Palm oil#Production##Nigeria

File:Elaeis guineensis MS 3467.jpgs (Elaeis guineensis)]]

Humans used oil palms as far back as 5,000 years. In the late 1800s, archaeologists discovered a substance that they concluded was originally palm oil in a tomb at Abydos dating back to 3,000 BCE.{{cite book |title=The Cambridge World History of Food |editor1-last=Kiple |editor1-first=Kenneth F. |editor2-last=Conee Ornelas |editor2-first=Kriemhild |year=2000 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521402163|url=http://www.cambridge.org/us/books/kiple/palmoil.htm |access-date=30 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020201103/http://www.cambridge.org/us/books/kiple/palmoil.htm |archive-date=20 October 2012}}

Palm oil from Elaeis guineensis has long been recognized in West and Central African countries used widely as a cooking oil. European merchants trading with West Africa occasionally purchased palm oil for use as a cooking oil in Europe.

Palm oil became a highly sought-after commodity by British traders for use as an industrial lubricant for machinery during Britain's Industrial Revolution.{{cite journal | year = 2000 | title = British Colonial Policies and the Oil Palm Industry in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria, 1900–1960. | url = http://www.africa.kyoto-u.ac.jp/kiroku/asm_normal/abstracts/pdf/21-1/19-33.pdf | journal = African Study Monographs |volume = 21|issue=1|pages=19–33|url-status= live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130116234451/http://www.africa.kyoto-u.ac.jp/kiroku/asm_normal/abstracts/pdf/21-1/19-33.pdf | archive-date = 16 January 2013 | df = dmy-all }} Palm oil formed the basis of soap products, such as Lever Brothers' (now Unilever) "Sunlight" soap, and the American Palmolive brand.{{cite web |first=Mary |last=Bellis |title=The History of Soaps and Detergents |url=http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blsoap.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120714204434/http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blsoap.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=14 July 2012 |website=About.com |quote=In 1864, Caleb Johnson founded a soap company called B.J. Johnson Soap Co., in Milwaukee. In 1898, this company introduced a soap made of palm and olive oils called Palmolive. }}

By around 1870, palm oil constituted the primary export of some West African countries, which often led to oppressive labor practices, as highlighted in the account of Abina Mansah's life.Getz, Trevor and Liz Clarke (2011). Abina and the Important Men: A Graphic History. Oxford University Press. However, this was overtaken by cocoa in the 1880s with the introduction of colonial European cocoa plantations.{{Cite web| url= http://www.antislavery.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/1_cocoa_report_2004.pdf|title= The Cocoa Industry in West Africa: A History of Exploitation| year= 2004| website= antislavery.org| publisher= Anti-Slavery International | page= 5| access-date= October 11, 2021}}{{cite book| title= Commercial Agriculture, the Slave Trade and Slavery in Atlantic Africa | first1= Robin| last1= Law| first2= Suzanne| last2= Schwarz| first3= Silke | last3= Strickrodt| publisher= Boydell & Brewer Ltd| year= 2013| page= 22| isbn= 978-1-847-01075-9}}

File:Elaeis guineensis fruits on tree.jpg

File:Elaeis guineensis - noix de palme oil palm - harvesting fruits from the cluster.jpg

Palm oil is naturally reddish in color because of a high beta-carotene content. It is not to be confused with palm kernel oil derived from the kernel of the same fruit{{Cite book|last=Poku|first=Kwasi|title=Small-Scale Palm Oil Processing in Africa|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization|year=2002|isbn=978-92-5-104859-7|series=FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin 148|chapter=Origin of oil palm|chapter-url=http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/005/y4355e/y4355e03.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090923032745/http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/005/y4355e/y4355e03.htm|archive-date=23 September 2009}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}} or coconut oil derived from the kernel of the coconut palm (Cocos nucifera). The differences are in color (raw palm kernel oil lacks carotenoids and is not red), and in saturated fat content: palm mesocarp oil is 49% saturated, while palm kernel oil and coconut oil are 81% and 86% saturated fats, respectively. However, crude red palm oil that has been refined, neutralized, bleached and deodorized, a common commodity called RBD (refined, bleached, and deodorized) palm oil, does not contain carotenoids.{{cite journal|last1=Nagendran|first1=B.|last2=Unnithan|first2=U. R.|last3=Choo|first3=Y. M.|last4=Sundram|first4=Kalyana|year=2000|title=Characteristics of red palm oil, a carotene- and vitamin E–rich refined oil for food uses|journal=Food and Nutrition Bulletin|volume=21|issue=2|pages=77–82|doi=10.1177/156482650002100213|s2cid=82771180|doi-access=free}} Many industrial food applications of palm oil use fractionated components of palm oil (often listed as "modified palm oil") whose saturation levels can reach 90%;{{cite book|last1=Gibon|first1=Véronique|title=Palm Oil|year=2012|isbn=9780981893693|pages=329–375|chapter=Palm Oil and Palm Kernel Oil Refining and Fractionation Technology|doi=10.1016/B978-0-9818936-9-3.50015-0|quote=This super stearin contains ~90% of saturated fatty acids, predominantly palmitic ...}} these "modified" palm oils can become highly saturated, but are not necessarily hydrogenated.

The oil palm produces bunches containing many fruits with the fleshy mesocarp enclosing a kernel that is covered by a very hard shell. The FAO considers palm oil (coming from the pulp) and palm kernels to be primary products. The oil extraction rate from a bunch varies from 17 to 27% for palm oil, and from 4 to 10% for palm kernels.{{cite web|title=FAO data – dimension-member – Oil, palm fruit|url=http://ref.data.fao.org/dimension-member?entryId=2095d9b1-bd16-41ac-a315-2673fb88549a|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180817161440/http://ref.data.fao.org/dimension-member?entryId=2095d9b1-bd16-41ac-a315-2673fb88549a|archive-date=17 August 2018|access-date=17 August 2018|website=ref.data.fao.org}}

Along with coconut oil, palm oil is one of the few highly saturated vegetable fats and is semisolid at room temperature.{{cite journal|last1=Behrman|first1=E. J.|last2=Gopalan|first2=Venkat|year=2005|title=Cholesterol and Plants|url=http://chemistry.osu.edu/~gopalan.5/file/7B.PDF|url-status=live|journal=Journal of Chemical Education|volume=82|page=1791|bibcode=2005JChEd..82.1791B|doi=10.1021/ed082p1791|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021165010/http://chemistry.osu.edu/~gopalan.5/file/7B.PDF|archive-date=21 October 2012|editor=William M. Scovell|number=12}} Palm oil is a common cooking ingredient in the tropical belt of Africa, Southeast Asia and parts of Brazil. Its use in the commercial food industry in other parts of the world is widespread because of its lower cost{{cite press release|title=Palm Oil Continues to Dominate Global Consumption in 2006/07|publisher=United States Department of Agriculture|date=June 2006|url=http://www.fas.usda.gov/oilseeds/circular/2006/06-06/Junecov.pdf|access-date=22 September 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019165631/http://www.fas.usda.gov/oilseeds/circular/2006/06-06/Junecov.pdf|archive-date=19 October 2012}} and the high oxidative stability (saturation) of the refined product when used for frying.{{Cite journal|last1=Che Man|first1=YB|last2=Liu|first2=J.L.|last3=Jamilah|first3=B.|last4=Rahman|first4=R. Abdul|year=1999|title=Quality changes of RBD palm olein, soybean oil and their blends during deep-fat frying|journal=Journal of Food Lipids|volume=6|issue=3|pages=181–193|doi=10.1111/j.1745-4522.1999.tb00142.x}}{{Cite journal|last1=Matthäus|first1=Bertrand|year=2007|title=Use of palm oil for frying in comparison with other high-stability oils|journal=European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology|volume=109|issue=4|pages=400–409|doi=10.1002/ejlt.200600294}} One source reported that humans consumed an average {{convert|17|lb|kg}} of palm oil per person in 2015.{{cite news|last=Raghu|first=Anuradha|date=17 May 2017|title=We Each Consume 17 Pounds of Palm Oil a Year|work=Bloomberg News|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-05-17/soap-to-chocolate-we-consume-17-pounds-of-palm-oil-each-year|url-status=live|access-date=22 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517225045/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-05-17/soap-to-chocolate-we-consume-17-pounds-of-palm-oil-each-year|archive-date=17 May 2017}}

File:Palm Oil 0.jpg

Palm oil is traditionally, and still industrially, produced by milling the fruits of oil palm.

Besides milling, palm oil is produced by cold-pressing the fruit of the oil palm since the 1990s. This type of artisanal palm oil is usually not further refined, so it keeps the natural red color. It is bottled for use as a cooking oil, in addition to other uses such as being blended into mayonnaise and vegetable oil.

The result of milling or cold-pressing is a mixture of water, crude palm oil, and fibers from the palm fruit. A minimum degree of processing is required to obtain the oil. The mixture is first passed through a filter to remove the solids, then separated by density to remove the water. Density treatment can also act as a basic form of degumming, provided that the fruit is steamed before milling to hydrolyze the gum, at a cost of also losing some triglycerides to hydrolysis.{{cite web |title=3. PALM OIL PROCESSING |url=https://www.fao.org/3/Y4355E/y4355e04.htm |website=www.fao.org}}

The result of basic processing is called a "crude palm oil" or a "{{vanchor|red palm oil}}", referring to its intense color due to the high carotenoid content. Red palm oil is a traditional cooking oil in West Africa. The free fatty acids within provide a "bite" to the flavor. The triglyceride part is around 50% saturated fat—considerably less than palm kernel oil—and 40% monounsaturated fat and 10% polyunsaturated fat. It is a source of Vitamin A and Vitamin E.{{cite journal|last1=Oguntibeju|first1=O.O|last2=Esterhuyse|first2=A.J.|last3=Truter|first3=E.J.|date=2009|title=Red palm oil: nutritional, physiological and therapeutic roles in improving human wellbeing and quality of life|journal=British Journal of Biomedical Science|volume=66|issue=4|pages=216–22|doi=10.1080/09674845.2009.11730279|pmid=20095133|s2cid=12845370}}

{{see also|Edible oil refining}}

File:Balung Tawau Sabah Apas-Balung-Mill-02.jpg.]]

Crude PO can be refined to remove its non-triglyceride components.

1. Bleaching removes color from the oil. This is achieved by adding a clay absorbent called bleaching earth in a vacuum mixer.{{cite journal |last1=Lidu |first1=Seri Rahimah |last2=Mohamed |first2=Nurul‘Ain |last3=Klemeš |first3=Jiří Jaromír |last4=Varbanov |first4=Petar Sabev |last5=Yusup |first5=Suzana |title=Evaluation of the energy saving opportunities for palm oil refining process: Sahabat Oil Products (SOP) in Lahad Datu, Malaysia |journal=Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy |date=December 2016 |volume=18 |issue=8 |pages=2453–2465 |doi=10.1007/s10098-016-1252-6|bibcode=2016CTEP...18.2453L |s2cid=114530616 }}
2. Filters remove the clay from the oil.
3. The oil enters the deodorizer, which is responsible for removing free fatty acids (FFA) generated by hydrolysis. One type of deodorizer works by distillating out the FFAs using a set of different temperatures. The FFA is collected as "palm fatty acid distillate" (PFAD). PFAD is itself a valuable product used in the manufacture of soaps, washing powder and other products.
4. The final, refined oil is called "refined, bleached and deodorized palm oil" (RBD PO). RBD PO is the basic palm oil sold on the world's commodity markets.

RBD PO is also known as {{vanchor|white palm oil}}. It can be further fractionated using the different melting points of its components. The part with a higher melting point, which crystalizes out as a solid earlier, is called palm stearin. It consists of mostly saturated fats. The remaining liquid part is called palm olein.{{cite journal |last1=Tong |first1=Shi-Cheng |last2=Tang |first2=Teck-Kim |last3=Lee |first3=Yee-Ying |title=A Review on the Fundamentals of Palm Oil Fractionation: Processing Conditions and Seeding Agents |journal=European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology |date=December 2021 |volume=123 |issue=12 |doi=10.1002/ejlt.202100132|s2cid=240505689 }} It is also possible to fractionate at a different point of processing, even with crude palm oil.{{cite journal |last1=Deffense |first1=E. |title=Fractionation of palm oil |journal=Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society |date=February 1985 |volume=62 |issue=2 |pages=376–385 |doi=10.1007/BF02541408 |s2cid=84577079 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225491696}}

RBD PO, or "palm shortening", is extensively used in food manufacture. It is valued for its low polyunsaturated fat content, which offers high stability against rancidity and allows it to replace hydrogenated fats in a variety of baked and fried products.

File:2 janvier 2015. Kisangani, Province Orientale, RD Congo. Une femme prépare l’huile de palme utilisée pour la consommation alimentaire et la production de savon (16219900844).jpg

The highly saturated nature of palm oil renders it solid at room temperature in temperate regions, making it a cheap substitute for butter or hydrogenated vegetable oils in uses where solid fat is desirable, such as the making of pastry dough and baked goods. Palm oil is used in West African cuisine such as egusi soup and okra soup.{{Cite book |last=Ukegbu |first=Kavachi Michelle |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1241244901 |title=The art of fufu : a guide to the culture and flavors of a West African tradition |date=2021 |others=Grubido |isbn=978-1-62634-596-6 |location=Austin, Texas |oclc=1241244901}} Palm oil is sometimes used as a minor ingredient in calf milk replacer.{{Cite web|url=https://www.biomin.net/species/ruminants/calf-milk-replacer/|title=Calf milk replacer: Ingredients, formulation and benefits for calves|website=Biomin}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.milkspecialties.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Calf-Milk-Replacer-2019-Final.pdf|date=2019|title=Calf Milk Replacer Guide|author=Milk Specialties Global Animal Nutrition|access-date=29 April 2021|archive-date=31 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831160134/https://www.milkspecialties.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Calf-Milk-Replacer-2019-Final.pdf|url-status=dead}}

Palm oil is pervasively used in personal care and cleaning products, and it provides the foaming agent in nearly every soap, shampoo, or detergent. Around 70% of personal care products including soap, shampoo, makeup, and lotion, contain ingredients derived from palm oil. However, there are more than 200 different names for these palm oil ingredients and only 10% of them include the word "palm".{{Cite news|last=Tullis|first=Paul|date=19 February 2019|title=How the world got hooked on palm oil|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2019/feb/19/palm-oil-ingredient-biscuits-shampoo-environmental}}

Palm oil is used to produce both methyl ester and hydrodeoxygenated biodiesel.{{cite news|last1=Rojas|first1=Mauricio|date=3 August 2007|title=Assessing the Engine Performance of Palm Oil Biodiesel|newspaper=Biodiesel Magazine|url=http://www.biodieselmagazine.com/articles/1755/assessing-the-engine-performance-of-palm-oil-biodiesel/|url-status=live|access-date=25 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511051402/http://www.biodieselmagazine.com/articles/1755/assessing-the-engine-performance-of-palm-oil-biodiesel/|archive-date=11 May 2013}} Palm oil methyl ester is created through a process called transesterification. Palm oil biodiesel is often blended with other fuels to create palm oil biodiesel blends.{{Cite conference |last1=Nahian|first1=Md. Rafsan|last2=Islam|first2=Md. Nurul|last3=Khan|first3=Shaheen|date=26 December 2016|title=Production of Biodiesel from Palm Oil and Performance Test with Diesel in CI Engine|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312016794 |conference= International Conference on Mechanical Industrial & Energy Engineering 2016, Kuet, Khulna, Bangladesh |at=CMIEE-PI-160160-4}} Palm oil biodiesel meets the European EN 14214 standard for biodiesels. Hydrodeoxygenated biodiesel is produced by direct hydrogenolysis of the fat into alkanes and propane. The world's largest palm oil biodiesel plant is the €550 million Finnish-operated Neste Oil biodiesel plant in Singapore, which opened in 2011 with a capacity of 800,000 tons per year and produces hydrodeoxygenated NEXBTL biodiesel from palm oil imported from Malaysia and Indonesia.{{cite news|last1=Yahya|first1=Yasmine|date=9 March 2011|title=World's Largest Biodiesel Plant Opens in Singapore|newspaper=The Jakarta Globe|url=http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/business/worlds-largest-biodiesel-plant-opens-in-singapore/427641|url-status=live|access-date=25 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120626075012/http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/business/worlds-largest-biodiesel-plant-opens-in-singapore/427641|archive-date=26 June 2012}}{{cite journal|date=July 2011|editor1-last=Tuck|editor1-first=Andrew|title=Neste Oil_|journal=Monocle|volume=05|issue=45|page=73|issn=1753-2434|quote=Petri Jokinen (right), managing director of Neste Oil Singapore [...] the €550m plant has an annual production capacity of 800,000 metric tons of NExBTL renewable diesel, which is distributed mainly in Europe [...] palm oil, is imported from neighbouring Malaysia and Indonesia}}

Significant amounts of palm oil exports to Europe are converted to biodiesel (as of early 2018: Indonesia: 40%, Malaysia 30%).{{cite web|last=hermes|date=24 January 2018|title=European ban on palm oil in biofuels upsets Jakarta, KL|url=https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/european-ban-on-palm-oil-in-biofuels-upsets-jakarta-kl|website=The Straits Times}}{{cite news|last1=Wahyudi Soeriaatmadja|last2=Trinna Leong|date=24 January 2018|title=European ban on palm oil in biofuels upsets Jakarta, KL|work=The Straits Times|url=https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/european-ban-on-palm-oil-in-biofuels-upsets-jakarta-kl|access-date=23 November 2018|quote=For Indonesia, 40% of its palm oil exports to Europe are converted into biofuels. Europe is Malaysia's second-largest export market for palm oil, with 30% of it used for biodiesel.}} In 2014, almost half of all the palm oil in Europe was burned as car and truck fuel.{{cite news|last1=Melanie Hall|date=1 June 2016|title=New palm oil figures: Biodiesel use in EU fueling deforestation|work=Deutsche Welle|url=https://www.dw.com/en/new-palm-oil-figures-biodiesel-use-in-eu-fueling-deforestation/a-19298426|access-date=23 November 2018|quote=In 2014, nearly half of the palm oil used in Europe ended up in the gas tanks of cars and trucks, according to data compiled by the EU vegetable oil industry association Fediol}} As of 2018, one-half of Europe's palm oil imports were used for biodiesel.{{cite news|last1=Robert-Jan Bartunek|last2=Alissa de Carbonnel|date=14 June 2018|title=EU to phase out palm oil from transport fuel by 2030|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-eu-climatechange-palmoil/eu-to-phase-out-palm-oil-from-transport-fuel-by-2030-idUSKBN1JA21F|access-date=23 November 2018|quote=Half of the EU's 6 billion euros ($7 billion) worth of palm oil imports are used for biodiesel, according to data from Copenhagen Economics.}} Use of palm oil as biodiesel generates three times the carbon emissions as using fossil fuel,{{cite news|last1=Hans Spross|date=22 June 2018|title=Does EU biofuel deal compromise the environment for trade with Southeast Asia?|work=Deutsche Welle|url=https://www.dw.com/en/does-eu-biofuel-deal-compromise-the-environment-for-trade-with-southeast-asia/a-44350293|access-date=23 November 2018|quote=According to a 2015 study carried out on behalf of the European Commission, the production and use of palm oil biodiesel causes three times the carbon emissions of fossil diesel.}} and, for example, "biodiesel made from Indonesian palm oil makes the global carbon problem worse, not better."{{cite news|last1=Abrahm Lustgarten|date=20 November 2018|title=Supposed to Help Save the Planet. Instead It Unleashed a Catastrophe.|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/20/magazine/palm-oil-borneo-climate-catastrophe.html|access-date=14 December 2018|quote=six of the world's leading carbon-modeling schemes, including the E.P.A.'s, have concluded that biodiesel made from Indonesian palm oil makes the global carbon problem worse, not better}}

There are pressures for increased oil palm production from Indonesian palm-based biodiesel programs. The biodiesel currently contains a 30:70 palm oil to conventional diesel ratio (known as B30) at the gas pumps. The Indonesian government is aiming to produce 100% palm oil biodiesel (or B100) to transition out of using conventional diesel. The Indonesian government has estimated it would need to establish approximately 15 million hectares of oil palm plantations to meet these future demands.{{cite web |last1=Jong |first1=Hans Nicholas |title=Top Indonesian Palm Oil Developments in 2020 |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2020/12/top-indonesia-palm-oil-news-story-2020/ |website=Mongabay |date=28 December 2020 |access-date=12 May 2021}}

The organic waste matter that is produced when processing oil palm, including oil palm shells and oil palm fruit bunches, can also be used to produce energy. This waste material can be converted into pellets that can be used as a biofuel.{{cite news|last1=Choong|first1=Meng Yew|date=27 March 2012|title=Waste not the palm oil biomass|newspaper=The Star Online|url=http://thestar.com.my/lifestyle/story.asp?file=/2012/3/27/lifefocus/9991812&sec=lifefocus|access-date=25 February 2013}} Additionally, palm oil that has been used to fry foods can be converted into methyl esters for biodiesel. The used cooking oil is chemically treated to create a biodiesel similar to petroleum diesel.{{Cite report|url=http://palmoilis.mpob.gov.my/publications/joprv18june-loh.pdf|title=Recovery and conversion of palm olein-derived used frying oil to methyl esters for biodiesel|author=Loh Soh Kheang|author2=Choo Yuen May|date=18 June 2006|author3=Cheng Sit Food|author4=Ma Ah Ngan|access-date=25 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100704235655/http://palmoilis.mpob.gov.my/publications/joprv18june-loh.pdf|archive-date=4 July 2010|journal=Journal of Palm Oil Research|url-status=live}}

Although palm oil is applied to wounds for its supposed antimicrobial effects, research does not confirm its effectiveness.

[http://www.kmitl.ac.th/ejkmitl/vol5no2/p502-505.pdf Antimicrobial effects of palm kernel oil and palm oil] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081002235927/http://www.kmitl.ac.th/ejkmitl/vol5no2/p502-505.pdf|date=2 October 2008}} Ekwenye, U.N and Ijeomah, King Mongkut's Institute of Technology Ladkrabang Science Journal, Vol. 5, No. 2, Jan–Jun 2005

In 2023–2024, world production of palm oil was 77.3 million tonnes, led by Indonesia with 57% of the total.{{Cite web|url=https://fas.usda.gov/data/production/commodity/4243000|title=Production - palm oil in 2023-24|publisher=Foreign Agriculturual Service, US Department of Agriculture|date=2024|access-date=18 November 2024}} The annual production of palm oil is projected to reach 240 million tonnes by 2050.{{cite news |last1=Tullis |first1=Paul |title=How the World Got Hooked on Palm Oil |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2019/feb/19/palm-oil-ingredient-biscuits-shampoo-environmental |work=The Guardian|date=19 February 2019 |access-date=12 May 2021}} During the 2022 food crises instigated by the Russian invasion of Ukraine and crop failures in other parts of the world due to extreme weather caused by climate change, the Indonesian government banned exports of palm oil.{{Cite news |last=Nangoy |first=Fransiska |date=2022-04-23 |title=Indonesia bans palm oil exports as global food inflation spikes |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/indonesia-ban-palm-oil-exports-shore-up-supply-soyoil-futures-surge-2022-04-22/ |access-date=2022-04-27}} This combined with a reduced harvest in Malaysia greatly increased global prices, while reducing availability causing ripple effects in the global supply chain. On 23 May 2022, the Indonesian government reopened trading hoping to balance supplies.{{Cite news |date=2022-05-19 |title=Indonesia Lifts Palm Oil Export Ban in Relief to Global Market |language=en |work=Bloomberg.com |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-05-19/indonesia-lifts-palm-oil-export-ban-in-relief-to-global-market |access-date=2022-05-20}}

{{main|Palm oil production in Indonesia}}

File:Oil palm plantation in Cigudeg-03.jpg

Indonesia is the world's largest producer of palm oil, producing 44 million tonnes in 2023-24.

{{main|Palm oil production in Malaysia}}

File:District-Kunak Sabah IOI-Baturong-Palm-Oil-Mill-03.jpg

File:Malayasia iko 2002169.jpg to allow the plantation of oil palm]]

Malaysia is the world's second-largest producer of palm oil, producing 19.7 million tonnes in 2023-24.

In 1992, in response to concerns about deforestation, the Government of Malaysia pledged to limit the expansion of palm oil plantations by retaining a minimum of half the nation's land as forest cover.{{cite news|last1=Morales|first1=Alex|date=18 November 2010|title=Malaysia Has Little Room for Expanding Palm-Oil Production, Minister Says|newspaper=Bloomberg|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2010-11-18/malaysia-has-little-room-for-palm-oil-expansion-plantation-minister-says.html|url-status=live|access-date=1 March 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120912033525/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2010-11-18/malaysia-has-little-room-for-palm-oil-expansion-plantation-minister-says.html|archive-date=12 September 2012}}{{cite news|last1=Scott-Thomas|first1=Caroline|date=17 September 2012|title=French firms urged to back away from 'no palm oil' label claims|newspaper=Foodnavigator|url=http://www.foodnavigator.com/Financial-Industry/French-firms-urged-to-back-away-from-no-palm-oil-label-claims|url-status=live|access-date=7 March 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130312115810/http://www.foodnavigator.com/Financial-Industry/French-firms-urged-to-back-away-from-no-palm-oil-label-claims|archive-date=12 March 2013}}

As of 2023-24, Nigeria was the fifth-largest producer, with 1.5 million tonnes. Both small- and large-scale producers participate in the industry.{{cite web|last=Ayodele|first=Thompson|date=August 2010|title=African Case Study: Palm Oil and Economic Development in Nigeria and Ghana; Recommendations for the World Bank's 2010 Palm Oil Strategy|url=http://www.ippanigeria.org/worldbankreportpalmoil%5B1%5D.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120422142906/http://www.ippanigeria.org/worldbankreportpalmoil%5B1%5D.pdf|archive-date=22 April 2012|access-date=8 December 2011|website=Initiative For Public Policy Analysis}}{{cite news|last=Ayodele|first=Thompson|date=15 October 2010|title=The World Bank's Palm Oil Mistake|newspaper=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/16/opinion/16ayodele.html?_r=1&src=sch&pagewanted=all|url-status=live|access-date=8 December 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180119150947/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/16/opinion/16ayodele.html?_r=1&src=sch&pagewanted=all|archive-date=19 January 2018}} In much of the Niger Delta, palm oil is commonoly referred to as "red oil" (or red gold) to distinguish it from the "black oil" (crude oil) which dominates production.{{cite news |last1=Von Hellermann |first1=Pauline |title=Red gold: a history of palm oil in West Africa |url=https://dialogue.earth/en/food/red-gold-a-history-of-palm-oil-in-west-africa/#:%7E:text=Oil%20palm%E2%80%93human%20relations%20in%20West%20Africa%3A%20a%20long%20history&text=Archaeological%20evidence%20shows%20that%20palm,in%20cleared%20and%20burned%20areas. |access-date=22 May 2024 |publisher=Dialogue Earth |date=18 January 2021}}

Thailand is the world's third-largest producer of crude palm oil, producing 3.6 million tonnes in 2023-24. Nearly all of Thai production is consumed locally. Almost 85% of palm plantations and extraction mills are in south Thailand. At year-end 2016, 4.7 to 5.8 million rai ({{convert|750,000 to 930,000|ha|acre|disp=semicolon}}) were planted in oil palms, employing 300,000 farmers, mostly on small landholdings of 20 rai ({{convert|3.2|ha|acre|disp=semicolon}}). ASEAN as a region accounts for {{convert|52.5|e6MT|e6ST|abbr=off}} of palm oil production, about 85% of the world total and more than 90% of global exports. Indonesia accounts for 52% of world exports. Malaysian exports total 38%. The biggest consumers of palm oil are India, the European Union, and China, with the three consuming nearly 50% of world exports. Thailand's Department of Internal Trade (DIT) usually sets the price of crude palm oil and refined palm oil Thai farmers have a relatively low yield compared to those in Malaysia and Indonesia. Thai palm oil crops yield 4–17% oil compared to around 20% in competing countries. In addition, Indonesian and Malaysian oil palm plantations are 10 times the size of Thai plantations.{{cite news|last1=Arunmas|first1=Phusadee|last2=Wipatayotin|first2=Apinya|date=28 January 2018|title=EU move fuelling unease among palm oil producers|work=Bangkok Post|department=Spectrum|url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/business/news/1403374/eu-move-fuelling-unease-among-palm-oil-producers|access-date=29 January 2018}}

Palm is native to the wetlands of western Africa, and south Benin already hosts many palm plantations. Its 'Agricultural Revival Programme' has identified many thousands of hectares of land as suitable for new oil palm export plantations. In spite of the economic benefits, Non-governmental organisations (NGOs), such as Nature Tropicale, claim biofuels will compete with domestic food production in some existing prime agricultural sites. Other areas comprise peat land, whose drainage would have a deleterious environmental impact. They are also concerned genetically modified plants will be introduced into the region, jeopardizing the current premium paid for their non-GM crops.{{cite web|last=Pazos|first=Flavio|date=3 August 2007|title=Benin: Large scale oil palm plantations for agrofuel|url=http://www.wrm.org.uy/oldsite/bulletin/120/Benin.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808035000/http://www.wrm.org.uy/oldsite/bulletin/120/Benin.html|archive-date=8 August 2014|website=World Rainforest Movement}}{{cite book|author=African Biodiversity Network|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=as4sAQAAMAAJ|title=Agrofuels in Africa: the impacts on land, food and forests: case studies from Benin, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia|publisher=African Biodiversity Network|others=translated by|year=2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160418054802/https://books.google.com/books?id=as4sAQAAMAAJ|archive-date=18 April 2016|url-status=live}}

According to recent article by National Geographic, most palm oil in Benin is still produced by women for domestic use.{{Cite web|last=Hillary Rosner|title=Palm oil is unavoidable. Can it be sustainable?|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2018/12/palm-oil-products-borneo-africa-environment-impact/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181210132728/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2018/12/palm-oil-products-borneo-africa-environment-impact/|url-status=dead|archive-date=10 December 2018|website=National Geographic|date=4 December 2018}} The FAO additionally states that peasants in Benin practice agroecology.{{Cite web|last=FAO|title=West African women defend traditional palm oil|url=http://www.fao.org/family-farming/detail/en/c/417205/|website=Food and Agricultural Organization}} They harvest palm fruit from small farms and the palm oil is mostly used for local consumption.

Cameroon had a production project underway initiated by Herakles Farms in the United States.{{Cite web|last=Rosenthal|first=Elisabeth|date=2012-09-05|title=Report Assails Palm Oil Project in Cameroon|url=https://archive.nytimes.com/green.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/09/05/report-assails-palm-oil-project-in-cameroon/|access-date=2023-02-08|website=Green Blog|language=en}} However, the project was halted under the pressure of civil society organizations in Cameroon. Before the project was halted, Herakles left the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil early in negotiations.{{cite web|date=21 June 2013|title=Cameroon changes mind on Herakles palm oil project|url=http://wwf.panda.org/?209145/Cameroon-changes-mind-on-Herakles-palm-oil-project|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213041929/http://wwf.panda.org/?209145%2FCameroon-changes-mind-on-Herakles-palm-oil-project|archive-date=13 December 2013|access-date=23 May 2016|website=World Wildlife Fund}} The project has been controversial due to opposition from villagers and the location of the project in a sensitive region for biodiversity.

In 2018, total palm oil production in Colombia reached {{convert|1.6|e6MT|e6ST|abbr=off}}, representing some 8% of national agricultural GDP and benefiting mainly smallholders (65% of Colombia's palm oil sector).{{Cite web |author1=Inga Hilbert |author2=María Goretti Esquivel |author3=Joel Brounen |date=2019 |title=Barometer on sustainable production and trade of palm oil in Colombia |url=https://www.solidaridadnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/migrated-files/publications/BarometerSustainableColombianPalmOil%202019.pdf |access-date=20 May 2022 |publisher=Solidaridad}}{{cite web |date=2020 |title=Palm oil |url=https://comerciosostenible.org/en/ |access-date=2 October 2020 |publisher=Sustainable Trade Platform - Colombia |archive-date=30 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030021647/https://comerciosostenible.org/en |url-status=dead }} According to a study from the Environmental, Science and Policy, Colombia has the potential to produce sustainable palm oil without causing deforestation.{{Cite journal |author1=Carmenza Castiblanco |author2=Andrés Etter |author3=T. Mitchell Aide |date=2013 |title=Oil palm plantations in Colombia: a model of future expansion |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S146290111300004X |journal=Environmental Science and Policy |volume=27 |pages=172–183 |doi=10.1016/j.envsci.2013.01.003|bibcode=2013ESPol..27..172C |url-access=subscription }} In addition, palm oil and other crops provide a productive alternative for illegal crops, like coca.{{Cite web |author1=David Calderón |author2=Carlos Alberto Pérez |date=1 January 2019 |title=Smallholder oil palm producers contributing to peace and sustainability in Colombia |url=https://www.solidaridadnetwork.org/solidaridad-stories/smallholder-oil-palm-producers-contributing-to-peace-and-sustainability-in |access-date=2 October 2020 |publisher=ETFRN, Tropenbos International}}

Ecuador aims to help palm oil producers switch to sustainable methods and achieve RSPO certification under initiatives to develop greener industries.{{Cite web |date=4 May 2018 |title=Ecuador to invest $1.2bn in palm oil sustainability & innovation: 'There is a tremendous opportunity here' |url=https://www.foodnavigator.com/Article/2018/05/04/Ecuador-to-invest-1.2bn-in-palm-oil-sustainability-innovation-There-is-a-tremendous-opportunity-here |website=Food Navigator}}

Ghana has a lot of palm nut species, which may become an important contributor to the agriculture of the region. Although Ghana has multiple palm species, ranging from local palm nuts to other species locally called agric, it was only marketed locally and to neighboring countries. Production is now expanding as major investment funds are purchasing plantations because Ghana is considered a major growth area for palm oil.

Kenya's domestic production of edible oils covers about a third of its annual demand, estimated at {{convert|380,000|MT|ST}}. The rest is imported at a cost of around US$140 million a year, making edible oil the country's second most important import after petroleum. Since 1993 a new hybrid variety of cold-tolerant, high-yielding oil palm has been promoted by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations in western Kenya. As well as alleviating the country's deficit of edible oils while providing an important cash crop, it is claimed to have environmental benefits in the region, because it does not compete against food crops or native vegetation and it provides stabilisation for the soil.{{cn|date=November 2024}}

Palm oil was introduced to British Burma (now Myanmar) in the 1920s.{{Cite journal |last1=Nomura |first1=Keiko |last2=Mitchard |first2=Edward T. A. |last3=Patenaude |first3=Genevieve |last4=Bastide |first4=Joan |last5=Oswald |first5=Patrick |last6=Nwe |first6=Thazin |date=2019-08-15 |title=Oil palm concessions in southern Myanmar consist mostly of unconverted forest |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=11931 |doi=10.1038/s41598-019-48443-3 |pmid=31417153 |pmc=6695397 |bibcode=2019NatSR...911931N |issn=2045-2322}} Beginning in the 1970s, smaller-scale palm oil plantations were developed in Tanintharyi Region, and Mon, Kayin, and Rakhine States. In 1999, the ruling military junta, the State Peace and Development Council, initiated the large-scale development of such plantations, especially in Tanintharyi, the southernmost region of Myanmar. As of 2019, over 401,814 ha of palm oil concessions have been awarded to 44 companies. 60% of the awarded concessions consist of forests and native vegetation, and some concessions overlap with national parks, including Tanintharyi and Lenya National Parks, which have seen deforestation and threaten conservation efforts for endemic species like the Indochinese tiger.{{Cite web |date=2019-11-13 |title=Myanmar risks losing forests to oil palm, but there's time to pivot |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2019/11/myanmar-risks-losing-forests-to-oil-palm-but-theres-time-to-pivot/ |access-date=2023-03-02 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}

{{Main|Social and environmental impact of palm oil}}

Forests have been cleared in parts of Indonesia and Malaysia to make space for oil-palm monoculture.{{Cite web|url=http://www.sustainablepalmoil.org/deforestation|title=Deforestation|website=www.sustainablepalmoil.org|access-date=15 June 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817173748/http://www.sustainablepalmoil.org/deforestation/|archive-date=17 August 2016}} This has significant impacts on the local ecosystems leading to deforestation and biodiversity loss. For example, these processes have resulted in significant acreage losses of the natural habitat of the three surviving species of orangutan. One species in particular, the Sumatran orangutan, has been listed as critically endangered because of habitat loss due to palm oil cultivation.{{cite iucn |url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/121097935/123797627 |title=Pongo abelii |access-date=20 May 2022}}{{cite journal |title=Palm-oil boom raises conservation concerns: Industry urged towards sustainable farming practices as rising demand drives deforestation |author=Natasha Gilbert |date=4 July 2012 |journal=Nature |volume=487 |issue=7405 |pages=14–15 |doi=10.1038/487014a |pmid=22763524 |doi-access=free }}

File:Palm forest.jpg, the forest (F), is being replaced by oil palm plantations (G). These changes are irreversible for all practical purposes (H).]]

In addition to environmental concerns, palm oil development in specific regions that produce it has also led to significant social conflict. Regions with fast growing palm oil production have experienced significant violations of indigenous tribe land rights, influxes of illegal immigrant labor and labor practices, and other alleged related human rights violations.

The palm oil industry has had both positive and negative impacts on workers, indigenous peoples, and residents of palm oil producing communities. Palm oil production provides employment opportunities, and has been shown to improve infrastructure, social services and also help reduce poverty.{{cite news|last1=Budidarsono|first1=Suseno|last2=Dewi|first2=Sonya|last3=Sofiyuddin|first3=Muhammad|last4=Rahmanulloh|first4=Arif|title=Socio-Economic Impact Assessment of Palm Oil Production|work=World Agroforestry Centre|url=http://www.worldagroforestry.org/downloads/publications/PDFs/TB12053.PDF|url-status=live|access-date=30 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140111075416/http://www.worldagroforestry.org/downloads/publications/PDFs/TB12053.PDF|archive-date=11 January 2014}}{{cite web|last1=Norwana|first1=Awang Ali Bema Dayang|last2=Kunjappan|first2=Rejani|year=2011|title=The local impacts of oil palm expansion in Malaysia|url=http://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP-78Andriani.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130622221930/http://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP-78Andriani.pdf|archive-date=22 June 2013|access-date=30 January 2013|work=cifor.org|publisher=Center for International Forestry Research}}{{cite news|last1=Ismail|first1=Saidi Isham|date=9 November 2012|title=Palm oil transforms economic landscape|newspaper=Business Times|url=http://www.btimes.com.my/Current_News/BTIMES/articles/VISPAM/Article/|url-status=dead|access-date=30 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121112182523/http://www.btimes.com.my/Current_News/BTIMES/articles/VISPAM/Article/|archive-date=12 November 2012}} However, in some cases, oil palm plantations have developed lands without consultation or compensation of the indigenous people inhabiting the land, resulting in social conflict.{{cite press release|title=Palm oil cultivation for biofuel blocks return of displaced people in Colombia|url=http://www.internal-displacement.org/8025708F004BE3B1/(httpInfoFiles)/B3EE02C81FE75923C125738A003536C9/$file/Colombia_press_release_nov07.pdf|publisher=Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre|date=5 November 2007|access-date=30 January 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071127055013/http://www.internal-displacement.org/8025708F004BE3B1/(httpInfoFiles)/B3EE02C81FE75923C125738A003536C9/$file/Colombia_press_release_nov07.pdf|archive-date=27 November 2007}}{{cite news|last1=Colchester|first1=Marcus|last2=Jalong|first2=Thomas|last3=Meng Chuo|first3=Wong|date=2 October 2012|title=Free, Prior and Informed Consent in the Palm Oil Sector – Sarawak: IOI-Pelita and the community of Long Teran Kanan|newspaper=Forest Peoples Program|url=http://www.forestpeoples.org/topics/palm-oil-rspo/publication/2012/free-prior-and-informed-consent-palm-oil-sector-sarawak-ioi-pe|url-status=live|access-date=30 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514104723/http://www.forestpeoples.org/topics/palm-oil-rspo/publication/2012/free-prior-and-informed-consent-palm-oil-sector-sarawak-ioi-pe|archive-date=14 May 2013}}{{cite news|date=28 February 2008|title="Losing Ground" – report on indigenous communities and oil palm development from LifeMosaic, Sawit Watch and Friends of the Earth|newspaper=Forest Peoples Programme|url=http://www.forestpeoples.org/topics/palm-oil-rspo/publication/2012/losing-ground-report-indigenous-communities-and-oil-palm-devel|url-status=live|access-date=30 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514094449/http://www.forestpeoples.org/topics/palm-oil-rspo/publication/2012/losing-ground-report-indigenous-communities-and-oil-palm-devel|archive-date=14 May 2013}} The use of illegal immigrants in Malaysia has also raised concerns about working conditions within the palm oil industry.{{Cite report|url=http://biomasssociety.org/en/2012/05/indonesian-migrant-workers-with-particular-reference-in-the-oil-palm-plantation-industries-in-sabah-malaysia%E3%80%80dr-riwanto-tirtrosudarmo/|title=Indonesian migrant workers: with particular reference in the oil palm plantation industries in Sabah, Malaysia|date=11 December 2010|publisher=Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140111071229/http://biomasssociety.org/en/2012/05/indonesian-migrant-workers-with-particular-reference-in-the-oil-palm-plantation-industries-in-sabah-malaysia%E3%80%80dr-riwanto-tirtrosudarmo/|archive-date=11 January 2014|work=Biomass Society|url-status=live}}{{Cite news|date=9 January 2014|title=Malaysia Plans High-Tech Card for Foreign Workers|work=ABC News|url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/malaysia-plans-high-tech-card-foreign-workers-21471479/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140113074248/https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/malaysia-plans-high-tech-card-foreign-workers-21471479|archive-date=13 January 2014}}{{Cite news|date=2 September 2013|title=Malaysia rounds up thousands of migrant workers|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-23931833|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130905100947/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-23931833|archive-date=5 September 2013}}

Some social initiatives use palm oil cultivation as part of poverty alleviation strategies. Examples include the UN Food and Agriculture Organisation's hybrid oil palm project in Western Kenya, which improves incomes and diets of local populations, and Malaysia's Federal Land Development Authority and Federal Land Consolidation and Rehabilitation Authority, which both support rural development.{{cite news|last1=Ibrahim|first1=Ahmad|date=31 December 2012|title=Felcra a success story in rural transformation|work=New Straits Times|url=http://www.nst.com.my/nation/general/felcra-a-success-story-in-rural-transformation-1.193708|url-status=dead|access-date=7 February 2013|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130413151936/http://www.nst.com.my/nation/general/felcra-a-success-story-in-rural-transformation-1.193708|archive-date=13 April 2013}}

{{main|Food vs. fuel}}

The use of palm oil in the production of biodiesel has led to concerns that the need for fuel is being placed ahead of the need for food, leading to malnutrition in developing nations. This is known as the food versus fuel debate. According to a 2008 report published in the Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, palm oil was determined to be a sustainable source of both food and biofuel, and the production of palm oil biodiesel does not pose a threat to edible palm oil supplies.{{Cite report|url=https://www.academia.edu/876673|title=Malaysian Palm oil: Surviving the food versus fuel dispute for a sustainable future|author=Man Kee Kam|author2=Kok Tat Tan|date=9 September 2008|author3=Keat Teong Lee|author4=Abdul Rahman Mohamed|access-date=26 February 2013|journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews}} According to a 2009 study published in the Environmental Science and Policy journal, palm oil biodiesel might increase the demand for palm oil in the future, resulting in the expansion of palm oil production, and therefore an increased supply of food.{{Cite journal|last1=Corley|first1=R. H. V.|year=2009|title=How much palm oil do we need?|journal=Environmental Science & Policy|volume=12|issue=2|pages=134–838|doi=10.1016/j.envsci.2008.10.011|bibcode=2009ESPol..12..134C }}

File:Palm oil manufacture (9) Lac Mukamba, Teretoire de Dimbelenge, Kasai occ. RD Congo.JPG) in which palm oil is produced. |254x254px]]

One report indicated numerous allegations of human rights violations in the production of palm oil in Indonesia and Malaysia, including exposure to hazardous pesticides, child labor, rape and sexual abuse, and unsafe carrying loads, among other human rights violations. These incidents may receive no response by the company, police, or other law enforcement group, or are left unreported because victims fear retaliation from their abuser. Pesticides used by palm oil plantations include paraquat, which has been banned in Europe over links to Parkinson's disease, and glyphosate, which has been involved in a US class-action lawsuit regarding cancer{{Cite news|author1=Margie Mason |author2=Robin McDowell |date=18 November 2020|title=Rape, abuses in palm oil fields linked to top beauty brands|work=The Associated Press|url=https://apnews.com/article/palm-oil-abuse-investigation-cosmetics-2a209d60c42bf0e8fcc6f8ea6daa11c7|access-date=22 November 2020}} (the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) classified glyphosate as causing serious eye damage but did not find evidence implicating it as a carcinogen).{{cite web|url=https://echa.europa.eu/-/glyphosate-not-classified-as-a-carcinogen-by-echa|title=Glyphosate not classified as a carcinogen by ECHA|date=15 March 2017 |publisher=ECHA}}

Reports of indigenous peoples and communities in Indonesia, indicate losing farmland and traditionally significant land due to palm oil industry expansion. In 2017, there were over 650 different land disputes between palm oil plantations and indigenous landowners.{{Cite web |date=2019-09-22 |title="When We Lost the Forest, We Lost Everything": Oil Palm Plantations and Rights Violations in Indonesia |url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2019/09/23/when-we-lost-forest-we-lost-everything/oil-palm-plantations-and-rights-violations |publisher=Human Rights Watch |language=en}} Indigenous communities also expressed concern over the loss of natural resources, such as wild rubber, reed, and adat forests (communal forests). Indigenous communities have made some ground when it comes to land disputes, either through protest or legal means.{{Cite web |date=2021-10-27 |title=Indigenous Papuans won their forest back from a palm oil firm, but still lack land title |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/10/indigenous-papuans-won-their-forest-back-from-a-palm-oil-firm-but-still-lack-land-title/ |access-date=2021-12-14 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}

Other concerns when it comes to indigenous communities being impacted include lack of government oversight on palm oil plantations, political corruption, or the lack of enforcement of laws meant to protect indigenous lands.{{Cite web |date=2019-09-22 |title=Indonesia: Indigenous Peoples Losing Their Forests |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/09/22/indonesia-indigenous-peoples-losing-their-forests |access-date=2021-12-14 |website=Human Rights Watch |language=en}} In countries such as Guatemala, palm oil plantations have significant leverage within the local justice system, leading local police to disregard land claims, going as far as using force to break up protests, and even murdering local leaders.{{Cite web |last=Cuffe |first=Sandra |title=Guatemala's growing palm oil industry fuels Indigenous land fight |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/10/15/guatemala-growing-palm-oil-industry-fuels-indigenous-land-fight |date=15 Oct 2021 |access-date=2021-12-14 |website=Al Jazeera |language=en}}

{{See also|2015 Southeast Asian haze}}

While only 5% of the world's vegetable oil farmland is used for palm plantations, palm cultivation produces 38% of the world's total vegetable oil supply.{{cite web|author=Spinks, Rosie J|date=17 December 2014|title=Why does palm oil still dominate the supermarket shelves?|url=https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/2014/dec/17/palm-oil-sustainability-developing-countries|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161204125318/https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/2014/dec/17/palm-oil-sustainability-developing-countries|archive-date=4 December 2016|access-date=7 December 2016|work=The Guardian}} In terms of oil yield, a palm plantation is 10 times more productive than soybean, sunflower or rapeseed cultivation because the palm fruit and kernel both provide usable oil. Palm oil has garnered criticism from environmentalists due to the environmental importance of where it is grown. However, it is indisputably more efficient in comparison to other oil-producing plants. In 2016, it was found that palm oil farms produce around 4.17 metric tons of oil per hectare. By contrast other oils, such as sunflower, soybean, or peanut only produce 0.56, 0.39, and 0.16 metric tons respectively per hectare.{{Cite web|date=8 February 2018|title=The Benefits of Palm Oil|url=https://www.asianagri.com/en/media-en/articles/the-benefits-of-palm-oil|website=Asian AGRI}} Palm oil is the most sustainable vegetable oil in terms of yield, requiring one-ninth of land used by other vegetable oil crops.{{cite news|date=6 February 2019|title=Oil palms need one-ninth of land used by other vegetable oil crops|work=Jakarta Post|url=https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2019/02/06/oil-palms-need-one-ninth-of-land-used-by-other-vegetable-oil-crops.html|access-date=7 February 2019}} In the future, laboratory-grown microbes might achieve higher yields per unit of land at comparable prices.{{Cite journal|last1=Atabani|first1=A. E.|last2=Silitonga|first2=A. S.|last3=Badruddin|first3=I. A.|last4=Mahlia|first4=T. M. I.|last5=Masjuki|first5=H. H.|last6=Mekhilef|first6=S.|year=2012|title=A comprehensive review on biodiesel as an alternative energy resource and its characteristics|journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews|volume=16|issue=4|pages=2070–2093|doi=10.1016/j.rser.2012.01.003|bibcode=2012RSERv..16.2070A }}{{cite news|author=Laura Paddison|date=29 September 2017|title=From algae to yeast: the quest to find an alternative to palm oil|newspaper=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/2017/sep/29/algae-yeast-quest-to-find-alternative-to-palm-oil|access-date=20 July 2019}}

However, palm oil cultivation has been criticized for its impact on the natural environment,{{Cite book|last1=Clay|first1=Jason|title=World Agriculture and the Environment.|year=2004|isbn=978-1-55963-370-3|page=219|publisher=Island Press }}{{cite news|date=8 November 2007|title=Palm oil: Cooking the Climate|newspaper=Greenpeace|url=http://www.greenpeace.org/international/news/palm-oil_cooking-the-climate|url-status=dead|access-date=30 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100410195818/http://www.greenpeace.org/international/news/palm-oil_cooking-the-climate|archive-date=10 April 2010}} including deforestation, loss of natural habitats,{{cite web|title=The bird communities of oil palm and rubber plantations in Thailand|url=https://www.rspb.org.uk/Images/thailand2_tcm9-133164.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161006011200/https://www.rspb.org.uk/Images/thailand2_tcm9-133164.pdf|archive-date=6 October 2016|access-date=4 October 2016|website=The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB)}} and greenhouse gas emissions{{cite news|last1=Foster|first1=Joanna M.|date=1 May 2012|title=A Grim Portrait of Palm Oil Emissions|newspaper=The New York Times|url=http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/05/01/a-grim-portrait-of-palm-oil-emissions/|url-status=live|access-date=30 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116051501/http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/05/01/a-grim-portrait-of-palm-oil-emissions/|archive-date=16 January 2013}}{{Cite journal|last1=Yui|first1=Sahoko|last2=Yeh|first2=Sonia|date=1 December 2013|title=Land use change emissions from oil palm expansion in Pará, Brazil depend on proper policy enforcement on deforested lands|journal=Environmental Research Letters|volume=8|issue=4|pages=044031|bibcode=2013ERL.....8d4031Y|doi=10.1088/1748-9326/8/4/044031|issn=1748-9326|doi-access=free}} which have threatened critically endangered species, such as the orangutan{{cite web|date=May 2005|title=Palm oil threatening endangered species|url=http://www.cspinet.org/palm/PalmOilReport.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120917040459/http://www.cspinet.org/palm/PalmOilReport.pdf|archive-date=17 September 2012|publisher=Center for Science in the Public Interest}} and Sumatran tiger.{{cite news|date=12 October 2010|title=Camera catches bulldozer destroying Sumatra tiger forest|newspaper=World Wildlife Fund|url=http://wwf.panda.org/?195632/Camera-catches-bulldozer-destroying-Sumatra-tiger-forest|url-status=live|access-date=30 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116234435/http://wwf.panda.org/?195632%2FCamera-catches-bulldozer-destroying-Sumatra-tiger-forest|archive-date=16 January 2013}} Slash-and-burn techniques are still used to create new plantations across palm oil producing countries. From January to September 2019, 857,000 hectares of land was burned in Indonesia; peatlands accounted for more than a quarter of the burned area.{{Cite journal|last=Jope|first=Alan|date=2019|title=Burning down the house: How Unilever and other global brands continue to fuel Indonesia's fires|url=https://www.greenpeace.org/static/planet4-international-stateless/2019/11/5c8a9799-burning-down-the-house-greenpeace-indonesia-fires-briefing.pdf|journal=Greenpeace}} The widespread deforestation and other environmental destruction in Indonesia, much of which is caused by palm oil production has often been described by academics as an ecocide.{{Cite web |title=Forensic Architecture |url=https://forensic-architecture.org/investigation/ecocide-in-indonesia |access-date=2023-07-05 |website=forensic-architecture.org}}{{Cite web |last= |date=2022-08-04 |title=Explainer: What is ecocide? |url=https://www.eco-business.com/news/explainer-what-is-ecocide/ |access-date=2023-07-05 |website=Eco-Business |language=en}}{{Citation |last1=Aida |first1=Melly |title=Ecocide in the International Law: Integration Between Environmental Rights and International Crime and Its Implementation in Indonesia |date=2023 |work=Proceedings of the 3rd Universitas Lampung International Conference on Social Sciences (ULICoSS 2022) |volume=740 |pages=572–584 |editor-last=Perdana |editor-first=Ryzal |place=Paris |publisher=Atlantis Press SARL |language=en |doi=10.2991/978-2-38476-046-6_57 |isbn=978-2-38476-045-9 |last2=Tahar |first2=Abdul Muthalib |last3=Davey |first3=Orima |series=Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research |editor2-last=Putrawan |editor2-first=Gede Eka |editor3-last=Saputra |editor3-first=Bayu |editor4-last=Septiawan |editor4-first=Trio Yuda|doi-access=free }}{{Cite web |last1=Alberro |first1=Heather |last2=Daniele |first2=Luigi |date=2021-06-29 |title=Ecocide: why establishing a new international crime would be a step towards interspecies justice |url=http://theconversation.com/ecocide-why-establishing-a-new-international-crime-would-be-a-step-towards-interspecies-justice-162059 |access-date=2023-07-05 |website=The Conversation |language=en}}{{Cite journal |last1=Setiyono |first1=Joko |last2=Natalis |first2=Aga |date=2021-12-30 |title=Ecocides as a Serious Human Rights Violation: A Study on the Case of River Pollution by the Palm Oil Industry in Indonesia |journal=International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning |language=en |volume=16 |issue=8 |pages=1465–1471 |doi=10.18280/ijsdp.160807 |issn=1743-7601|doi-access=free }}

File:Riau deforestation 2006.jpg, to make way for an oil palm plantation]]

Environmental groups such as Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth oppose the use of palm oil biofuels, claiming that the deforestation caused by oil palm plantations is more damaging for the climate than the benefits gained by switching to biofuel and using the palms as carbon sinks.{{Cite journal|last1=Fargione|first1=Joseph|last2=Hill|first2=Jason|last3=Tilman|first3=David|last4=Polasky|first4=Stephen|last5=Hawthorne|first5=Peter|date=7 February 2008|title=Land Clearing and the Biofuel Carbon Debt|url=https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.1152747|url-status=live|journal=Science|volume=319|issue=5867|pages=1235–1238|bibcode=2008Sci...319.1235F|doi=10.1126/science.1152747|pmid=18258862|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110528052911/http://www.sciencemag.org/content/319/5867/1235.abstract|archive-date=28 May 2011|s2cid=206510225|url-access=subscription}}

A 2018 study by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) concluded that palm oil is "here to stay" due to its higher productivity compared with many other vegetable oils. The IUCN maintains that replacing palm oil with other vegetable oils would necessitate greater amounts of agricultural land, negatively affecting biodiversity.{{cite book|last1=Meijaard|first1=E|url=https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/2018-027-En.pdf|title=Oil palm and biodiversity. A situation analysis by the IUCN Oil Palm Task Force|date=2018|publisher=IUCN Oil Palm Task Force|isbn=978-2-8317-1910-8|edition=PDF|location=Gland|display-authors=etal|access-date=7 February 2019}} The IUCN advocates better practices in the palm oil industry, including the prevention of plantations from expanding into forested regions and creating a demand for certified and sustainable palm oil products.

In 2019, the Rainforest Action Network surveyed eight global brands involved in palm oil extraction in the Leuser Ecosystem, and said that none was performing adequately in avoiding "conflict palm oil".{{Cite web|date=17 January 2020|title=Snack food giants fall short on palm oil deforestation promises|url=https://www.fdiforum.net/mag/supply-chain/snack-food-giants-fall-short-palm-oil-promises/|access-date=18 January 2020|website=Food and Drink International|archive-date=6 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200706144952/https://www.fdiforum.net/mag/supply-chain/snack-food-giants-fall-short-palm-oil-promises/|url-status=dead}} Many of the companies told The Guardian they were working to improve their performance.{{Cite web|date=17 January 2020|title=Biggest food brands 'failing goals to banish palm oil deforestation'|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/jan/17/biggest-food-brands-failing-goals-to-banish-palm-oil-deforestation|access-date=18 January 2020|website=The Guardian}} A WWF scorecard rated only 15 out of 173 companies as performing well.{{Cite web|title=Palm Oil Buyers' Scorecard Analysis|url=https://palmoilscorecard.panda.org/analysis|access-date=18 January 2020|website=WWF|archive-date=31 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191231172955/http://palmoilscorecard.panda.org/analysis|url-status=dead}}

In 2020 a study by Chain Reaction Research concluded that NDPE (No Deforestation, No Peat, No Exploitation) policies cover 83% of palm oil refineries. NDPE policies are according to the Chain Reaction Research the most effective private mechanism to cut the direct link with deforestation, due to the economic leverage refineries have over palm oil growers.{{Cite web|last=The Chain Reaction Research|date=2020|title=NDPE Policies Cover 83% of Palm Oil Refineries; Implementation at 78%|url=https://chainreactionresearch.com/report/ndpe-policies-cover-83-of-palm-oil-refineries-implementation-at-75/|website=The Chain Reaction Research}}

Palm oil is one of seven commodities included in the 2023 EU Regulation on Deforestation-free products (EUDR), which aims to guarantee that the products European Union (EU) citizens consume do not contribute to deforestation or forest degradation worldwide.{{cite web|url=https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/forests/deforestation/regulation-deforestation-free-products_en|work=European Union|access-date=24 July 2024|title=Regulation on Deforestation-free products}}

File:World Production Of Main Vegetable Oils By Main Producers (2020).svg

According to the Hamburg-based Oil World trade journal,{{Cite web|date=18 January 2020|title=Oil World|url=https://www.oilworld.biz/|access-date=18 January 2020|website=Oil World}} in 2008 global production of oils and fats stood at 160 million tonnes. Palm oil and palm kernel oil were jointly the largest contributor, accounting for 48 million tonnes, or 30% of the total output. Soybean oil came in second with 37 million tonnes (23%). About 38% of the oils and fats produced in the world were shipped across oceans. Of the 60 million tonnes of oils and fats exported around the world, palm oil and palm kernel oil made up close to 60%; Malaysia, with 45% of the market share, dominated the palm oil trade. Production of palm oil that complies with voluntary sustainability standards is growing at a faster rate than conventional production. Standard-compliant production increased by 110% from 2008 to 2016, while conventional production increased by 2%.{{Cite web|last1=Voora|first1=V.|last2=Larrea|first2=C.|last3=Bermudez|first3=S.|last4=Baliño|first4=S.|date=2019|title=Global Market Report: Palm Oil|url=https://www.iisd.org/ssi/commodities/palm-oil-coverage/|access-date=|website=State of Sustainability Initiatives}} The production of vegetable oils as a whole went up 125% between 2000 and 2020, driven by a sharp increase in palm oil.{{Cite book |title=World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023 |publisher= Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |url=https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en?details=cc8166en |access-date=2023-12-13 |via=FAODocuments | date=2023 |language=en |doi=10.4060/cc8166en| isbn=978-92-5-138262-2 }}

Previously, palm oil could be listed as "vegetable fat" or "vegetable oil" on food labels in the European Union (EU). From December 2014, food packaging in the EU is no longer allowed to use the generic terms "vegetable fat" or "vegetable oil" in the ingredients list. Food producers are required to list the specific type of vegetable fat used, including palm oil. Vegetable oils and fats can be grouped together in the ingredients list under the term "vegetable oils" or "vegetable fats" but this must be followed by the type of vegetable origin (e.g., palm, sunflower, or rapeseed) and the phrase "in varying proportions".{{Cite report|url=http://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20GAIN%20Publications/NEW%20EU%20FOOD%20LABELING%20RULES%20PUBLISHED_Brussels%20USEU_EU-27_1-12-2012.pdf|title=New EU Food Labeling Rules Published|date=12 January 2012|access-date=29 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120416111706/http://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20GAIN%20Publications/NEW%20EU%20FOOD%20LABELING%20RULES%20PUBLISHED_Brussels%20USEU_EU-27_1-12-2012.pdf|archive-date=16 April 2012|website=USDA Foreign Agricultural Service|url-status=live}}

In Malaysia, it is illegal to label products in ways that discriminate against palm oil. Offenders can be fined up to RM250,000 or sent to prison for up to five years. One convenience store was raided for selling "no palm oil" ice cream, with all products seized.{{cite news |title=Malaysian authorities raid convenience store selling 'No Palm Oil' ice cream |url=https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/malaysian-authorities-raid-convenience-store-selling-no-palm-oil-ice-cream |date=3 May 2024 |work=The Straits Times |access-date=5 May 2024}}

In 2010, the Consumer Goods Forum passed a resolution that its members would reduce deforestation to net zero by 2020. They planned to do this through sustainable production of several commodities, including palm oil.{{Cite web|title=Deforestation: Mobilising resources to help achieve zero net deforestation by 2020|url=https://www.theconsumergoodsforum.com/initiatives/environmental-sustainability/key-projects/deforestation/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191117111402/https://www.theconsumergoodsforum.com/initiatives/environmental-sustainability/key-projects/deforestation/|archive-date=17 November 2019|access-date=18 January 2020|website=Consumer Goods Forum}} As of 2023 that goal has not been met.{{Cite web|title=Palm Oil Roadmap.|url=https://www.theconsumergoodsforum.com/wp-content/uploads/CGF-FPC-Palm-Oil-Roadmap.pdf|website=Consumer Goods Forum}}

{{Excerpt|Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil}}File:Palm Oils - outer pulp vs kernel from African Oil Palm - Elaeis guineenisis.jpg made from the kernels]]

Palm oil is a food staple in many cuisines, contributing significant calories and plant lipids.{{cite news |title=The other oil spill |url=http://www.economist.com/node/16423833 |newspaper=The Economist |date=24 June 2010 |access-date=12 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130209054414/http://www.economist.com/node/16423833 |archive-date=9 February 2013 }}{{cite news |title=A New, Global Oil Quandary: Costly Fuel Means Costly Calories |last1=Bradsher |first1=Keith |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/19/business/worldbusiness/19palmoil.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0 |newspaper=The New York Times |date=19 January 2008 |access-date=12 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150101152051/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/19/business/worldbusiness/19palmoil.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0 |archive-date=1 January 2015 }} Globally, humans consumed an average of {{convert|7.7|kg|lb|abbr=on}} of palm oil per person in 2015. Although the relationship of palm oil consumption to disease risk has been previously assessed, the quality of the clinical research specifically assessing palm oil effects has been generally poor.{{cite journal|pmid=26393565|pmc=6331788|year=2015|last1=Mancini|first1=A|title=Biological and Nutritional Properties of Palm Oil and Palmitic Acid: Effects on Health|journal=Molecules|volume=20|issue=9|pages=17339–61|last2=Imperlini|first2=E|last3=Nigro|first3=E|last4=Montagnese|first4=C|last5=Daniele|first5=A|last6=Orrù|first6=S|last7=Buono|first7=P|doi=10.3390/molecules200917339|doi-access=free}} Consequently, research has focused on the deleterious effects of palm oil and palmitic acid consumption as sources of saturated fat content in edible oils, leading to conclusions that palm oil and saturated fats should be replaced with polyunsaturated fats in the diet.{{cite journal|pmid=28620111|year=2017|title=Dietary Fats and Cardiovascular Disease: A Presidential Advisory from the American Heart Association|journal=Circulation|volume=136|issue=3|pages=e1–e23|doi=10.1161/CIR.0000000000000510|vauthors=Sacks FM, Lichtenstein AH, Wu JH, Appel LJ, Creager MA, Kris-Etherton PM, Miller M, Rimm EB, Rudel LL, Robinson JG, Stone NJ, Van Horn LV |s2cid=367602|doi-access=free}}{{cite journal|pmid=19424216|year=2009|last1=Mozaffarian|first1=D|title=Quantitative effects on cardiovascular risk factors and coronary heart disease risk of replacing partially hydrogenated vegetable oils with other fats and oils|journal=European Journal of Clinical Nutrition|volume=63|pages=S22–33|last2=Clarke|first2=R|issue=Suppl 2 |doi=10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602976|s2cid=34725070|url=http://www.healthyliving.gr/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/Quantitative-effects-on-cardiovascular-risk-factors-and-coronary-heart-disease-risk-of-replacing-partially-hydrogenated-vegetable-oils-with-other-fats-and-oils.pdf|doi-access=free}}

A 2015 meta-analysis and 2017 advisory from the American Heart Association indicated that palm oil is among foods supplying dietary saturated fat which increases blood levels of LDL cholesterol and increases the risk of cardiovascular diseases, leading to recommendations for reduced use or elimination of dietary palm oil in favor of consuming unhydrogenated vegetable oils.{{cite journal | last1=Sun | first1=Ye | last2=Neelakantan | first2=Nithya | last3=Wu | first3=Yi | last4=Lote-Oke | first4=Rashmi | last5=Pan | first5=An | last6=van Dam | first6=Rob M | title=Palm Oil Consumption Increases LDL Cholesterol Compared with Vegetable Oils Low in Saturated Fat in a Meta-Analysis of Clinical Trials | journal=The Journal of Nutrition| volume=145 | issue=7 | date=20 May 2015 | issn=0022-3166 | doi=10.3945/jn.115.210575 | pmid=25995283 | pages=1549–1558| doi-access=free }} A 2019 meta-analysis found no association between total fat, saturated fatty acids, monounsaturated fatty acid, and polyunsaturated fatty acid intake with risk of cardiovascular disease.{{Cite journal |last1=Zhu |first1=Yongjian |last2=Bo |first2=Yacong |last3=Liu |first3=Yanhua |date=2019-04-06 |title=Dietary total fat, fatty acids intake, and risk of cardiovascular disease: a dose-response meta-analysis of cohort studies|journal=Lipids in Health and Disease |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=91 |doi=10.1186/s12944-019-1035-2 |doi-access=free |issn=1476-511X |pmc=6451787 |pmid=30954077}}

Glycidyl fatty acid esters (GE), 3-MCPD and 2-MCPD, are found especially in palm oils and palm fats because of their refining at high temperatures (approx. {{convert|200|C|F|abbr=}}).{{cite web|date=3 May 2016|title=Process contaminants in vegetable oils and foods|url=https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/press/news/process-contaminants-vegetable-oils-and-foods|access-date=21 December 2020|website=European Food Safety Authority}} Since glycidol, the parent compound of GE, is considered genotoxic and carcinogenic, the EFSA did not set a safe level for GE. According to the chair of the CONTAM (EFSA's expert Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain), "The exposure to GE of babies consuming solely infant formula is a particular concern as this is up to ten times what would be considered of low concern for public health". The EFSA's tolerable daily intake (TDI) of 3-MCPD and its fatty acid esters was set to 0.8 micrograms per kilogram of body weight per day (μg/kg bw/day) in 2016 and increased to 2 μg/kg bw/day in 2017, based on evidence linking this substance to organ damage in animal tests and on possible adverse effects on the kidney and on male fertility.{{cite web|date=10 January 2018|title=Revised safe intake for 3-MCPD in vegetable oils and food|url=https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/press/news/180110|access-date=21 December 2020|website=European Food Safety Authority}} According to the EFSA, there is not enough data to set a safe level for 2-MCPD. As of December 2022, the Malaysian Palm Oil Board issued an amendment to its palm oil licensing conditions to include maximum limits of 1.25 ppm and 1 ppm, respectively, to the amount of 3-MCPDE and GE that can be found in processed palm oil.{{Cite web |title=MENU E-QC |url=http://eqc.mpob.gov.my/main.php |access-date=2024-03-20 |website=eqc.mpob.gov.my|publisher=Malaysian Palm Oil Board }}

{{main|Fatty acid}}

Palm oil, like all fats, is composed of fatty acids, esterified with glycerol. Palm oil has an unusually high concentration of saturated fat, specifically the 16-carbon saturated fatty acid, palmitic acid, to which it gives its name. Monounsaturated oleic acid is also a major constituent of palm oil. Unrefined palm oil is a significant source of tocotrienol, part of the vitamin E family.{{cite journal |vauthors=Ahsan H, Ahad A, Siddiqui WA |year=2015 |title=A review of characterization of tocotrienols from plant oils and foods |journal=J Chem Biol |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=45–59 |doi=10.1007/s12154-014-0127-8 |pmc=4392014 |pmid=25870713}}{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6uRxCgAAQBAJ&q=Palm+Oil:+Production,+Processing,+Characterization,+and+Uses+carotenoids |title=Palm Oil: Production, Processing, Characterization, and Uses |publisher=Elsevier |year=2015 |isbn=978-0128043462 |editor1=Oi-Ming Lai |page=471 |editor2=Chin-Ping Tan |editor3=Casimir C. Akoh}}

The linoleic acid content of palm oil is about 6.4 - 15%.{{Cite journal |last1=Nang Lau |first1=Harrison Lik |last2=Puah |first2=Chiew Wei |last3=Choo |first3=Yuen May |last4=Ma |first4=Ah Ngan |last5=Chuah |first5=Cheng Hock |date=May 2005 |title=Simultaneous quantification of free fatty acids, free sterols, squalene, and acylglycerol molecular species in palm oil by high-temperature gas chromatography-flame ionization detection |url=https://aocs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1007/s11745-005-1413-1 |journal=Lipids |language=en |volume=40 |issue=5 |pages=523–528 |doi=10.1007/s11745-005-1413-1 |pmid=16094863 |s2cid=4022439 |issn=0024-4201|url-access=subscription }}

The approximate concentration of esterified fatty acids in palm oil is:{{cite web |date=2014 |title=Oil, vegetable, palm per 100 g; Fats and fatty acids |url=http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/fats-and-oils/510/2 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161028001118/http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/fats-and-oils/510/2 |archive-date=28 October 2016 |access-date=28 October 2016 |website=Conde Nast for the USDA National Nutrient Database, Release SR-21 |df=dmy-all}}

{{bar box

|title=Fatty acid content of palm oil (present as triglyceride esters)

|titlebar=#DDD

|left1=Type of fatty acid

|right1=Fraction

|width=400px

|barwidth=100px

|bars=

{{bar percent|Myristic saturated C14|black|1.0}}

{{bar percent|Palmitic saturated C16|black|43.5}}

{{bar percent|Stearic saturated C18|black|4.3}}

{{bar percent|Oleic monounsaturated C18:1|grey|36.6}}

{{bar percent|Linoleic polyunsaturated C18:2|blue|9.1}}

{{bar percent|Other/unknown|green|5.5}}

|caption=black: saturated
grey: monounsaturated
blue: polyunsaturated

}}

Red palm oil is rich in carotenes, such as alpha-carotene, beta-carotene and lycopene, which give it a characteristic dark red color.{{cite journal |last1=Ng |first1=M. H. |last2=Choo |first2=Y. M. |year=2016 |title=Improved Method for the Qualitative Analyses of Palm Oil Carotenes Using UPLC |journal=Journal of Chromatographic Science |volume=54 |issue=4 |pages=633–638 |doi=10.1093/chromsci/bmv241 |pmc=4885407 |pmid=26941414}} However, palm oil that has been refined, bleached and deodorized from crude palm oil (called "RBD palm oil") does not contain carotenes.

Excessive intake of palmitic acid, which makes up 44% of palm oil, increases blood levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and total cholesterol, and so increases risk of cardiovascular diseases.{{Cite book |first1=Ellie |last1=Brown |first2=Michael F. |last2=Jacobson |year=2005 |title=Cruel Oil: How Palm Oil Harms Health, Rainforest & Wildlife |url=http://www.cspinet.org/new/pdf/palm_oil_final_5-27-05.pdf |location=Washington, D.C. |oclc=224985333 |pages=iv, 3–5 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090306124811/http://www.cspinet.org/new/pdf/palm_oil_final_5-27-05.pdf |archive-date=6 March 2009 }} Other reviews, the World Health Organization, and the US National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute have encouraged consumers to limit the consumption of palm oil, palmitic acid and foods high in saturated fat.{{Cite report |date=2003 |title=Diet Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases |url=http://whqlibdoc.who.int/trs/who_trs_916.pdf |archive-url=http://www.freezepage.com/1348239076FHWAJDADVT?url=http://whqlibdoc.who.int/trs/who_trs_916.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=21 September 2012 |website=World Health Organization |pages=82, 88 table 10 |access-date=13 February 2013 }}

{{Commons category}}

• Council of Palm Oil Producing Countries
• Coconut oil
• Palm sugar
• Tropical agriculture

• {{cite book | last=Zuckerman | first=Jocelyn C. | title=Planet palm : how palm oil ended up in everything-and endangered the world | publication-place=New York | date=2021 | isbn=978-1-62097-523-7 | oclc=1142520474}}
• {{Cite paper |last=Hong Wai Onn |date=2023 |title=Advances in Sustainable Palm Oil Milling Technologies: Enhancing Efficiency and Environmental Performance |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113910 |journal=IntechOpen}}
• {{Cite book |last=Hong Wai Onn |title=A Chemical Engineer in the Palm Oil Milling Industry |year=2020 |isbn=978-9671818817}}

{{Reflist}}

{{Free-content attribution

| title = World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023

| author = FAO

| publisher = FAO

| documentURL = https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en?details=cc8166en

| license statement URL = https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:World_Food_and_Agriculture_-_Statistical_Yearbook_2023.pdf

| license = CC BY-SA IGO 3.0

}}{{Palm oil|state=expanded}}

{{fatsandoils}}

{{Forestry}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Palm Oil}}

Category:Tropical agriculture

Category:Environmental controversies

Category:Crops