and Territories|access-date=18 August 2016|date=2004|website=Geoscience Australia}} Australia has the largest area of ocean jurisdiction of any country on Earth{{Cite web|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/coasts/mbp/publications/general/nat-atlas-nonfish.html|title=Non-Fisheries Uses in Australia's Marine Jurisdiction National Marine Atlas|website=Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227133102/http://www.environment.gov.au/coasts/mbp/publications/general/nat-atlas-nonfish.html|archive-date=27 February 2012}} and the third-largest exclusive economic zone of {{convert|8148250|km2|mi2|abbr=on}}.

Australia is surrounded by various ocean currents that have a strong controlling influence on things such as climate, ecosystems, fish migrations, the transport of ocean debris and on water quality. Pacific surface waters are dominated by the warm East Australian Current while, in the Australian western coasts, Leeuwin Current predominates. There are also a number of sub-surface countercurrents of colder temperatures.{{Cite web|url=https://theconversation.com/a-current-affair-the-movement-of-ocean-waters-around-australia-96779|title=A current affair: the movement of ocean waters around Australia|website=The Conversation|date=15 January 2019|access-date=4 June 2025}} Tides are predominant on the northwest coast, where the greatest tidal range in the country occurs, with a highest astronomical tide higher than {{cvt|10|m}}.{{Cite web|url=https://www.ausmarinescience.com/marine-science-basics/tides/|title=Tides|website=Marine Science Australia|access-date=4 June 2025}} A recent global remote sensing analysis suggested that there was {{cvt|8,866|km2}} of tidal flat area in Australia, making it the third-ranked country in terms of how much tidal flat occurs there.{{cite journal |last1=Murray |first1=N.J. |last2=Phinn |first2=S.R. |last3=DeWitt |first3=M. |last4=Ferrari|first4=R. |last5=Johnston |first5=R. |last6=Lyons |first6=M.B. |last7=Clinton |first7=N. |last8=Thau |first8=D. |last9=Fuller |first9=R.A. |title=The global distribution and trajectory of tidal flats |journal=Nature |date=2019 |volume=565 |issue=7738 |pages=222–225 |doi=10.1038/s41586-018-0805-8 |pmid=30568300 |s2cid=56481043 |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0805-8|url-access=subscription }}

{{main|States and territories of Australia}}

{{see also|Local government in Australia|Suburbs and localities (Australia)}}

{{Australia states imagemap}}

File:Australia in the World (+Antarctica claims).svg

Australia consists of six states, two major mainland territories, and other minor territories. The states are New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, and Western Australia. The two major mainland territories are the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory.{{Cite web|url=https://peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/how-parliament-works/three-levels-of-government/three-levels-of-government-governing-australia|title=Three levels of government: governing Australia|website=Parliamentary Education Office|access-date=30 May 2025}}

Australia also has several minor territories; the federal government administers a separate area within New South Wales, the Jervis Bay Territory, as a naval base and seaport for the national capital. In addition Australia has the following inhabited, external territories: Norfolk Island, Christmas Island, Cocos (Keeling) Islands, and several largely uninhabited external territories: Ashmore and Cartier Islands, Coral Sea Islands, and Heard Island and McDonald Islands. Australia also claims ownership of more than 42% of the Antarctic continent as the Australian Antarctic Territory, although this claim is recognised by just four sovereign states.{{Cite web|url=https://www.unsw.edu.au/news/2021/06/international-recognition-of-the-australian-antarctic-territory-|title=International recognition of the Australian Antarctic Territory ‘irrelevant’ to legal claim|website=University of New South Wales|access-date=2 June 2025}}

Across the Australian states and territories there are over 500 local government bodies, often called councils, municipalities or shires. These local authorities include city councils in urban centres, and regional and shire councils in rural areas.

Western Australia is the largest state, occupying 32.9% of Australia's land area ({{cvt|2,527,013|km2}}), followed by Queensland ({{cvt|1,723,030|km2}}), South Australia ({{cvt|979,651|km2}}) and New South Wales ({{cvt|801,137|km2}}). The Northern Territory, the largest of the territories, occupies 17.5% of the country's land area ({{cvt|1,334,404|km2}}), while the rest of territories together occupy less than 1%. The Shire of East Pilbara in Western Australia is Australia’s largest local government area, covering {{cvt|379,571|km2}}.{{Cite web|url=https://lgiu.org/resources/local-government-facts-and-figures/facts-and-figures-australia/|title=Local government facts and figures: Australia|website=lgiu.com|access-date=30 May 2025}}

{{See also|Demography of Australia}}

Australia’s population was 27.2 million at 30 June 2024, having grown around 1.4% a year on average over the past 3 decades, from 17.8 million at 30 June 1994.{{Cite web|url=https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/australias-health/profile-of-australias-population|title=Profile of Australia's population

|website=Australian Institute of Health and Welfare|date=15 April 2025|access-date=31 May 2025}} Due to various geographical features of Australia, almost 80% of the Australian population live within 25 km of the coast,{{Cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Keping |last2=McAneney |first2=John |date=August 2006 |title=High-resolution estimates of Australia's coastal population |url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2006GL026981 |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |language=en |volume=33 |issue=16 |doi=10.1029/2006GL026981 |bibcode=2006GeoRL..3316601C |issn=0094-8276}} where most of its capital cities and suburban satellites exist. The most densely populated geographic areas of the country are located in the Coastal Plains of the eastern states of Australia and the Swan Coastal Plain and its surroundings, on the southwestern corner of the mainland, leaving the vast centre of the country virtually uninhabited. This disparity can be seen reflected in Australia's mean population density of 3.5 persons/km² as of 2024,{{cite web|url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/population/regional-population/latest-release|title=Regional population|website=Australian Bureau of Statistics|date=27 March 2025|access-date=4 June 2025}} one of the lowest in the world. In the same year, Australia's centre of population was around {{convert|30|km|mi|abbr=on}} east of Ivanhoe in western New South Wales, reflecting the concentration of population in south-east Australia. According to Australia's land tenure, pastoral leases cover 44% of the territory and about 40% is covered by native title, in both exclusive and shared title. 14.9% of the Australian surface is considered public land.{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/ng-interactive/2021/may/17/who-owns-australia|title=Who owns Australia?|website=The Guardian|access-date=31 May 2025}}

Australia’s population is diverse. According to the 2021 Census, almost half (48%) of Australians have a parent born overseas. The main countries of origin of these immigrants are England, India, China and New Zealand, with all four countries having more than 500,000 residents in Australia as of 2020.{{Cite web |date=13 December 2024 |title=Estimated resident population, Country of birth - as at 30 June, 1996 to 2020 |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/population/migration-australia/2019-20/34120DO005_201920.xls |publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics}} Its population also has a significant Indigenous compound in each state and territory, comprising hundreds of groups that have their own distinct set of languages, histories and cultural traditions.{{Cite web |title=2. Demographic and social context |url=https://www.indigenoushpf.gov.au/report-overview/overview/summary-report/2-demographic-and-social-context#:~:text=They%20are%20not%20one%20group,the%20population%20(ABS%202021).|access-date=29 May 2025|website=indigenoushpf.gov.au}} In 2021, there were an estimated 984,000 Indigenous Australians, representing 3.8% of the population. Northern Territory has the greatest proportion of Indigenous population, at 26.3%.{{Cite web|url=https://www.abs.gov.au/census/find-census-data/quickstats/2021/IQS7|title=2021 Northern Territory, Census Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islanders people|publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics|access-date=29 May 2025}} This First Peoples have lived across Australian continent for tens of thousands of years, managing and caring for the land and shaping the environment and its biota.{{Cite web|url=https://soe.dcceew.gov.au/indigenous/outlook-and-impact|title=Outlook: Statement from the Indigenous authors of the 2021 State of the Environment report|website=Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water|access-date=29 May 2025}}

{{main|Climate of Australia}}

File:Australia map of Köppen climate classification.svg

Australia's unique location under a subtropical high-pressure belt and surrounded by other climate drivers like El Niño–Southern Oscillation and the Indian Ocean Dipole makes most of Western Australia a hot desert, and aridity a marked feature of most of the continent.{{Cite web|last=Kate|first=Doyle|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-08-01/what-you-need-to-know-about-droughts/10051956|title=What you need to know about droughts: Why they happen and how they are defined|website=Australia Broadcasting Corporation|date=31 July 2018|access-date=26 May 2025}} A total of 18% of Australia's mainland consists of named deserts (around {{convert|1371000|km2|mi2|abbr=on}}).{{Cite web|url=https://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/national-location-information/landforms/deserts|title=Areas of Australian and territory deserts|access-date=26 May 2025|website=Geoscience Australia|date=2022-11-25}} Northern Australia and upper eastern Coastal Plains climate range from grassland, subtropical to equatorial, with no winter and very hot summers. The Western Plateau, the lower eastern Coastal Plains and Tasmania are characterised by their predominantly temperate climate, with mild/warm summers and cold winters;{{Cite web|url=http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/maps/averages/climate-classification/|title=Climate classification maps|website=Bureau of Meteorology|access-date=2 May 2025}} these are also among the areas with the highest humidity on the mainland.{{Cite web|url=http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/maps/averages/relative-humidity/|title=Average 9 am and 3 pm relative humidity|website=Bureau of Meteorology|access-date=2 May 2025}} Australian offshore territories present varied climates, from the sub-tropical humid climate of Norfolk{{cite web|access-date=2 June 2025 |title=Climate of Norfolk Island |url=http://www.bom.gov.au/nsw/norfolk/climate.shtml |website=Bureau of Meteorology}} and other similar territories near the equator to the remote subantarctic Heard Island and McDonald Islands.{{cite web|access-date=2 June 2025 |title=Heard and McDonald Islands |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/577/ |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}} The Köppen classification identifies six major groups and 27 sub-groups of climate zones across the country.

In a general overview, because Australia is a medium-sized continent, separated from the polar regions by the Southern Ocean, it is not subject to cold polar air movements during winter of the kind that sweep the northern hemisphere continents during their winters. Consequently, the Australian winter is relatively mild, with less contrast between summer and winter temperatures than on the northern continents, although the transition is more pronounced in Australia's alpine regions and at high altitudes. Seasonal maximum and minimum temperatures can be considerable, with temperatures ranging from a maximum of {{convert|40|C|0}} in the central desert regions to {{convert|0|C|0}} in the higher regions of the south-east.

Rainfall is highly variable, with frequent droughts lasting several seasons, caused in part by the El Niño–Southern Oscillation. According to the Bureau of Meteorology, 80% of the land area receives less than {{convert|600|mm|abbr=on|0}} of annual rainfall and 50% less than {{convert|300|mm|abbr=on|0}}.{{Cite web|url=http://www.bom.gov.au/lam/climate/levelthree/ausclim/ausclim.html|title=Climate of Australia|access-date=26 May 2025|website=Bureau of Meteorology|archive-url=http://pandora.nla.gov.au/pan/96122/20090317-1643/www.bom.gov.au/lam/climate/levelthree/ausclim/ausclim.html|archive-date=17 March 2009|url-status=dead}} Overall, Australia has a very low average annual rainfall of {{convert|419|mm|abbr=on|0}}.{{Cite book|first=Geerts|last=Bart|year=1997|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uwQ7FulHCCsC&pg=PA376|title=Climates and Weather Explained: An Introduction from Southern Perspective|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-12519-2|page=376}} The Outback, the vast and remote centre of Australia, covers 73% of the continent; it is characterised by a climate with a high variability, with long dry periods interspersed with shorter periods of high rainfall.{{Cite web|url=https://www.pewtrusts.org/-/media/assets/2014/10/themodernoutbackbrief_forweb.pdf|title=The Modern Outback|date=October 2014|website=The Pew Charitable Trusts|format=PDF|page=8|access-date=8 May 2025}}

{{see also|Severe storms in Australia}}

Cyclones in Australia are common, which the North-western coast in Western Australia being the most cyclone prone area in all of Australia.{{Cite news |date=2024-10-08 |title=BOM says cyclones could grow in intensity despite 'average' season forecast |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-10-08/bom-tropical-cyclone-season-long-range-forecast-australia/104443644 |access-date=2024-12-14 |publisher=ABC News|location=Australia |language=en-AU}} Additionally, cyclone formations can also occur off the North-eastern coast in Queensland, such as Cyclone Jasper and Cyclone Niran in recent years. Such cyclones cause widespread economic damage, and triggers floods and other disasters.{{Cite web |title=Trauma runs deep for flood victims in Wujal Wujal one year after Cyclone Jasper |url=https://www.msn.com/en-au/public-safety-and-emergencies/natural-disasters/trauma-runs-deep-for-flood-victims-in-wujal-wujal-one-year-after-cyclone-jasper/ar-AA1vPxCL?ocid=BingNewsSerp |access-date=14 December 2024 |website=MSN}} Severe thunderstorms occur across the country between September and March, when the supply of solar energy is greatest.{{Cite web|url=http://www.bom.gov.au/weather-services/severe-weather-knowledge-centre/severethunder.shtml#phenomena|title=Severe thunderstorms|website=Bureau of Meteorology|access-date=1 June 2025}} Northern Australia experiences violent thunderstorms that can have different characteristics to those that typically happen in the rest of the territory. These tropical severe thunderstorms are also different to conventional tropical cyclones.{{Cite web|url=http://www.bom.gov.au/weather-services/severe-weather-knowledge-centre/tropicalsevere.shtml#types|title=Tropical severe thunderstorms|website=Bureau of Meteorology|access-date=1 June 2025}}

Although it's a much less common phenomena, tornado outbreaks can also occur. Based on historical records, 30–80 tornadoes are observed in Australia each year.{{Cite web|url=http://www.bom.gov.au/weather-services/severe-weather-knowledge-centre/tornadoes.shtml|title=Tornadoes|website=Bureau of Meteorology|access-date=1 June 2025}}

{{Main|Bushfires in Australia}}

Bushfires are another frequently occurring natural disaster within Australia. This is due to the unique flora that exists, which is highly flammable, and some species actually requiring fire to regenerate and spread.{{Cite web|date=7 September 2022 |title=Bushfire |url=https://www.ga.gov.au/education/classroom-resources/hazards/natural-hazards/bushfire |access-date=14 December 2024 |website=Geoscience Australia |language=en}} While bushfires can occur at any time of the year, the risk is the highest during the summer and autumn months for the majority of the country, and spring months for the most northern regions of the country.{{Cite web |date=14 December 2024 |title=Fire weather seasons |url=http://www.bom.gov.au/weather-services/fire-weather-centre/fire-weather-season/|website=Bureau of Meteorology}}

Heatwaves, or consecutive days of extreme temperatures, are also prominent in Australia. They are the deadliest natural disasters in Australia, accounting for more deaths than bushfires, cyclones, earthquakes, floods and severe storms combined.{{Cite web|title=Heatwaves |url=https://www.nma.gov.au/defining-moments/resources/heatwaves#:~:text=Major%20heatwaves%20are%20Australia%E2%80%99s%20deadliest%20natural%20hazards,%20particularly,hotter%20along%20with%20the%20rest%20of%20the%20world. |access-date=14 December 2024 |publisher=National Museum of Australia}} The number of days with a modest level of heat stress is increasing, as does the number of consecutive days of heat stress: the frequency doubled between 1960-70 and 2000-08.{{Cite web|title=Heatwaves |url=https://soe.dcceew.gov.au/extreme-events/environment/heatwaves|access-date=3 June 2025 |website=Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water}}

{{Main|Drought in Australia}}

The prominence and severity of droughts in Australia has increased in recent times due to accelerated climate change.{{Cite web |date=2024-04-03 |title=A 20-year 'mega-drought' in Australia? Research suggests it's happened before – and we should expect it again |url=https://iceds.anu.edu.au/news-events/news/20-year-%E2%80%98mega-drought%E2%80%99-australia-research-suggests-it%E2%80%99s-happened-%E2%80%93-and-we-should |access-date=2024-12-14 |website=ANU Institute for Climate, Energy & Disaster Solutions |language=en}} As Australia is the driest inhabited continent, such droughts can limit the streamflow of the few major rivers in the country, creating a myriad of knock-on effects. Droughts and climate variability are especially detrimental to Australian agricultural industries, who face unpredictability in their quantity of produce.{{Cite web|last1=Hughes|first1=Neal|last2=Galeano|first2=David|last3=Hatfield|first3=Steve|url=https://www.agriculture.gov.au/abares/products/insights/effects-of-drought-and-climate-variability-on-Australian-farms#australian-farmers-face-significant-climate-and-price-risk|title=The effects of drought and climate variability on Australian farms|website=Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry|access-date=31 May 2025}}

{{Main|Floods in Australia}}

Riverine flooding in Australia occurs in relatively low-lying areas adjacent to streams and rivers. In the extensive flat inland regions, floods may spread over thousands of square kilometres and last several weeks, with flood warnings sometimes issued months in advance.{{Cite web|url=https://www.ga.gov.au/education/natural-hazards/flood|title=Floods|website=Geoscience Australia|access-date=31 May 2025}} Floods are by far the most economically costly natural disasters in Australia, averaging $8.8 billion per year as of 2017.{{Cite web|url=https://australianbusinessroundtable.com.au/assets/documents/ABR_building-resilience-in-our-states-and-territories.pdf|title=Building resilience to natural disasters in our states and territories|website=australianbusinessroundtable.com.au|pages=19–20|format=PDF|access-date=31 May 2025}}

{{Main|List of earthquakes in Australia}}

While Australia is not a seismically active zone, it does experience small scale earthquakes, caused by compressive stress built up over time, in the interior of the Australian tectonic plate. On average, around 100 earthquakes of above magnitude 3 are experienced in Australia every year, with the largest recorded earthquake occurring at Tennant Creek in the Northern Territory, with a magnitude of 6.6.{{Cite web |date=7 September 2022|title=Earthquake |url=https://www.ga.gov.au/education/classroom-resources/hazards/natural-hazards/earthquake |access-date=14 December 2024 |website=Geoscience Australia |language=en}}

{{main|Time in Australia}}

File:Time in Australia.svg

There are five standard time zones across mainland Australia and Lord Howe Island, a dependency of New South Wales, ranging from UTC+8:00 to UTC+11:00. Some of them are half-hour and quarter-hour time zones. Not all states and territories in Australia use daylight saving time (DST). The states that use DST are the Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales, South Australia, Tasmania, and Victoria.{{Cite web|last=Buckle|first=Anne|url=https://www.timeanddate.com/time/australia/time-zones-background.html|title=Australia's Time Zones|website=timeanddate.com|access-date=3 June 2025}}

The Australian external territories of Cocos Islands, Norfolk Island, and Christmas Island have their own time zones, and do not observe DST. Macquarie Island, a dependency of Tasmania, has no permanent population and its time zone can vary.

{{see also|Environmental issues in Australia}}

File:Whitehaven Beach, Whitsunday Island, Queensland.jpg in Queensland in October]]

The 2021 State of the Environment report made by the Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water of the Australian Government pointed out environmental issues including: soil erosion, poor offshore water quality, threats from introduced pest species, depredation of natural resources, high prevalence of land habitat clearing and extreme climatic events such as floods, droughts, wildfires, storms, and heatwaves.{{Cite web|url=https://www.sydney.edu.au/news-opinion/news/2022/07/19/state-of-the-environment--the-findings.html|title=State of the Environment: report findings|date=19 July 2022|website=University of Sydney|access-date=31 May 2025}} As of 2022, around 22% of Australia's landmass and almost half (45%) of Australia's oceans were protected in the National Reserve System,{{cite web|access-date=5 June 2025 |title=Protected areas|url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/measuring-what-matters/measuring-what-matters-themes-and-indicators/sustainable/protected-areas|website=Australian Bureau of Statistics}} made up of over 14,500 terrestrial protected areas{{cite web|access-date=1 June 2025 |title=Protected area locations |url=https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/land/nrs/science/protected-area-locations |website=Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water}} and 60 marine parks.{{Cite web|url=https://australianmarineparks.gov.au/marine-parks/|title=Marine parks|website=australianmarineparks.gov.au|access-date=5 June 2025}} Indigenous Protected Areas (IPAs) are areas of land and sea that "traditional owners" have agreed to manage for biodiversity conservation; they represent more than 54% of Australia's National Reserve System.{{Cite web|url=https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/land/indigenous-protected-areas|title=Indigenous Protected Areas|website=Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water|access-date=5 June 2025}}

Forest covers around 17% of the total land area, equivalent to {{convert|134005100|ha|acre}} in 2020, up from {{convert|133882200|ha|acre}} in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered {{convert|131614800|ha|acre}} and planted forest covered {{convert|2390300|ha|acre}}. Of the naturally regenerating forest, 0% was reported to be primary forest (consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity) and around 18% of the forest area was found within protected areas. For the year 2015, 67% of the forest area was reported to be under public ownership, 32% private ownership and 1% with ownership listed as other or unknown.{{Cite book |url=https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/a6e225da-4a31-4e06-818d-ca3aeadfd635/content |title=Terms and Definitions FRA 2025 Forest Resources Assessment, Working Paper 194 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |year=2023}}{{Cite web |title=Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020, Australia |url=https://fra-data.fao.org/assessments/fra/2020/AUS/home/overview |website=Food Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|date=July 2020}}

International agreements:

• party to: Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Kyoto Protocol, Biodiversity, China–Australia Migratory Bird Agreement, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Japan–Australia Migratory Bird Agreement, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban 1963, Nuclear Non-Proliferation, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 1994, Ramsar Convention, Whaling
• signed, but not ratified: Desertification

File:LIQENI HILLIER - ROZE.jpg, a saline lake on the edge of Middle Island off the south coast of Western Australia]]

File:Queensland Panorama.jpg forest, grassland and mountain ranges in Queensland]]

File:Kosciuszko Dawn.jpg in the Alps of southeastern Australia]]

File:Blue Mountians 180 Panorama (Megalong Valley).jpg in the temperate Blue Mountains region of New South Wales]]

File:Outback view from Chambers Pillar.jpg parts of the Outback in Chambers Pillar, Northern Territory]]

{{portal|Australia|Geography}}

{{div col|colwidth=25em}}

• Australasian realm
• Australia-New Guinea
• List of cities in Australia by population
• List of drainage basins of Australia
• List of extreme points of Australia
• List of islands of Australia
• List of lakes of Australia
• List of mountains in Australia
• List of regions of Australia
• List of rivers of Australia
• List of valleys of Australia
• List of waterfalls in Australia
• Protected areas of Australia

{{div col end}}

{{reflist}}

• {{CIA World Factbook|year=2000}}

• {{cite journal |last1=Miller |first1=Gifford |last2=Mangan |first2=Jennifer |last3=Pollard |first3=David |last4=Thompson |first4=Starley |last5=Felzer |first5=Benjamin |last6=Magee |first6=John |title=Sensitivity of the Australian Monsoon to insolation and vegetation: Implications for human impact on continental moisture balance |journal=Geology |date=2005 |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=65–68 |doi=10.1130/G21033.1|bibcode=2005Geo....33...65M }}
• {{cite web|title=Highest Mountains|work=National Mapping – Fab Facts, Landforms, Australian Mountains|url=http://www.ga.gov.au/eon/facts/landforms/highmtns.htm|access-date=7 July 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050617084805/http://www.ga.gov.au/education/facts/landforms/highmtns.htm |archive-date=17 June 2005}}
• {{cite book |editor-last=Weatherley |editor-first=A.H. |title=Australian Inland Waters and their Fauna. Eleven Studies |url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/114850/2/b11819790.pdf |year=1967 |format=PDF, 19Mb |publisher=Australian National University Press |location=Canberra |oclc=594806492}}

• {{in lang|en}} [https://digital.atlas.gov.au/ Digital Atlas of Australia]
• {{in lang|en|fr}} [http://www.wdl.org/en/item/56 Map of Australia] from 1826
• {{wikiatlas|Australia}}
• {{in lang|en}} [http://www.bushmantanks.com.au/blog/water-by-numbers/44237 Water Usage in Australia]

{{Australia topic|title=Geography of Australia|prefix=Geography of|VI=Victoria}}

{{Geography of Oceania}}

{{Australia topics}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Geography of Australia}}