Peanut#Production

File:Ground Nut flower.jpg

The peanut is an annual herbaceous plant growing {{convert|30|to|50|cm|6=0}} tall. As a legume, it belongs to the botanical family Fabaceae, also known as Leguminosae, and commonly known as the legume, bean, or pea family. Like most other legumes, peanuts harbor symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria in their root nodules.

The leaves are opposite and pinnate with four leaflets (two opposite pairs; no terminal leaflet); each leaflet is {{convert|1|to|7|cm|abbr=on|in|frac=4}} long and {{convert|1|to|3|cm|in|frac=4|abbr=on}} across. Like those of many other legumes, the leaves are nyctinastic; that is, they have "sleep" movements, closing at night.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}}

The flowers are {{convert|1|to|1.5|cm|in|frac=8|abbr=on}} across, and yellowish orange with reddish veining. They are borne in axillary clusters on the stems above ground and last for just one day. The ovary is located at the base of what appears to be the flower stem but is a highly elongated floral cup.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}}

Peanut fruits develop underground, an unusual feature known as geocarpy.{{cite journal |last=Smith |first=Ben W. |date=January 1, 1950 |title=Arachis hypogaea. Aerial Flower and Subterranean Fruit |jstor=2437758 |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=37 |issue=10 |pages=802–815 |doi=10.2307/2437758}} After fertilization, a short stalk at the base of the ovary—often termed a gynophore, but which appears to be part of the ovary—elongates to form a thread-like structure known as a "peg". This peg grows into the soil, allowing the fruit to develop underground. These pods, technically called legumes, are {{convert|3|to|7|cm|in|frac=2}} long, normally containing one to four seeds. The shell of the peanut fruit consists primarily of a mesocarp with several large veins traversing its length.File:Peanut plumule and radicle.jpg, plumule and radicle]]

Parts of the peanut include:

• Shell – outer covering, in contact with soil
• Cotyledons (two) – the main edible part
• Seed coat – brown paper-like covering of the edible part
• Radicle – embryonic root at the bottom of the cotyledon, which can be snapped off
• Plumule – embryonic shoot emerging from the top of the radicle

File:Peanuts (Arachis hypogaea) - in shell, shell cracked open, shelled, peeled.jpg

Peanuts contain polyphenols, polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fats, phytosterols and dietary fiber in amounts similar to several tree nuts.{{cite web |year=2009 |title=Nuts (including peanuts) |url=http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/food-beverages/nuts |access-date=November 29, 2016 |series=Micronutrient Information Center |publisher=Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University |location=Corvallis, OR}} Peanut skins contain resveratrol.{{cite web |year=2016 |title=Resveratrol |url=http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/dietary-factors/phytochemicals/resveratrol |series=Micronutrient Information Center |publisher=Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University |location=Corvallis, OR}}{{cite journal |last1=Sales |first1=J.M. |last2=Resurreccion |first2=A.V. |year=2014 |title=Resveratrol in peanuts |journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition |volume=54 |issue=6 |pages=734–770 |pmid=24345046 |s2cid=13183809 |doi=10.1080/10408398.2011.606928}}

The Arachis genus is native to South America, east of the Andes, around Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, and Brazil. Cultivated peanuts (A. hypogaea) arose from a hybrid between two wild species of peanut, thought to be A. duranensis and A. ipaensis.{{cite journal |title=A study of the relationships of cultivated peanut (Arachis hypogaea) and its most closely related wild species using intron sequences and microsatellite markers |url= |journal=Annals of Botany |date= January 1, 2013 |issn=0305-7364 |pmc= 3523650 |pmid=23131301 |pages= 113–126 |volume=111 |issue=1 |doi= 10.1093/aob/mcs237 |first1=Márcio C. |last1=Moretzsohn |first2=Ediene G. |last2=Gouvea |first3=Peter W. |last3= Inglis |first4=Soraya C.M. |last4=Leal-Bertioli |first5=José F.M. |last5=Valls |first6=David J. |last6=Bertioli | display-authors= 3}} The initial hybrid would have been sterile, but spontaneous chromosome doubling restored its fertility, forming what is termed an amphidiploid or allotetraploid. Genetic analysis suggests the hybridization may have occurred only once and gave rise to A. monticola, a wild form of peanut that occurs in a few limited locations in northwestern Argentina, or in southeastern Bolivia, where the peanut landraces with the most wild-like features are grown today,{{cite journal |url= http://ibone.unne.edu.ar/objetos/uploads/documentos/bonplandia/public/16_0/1_205.pdf |title=Taxonomy of the genus Arachis (Leguminosae) |last1= Krapovickas |first1=Antonio |date=2007 |journal=IBONE |volume=16 (Supl.) |pages=1–205 |first2=Walton C. |last2= Gregory | translator=David E. Williams and Charles E. Simpson |access-date= September 13, 2016 |archive-date= March 4, 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160304060107/http://ibone.unne.edu.ar/objetos/uploads/documentos/bonplandia/public/16_0/1_205.pdf |url-status=dead }} and by artificial selection to A. hypogaea.{{cite journal |doi=10.3732/ajb.94.12.1963 |volume=94 |issue=12 |pages=1963–1971 |last1=Seijo |first1=Guillermo | first2=Graciela I. | last2= Lavia | first3 =Aveliano | last3= Fernandez |author4= Antonio Krapovickas |author5=Daniel A. Ducasse |author6=David J. Bertioli |author7=Eduardo A. Moscone |display-authors= 3 |title= Genomic relationships between the cultivated peanut (Arachis hypogaea, Leguminosae) and its close relatives revealed by double GISH |journal=American Journal of Botany |date=December 1, 2007 |pmid= 21636391|doi-access=free |hdl=11336/36879 |hdl-access=free |issn=0002-9122}}{{cite journal |title=RFLP and Cytogenetic Evidence on the Origin and Evolution of Allotetraploid Domesticated Peanut, Arachis hypogaea (Leguminosae) |jstor= 2446112 |journal=American Journal of Botany |date=October 1, 1996 |pages= 1282–1291 |volume=83 |issue=10 |doi=10.2307/2446112 |first1=Gary |last1=Kochert |first2=H. Thomas |last2=Stalker |first3=Marcos |last3=Gimenes |first4=Leticia |last4=Galgaro |first5=Catalina Romero |last5=Lopes |first6=Kim |last6=Moore| display-authors= 3}}

The process of domestication through artificial selection made A. hypogaea dramatically different from its wild relatives. The domesticated plants are bushier, more compact, and have a different pod structure and larger seeds. From this primary center of origin, cultivation spread and formed secondary and tertiary centers of diversity in Peru, Ecuador, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. Over time, thousands of peanut landraces evolved; these are classified into six botanical varieties and two subspecies (as listed in the peanut scientific classification table). Subspecies A. h. fastigiata types are more upright in their growth habit and have shorter crop cycles. Subspecies A. h. hypogaea types spread more on the ground and have longer crop cycles.

The oldest known archeological remains of pods have been dated at about 7,600 years old, possibly a wild species that was in cultivation, or A. hypogaea in the early phase of domestication.{{cite web |url= http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2007-06/vu-eeo062507.php |title= Earliest-known evidence of peanut, cotton and squash farming found |access-date= June 29, 2007 |website= eurekalert.org |last= Dillehay |first= Tom D. |archive-date= September 11, 2007 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070911192923/http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2007-06/vu-eeo062507.php |url-status= dead }} They were found in Peru, where dry climatic conditions are favorable for the preservation of organic material. Almost certainly, peanut cultivation antedated this at the center of origin where the climate is moister. Many pre-Columbian cultures, such as the Moche, depicted peanuts in their art.Berrin, Katherine & Larco Museum. The Spirit of Ancient Peru: Treasures from the Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera. New York: Thames & Hudson, 1997. Cultivation was well-established in Mesoamerica before the Spanish arrived. There, the conquistadors found the {{wikt-lang|nci|tlālcacahuatl}} (the plant's Nahuatl name, hence the name in Spanish cacahuate) offered for sale in the marketplace of Tenochtitlan. Its cultivation was introduced in Europe in the 19th century through Spain, particularly Valencia, where it is still produced, albeit marginally.{{Cite web |last=Polo |first=Claudia |date=2023-11-21 |title=El 'cacau del collaret', el cacahuete valenciano al borde de la extinción |url=https://elpais.com/gastronomia/2023-11-21/el-cacau-del-collaret-el-cacahuete-valenciano-al-borde-de-la-extincion.html |access-date=2024-02-01 |website=El País |language=es}} European traders later spread the peanut worldwide, and cultivation is now widespread in tropical and subtropical regions. In West Africa, it substantially replaced a crop plant from the same family, the Bambara groundnut, whose seed pods also develop underground.{{cite book |last1=Carney |first1=Judith |title=In the Shadow of Slavery Africa's Botanical Legacy in the Atlantic World |date=2011 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=9780520949539 |page=141 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N-eS3OUQsekC&q=peanut}} In Asia, it became an agricultural mainstay, and this region is now the largest producer in the world.

Peanuts were introduced to the US during the colonial period and grown as a garden crop.{{cite book |title=A Concise Natural History of East and West Florida |first=B. |last=Romans |author-link=Bernard Romans |location=New York |publisher=Printed for the author |year=1775 |page=[https://archive.org/details/concisenaturalhi00roma/page/130/mode/2up 131] |language=en |oclc=745317190}} Starting in 1870, they were used as an animal feedstock until human consumption grew in the 1930s.Putnam, D.H., et al. (1991) [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/afcm/peanut.html Peanut] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060810173649/http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/afcm/peanut.html |date=August 10, 2006 }}. University of Wisconsin-Extension Cooperative Extension: Alternative Field Crops Manual. George Washington Carver (1864–1943) championed the peanut as part of his efforts for agricultural extension in the American South, where soils were depleted after repeated plantings of cotton. He invented and promulgated hundreds of peanut-based products, including cosmetics, paints, plastics, gasoline and nitroglycerin.{{Cite book |last=McMurry |first=Linda O. |title=George Washington Carver: scientist and symbol |date=1982 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-503205-5 |edition=1. issued as an Oxford Univ. Pr. paperback |series=Galaxy books |location=New York}}

Peanut butter was first manufactured in Canada via an 1884 US patent by Marcellus Gilmore Edson of Montreal.{{cite web|url=http://pdfpiw.uspto.gov/.piw?Docid=00306727&homeurl=http%3A%2F%2Fpatft.uspto.gov%2Fnetacgi%2Fnph-Parser%3FSect1%3DPTO2%2526Sect2%3DHITOFF%2526p%3D1%2526u%3D%25252Fnetahtml%25252FPTO%25252Fsearch-bool.html%2526r%3D1%2526f%3DG%2526l%3D50%2526co1%3DAND%2526d%3DPALL%2526s1%3D0306727.PN.%2526OS%3DPN%2F0306727%2526RS%3DPN%2F0306727&PageNum=&Rtype=&SectionNum=&idkey=NONE&Input=View+first+page|title=Manufacture of peanut candy, US Patent #306727|publisher=US Patent Office|date=October 21, 1884|access-date=May 8, 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405145402/http://pdfpiw.uspto.gov/.piw?Docid=00306727&homeurl=http%3A%2F%2Fpatft.uspto.gov%2Fnetacgi%2Fnph-Parser%3FSect1%3DPTO2%2526Sect2%3DHITOFF%2526p%3D1%2526u%3D%25252Fnetahtml%25252FPTO%25252Fsearch-bool.html%2526r%3D1%2526f%3DG%2526l%3D50%2526co1%3DAND%2526d%3DPALL%2526s1%3D0306727.PN.%2526OS%3DPN%2F0306727%2526RS%3DPN%2F0306727&PageNum=&Rtype=&SectionNum=&idkey=NONE&Input=View+first+page|archive-date=April 5, 2017}} Peanut butter became well known in the United States after the Beech-Nut company began selling it at the St. Louis World's Fair in 1904.{{cite web |url=https://www.newyorker.com/books/page-turner/a-chunky-history-of-peanut-butter |title=A chunky history of peanut butter |last=Michaud |first=Jon |date=November 28, 2012 |website= newyorker.com |publisher=New Yorker |access-date=May 9, 2017 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170331194928/http://www.newyorker.com/books/page-turner/a-chunky-history-of-peanut-butter |archive-date=March 31, 2017}} The US Department of Agriculture initiated a program to encourage agricultural production and human consumption of peanuts in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

File:Peanut fields in the United States.webp

There are many peanut cultivars grown around the world. The market classes grown in the United States are Spanish, Runner, Virginia, and Valencia.{{cite web |url=http://caes2.caes.uga.edu/commodities/fieldcrops/peanuts/production/cultivardescription.html |title=Peanut Cultivars and Descriptions |last=Ruark |first=Elinor |website=caes2.caes.uga.edu |access-date=November 22, 2016 |archive-date=November 22, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122224427/http://caes2.caes.uga.edu/commodities/fieldcrops/peanuts/production/cultivardescription.html |url-status=dead }} Peanut production in the US is divided into three major areas: the southeastern US region which includes Alabama, Georgia, and Florida; the southwestern US region which includes New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas; and the third region in the general eastern US which includes Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina. In Georgia, Naomi Chapman Woodroof is responsible for developing the breeding program of peanuts resulting in a harvest almost five times greater.{{cite web|title=naomi chapman woodroof; Programs & People Summer 2000|url=https://www.cals.uidaho.edu/edcomm/magazine/summer_2000/naomi.html|access-date=April 9, 2021|website=www.cals.uidaho.edu}}

Certain cultivar groups are preferred for particular characteristics, such as differences in flavor, oil content, size, shape, and disease resistance.{{cite book |last=Bilello |first=Stanley |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yZc_DQAAQBAJ&q=flavor,+oil+content,+size,+shape,+and+disease+resistance+peanuts&pg=PA93 |title=21st Century Homestead: Nitrogen-Fixing Crops |date=October 10, 2016 |publisher=Lulu.com |isbn=9781365452901 |pages=93–94 |language=en}}{{self-published source|date=February 2020}} Most peanuts marketed in the shell are of the Virginia type, along with some Valencias selected for large size and the attractive appearance of the shell. Spanish peanuts are used mostly for peanut candy, salted nuts, and peanut butter.

==== Spanish group ====

The small Spanish types are grown in South Africa and the southwestern and southeastern United States. Until 1940, 90% of the peanuts grown in the US state of Georgia were Spanish types, but the trend since then has been larger-seeded, higher-yielding, more disease-resistant cultivars. Spanish peanuts have a higher oil content than other types of peanuts. In the US, the Spanish group is primarily grown in New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas.

Cultivars of the Spanish group include 'Dixie Spanish', 'Improved Spanish 2B', 'GFA Spanish', 'Argentine', 'Spantex', 'Spanette', 'Shaffers Spanish', 'Natal Common (Spanish)', "White Kernel Varieties', 'Starr', 'Comet', 'Florispan', 'Spanhoma', 'Spancross', 'OLin', 'Tamspan 90', 'AT 9899–14', 'Spanco', 'Wilco I', 'GG 2', 'GG 4', 'TMV 2', and 'Tamnut 06'.

Since 1940, the southeastern US region has seen a shift to producing Runner group peanuts. This shift is due to good flavor, better roasting characteristics, and higher yields when compared to Spanish types, leading to food manufacturers' preference for the use in peanut butter and salted nuts. Georgia's production is now almost 100% Runner-type.

Cultivars of Runners include 'Southeastern Runner 56-15', 'Dixie Runner', 'Early Runner', 'Virginia Bunch 67', 'Bradford Runner', 'Egyptian Giant' (also known as 'Virginia Bunch' and 'Giant'), 'Rhodesian Spanish Bunch' (Valencia and Virginia Bunch), 'North Carolina Runner 56-15', 'Florunner', 'Virugard', 'Georgia Green', 'Tamrun 96', 'Flavor Runner 458', 'Tamrun OL01', 'Tamrun OL02' 'AT-120', 'Andru-93', 'Southern Runner', 'AT1-1', 'Georgia Brown', 'GK-7', and 'AT-108'.

==== Virginia group ====

The large-seeded Virginia group peanuts are grown in the US states of Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and parts of Georgia. They are increasing in popularity due to the demand for large peanuts for processing, particularly for salting, confections, and roasting in shells.

Virginia group peanuts are either bunch or running in growth habit. The bunch type is upright to spreading. It attains a height of {{convert|45|to|55|cm|in|abbr=on}}, and a spread of {{convert|70|to|80|cm|in|abbr=on}}, with {{convert|80|to|90|cm|in|abbr=on}} rows that seldom cover the ground. The pods are borne within {{convert|5|to|10|cm|in|frac=2|abbr=on}} of the base of the plant.

Cultivars of Virginia-type peanuts include 'NC 7', 'NC 9', 'NC 10C', 'NC-V 11', 'VA 93B', 'NC 12C', 'VA-C 92R', 'Gregory', 'VA 98R', 'Perry', 'Wilson, 'Hull', 'AT VC-2' and 'Shulamit'.

==== Valencia group ====

File:Valencia peanuts.jpg

Valencia group peanuts are coarse and have heavy reddish stems and large foliage. In the United States, large commercial production is primarily in the South Plains of West Texas and in eastern New Mexico near and south of Portales, but they are grown on a small scale elsewhere in the South as the best-flavored and preferred type for boiled peanuts. They are comparatively tall, reaching a height of {{convert|125|cm|in|abbr=on}} and a spread of {{convert|75|cm|in|abbr=on}}. Peanut pods are borne on pegs arising from the main stem and the side branches. Most pods are clustered around the base of the plant, and only a few are found several inches away. Valencia types are three- to five-seeded and smooth, with no constriction of the shell between the seeds. Seeds are oval and tightly crowded into the pods. Typical seed weight is 0.4 to 0.5 g. This type is used heavily for selling roasted and salted in-shell peanuts and peanut butter. Varieties include 'Valencia A' and 'Valencia C'.

These are alike except for the color of the seed. Sometimes known also as Texas Red or White, the plants are similar to Valencia types, except the stems are green to greenish brown, and the pods are rough, irregular, and have a smaller proportion of kernels.

File:Arachis hypogaea 006.JPG

Peanuts grow best in light, sandy loam soil with a pH of 5.9–7. Their capacity to fix nitrogen means that providing they nodulate properly, peanuts benefit little or not at all from nitrogen-containing fertilizer,Baughman, Todd; Grichar, James; Black, Mark; Woodward, Jason; Porter, Pat; New, Leon; Baumann, Paul; McFarland, Mark "[http://peanut.tamu.edu/files/2012/04/D__peanut_pdfs_productionguide07_3_11.pdf Texas Peanut Production Guide] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304205427/http://peanut.tamu.edu/files/2012/04/D__peanut_pdfs_productionguide07_3_11.pdf|date=March 4, 2016}}" (PDF). Texas A&M University. Retrieved October 16, 2015, and they improve soil fertility. Therefore, they are valuable in crop rotations. Also, the yield of the peanut crop itself is increased in rotations through reduced diseases, pests, and weeds. For example, in Texas, peanuts in a three-year rotation with corn yield 50% more than nonrotated peanuts. Adequate levels of phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and micronutrients are also necessary for good yields. Peanuts need warm weather throughout the growing season to develop well. They can be grown with as little as {{convert|350|mm|in|abbr=on|sigfig=2}} of water,{{cite web |last=Schilling |first=Robert |date=February 5, 2003 |title=L'arachide histoire et perspectives |url=http://museum.agropolis.fr/pages/savoirs/arachide/arachide.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150504233111/http://www.museum.agropolis.fr/pages/savoirs/arachide/arachide.htm |archive-date=May 4, 2015 |access-date=October 16, 2015 |website=L'arachide histoire et perspectives |publisher=Agropolis Museum}} but for best yields need at least {{convert|500|mm|in|abbr=on|sigfig=2}}.{{cite web |last=Jauron |first=Richard |date=February 5, 1997 |title=Growing Peanuts in the Home Garden | Horticulture and Home Pest News |url=http://www.ipm.iastate.edu/ipm/hortnews/1997/5-2-1997/peanuts.html |access-date=May 30, 2011 |publisher=Ipm.iastate.edu}} Depending on growing conditions and the cultivar of peanut, harvest is usually 90 to 130 days after planting for subspecies A. h. fastigiata types, and 120 to 150 days after planting for subspecies A. h. hypogaea types.{{cite web |last1=Marsalis |first1=Mark |last2=Puppala |first2=Naveen |last3=Goldberg |first3=Natalie |last4=Ashigh |first4=Jamshid |last5=Sanogo |first5=Soumaila |last6=Trostle |first6=Calvin |date=July 2009 |title=New Mexico Peanut Production |url=http://aces.nmsu.edu/pubs/_circulars/CR-645.pdf |access-date=October 16, 2015 |website=Circular-645 |publisher=New Mexico State University}}{{cite web |title=Peanut |url=https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/afcm/peanut.html |access-date=October 16, 2015 |website=www.hort.purdue.edu}} Subspecies A. h. hypogaea types yield more and are usually preferred where the growing seasons are sufficiently long.

File:Cultivation of peanut crop in Junagadh region of Western India.jpgn Directorate of Groundnut Research (Junagadh, Gujarat, 2009)]]

Peanut plants continue to produce flowers when pods are developing; therefore, some pods are immature even when they are ready for harvest. To maximize yield, the timing of harvest is important. If it is too early, too many pods will be unripe; if too late, the pods will snap off at the stalk and remain in the soil.{{cite web |title=How peanuts are Grown – Harvesting – PCA |url=http://www.pca.com.au/howgrown.php?subaction=showfull&id=1207540158&archive=&start_from=&ucat=25& |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080719165546/http://www.pca.com.au/howgrown.php?subaction=showfull&id=1207540158&archive=&start_from=&ucat=25& |archive-date=July 19, 2008 |access-date=May 30, 2011 |publisher=Peanut Company of Australia}} For harvesting, the entire plant, including most of the roots, is removed from the soil. The pods are covered with a network of raised veins and are constricted between seeds.

The main yield-limiting factors in semi-arid regions are drought and high-temperature stress. The stages of reproductive development before flowering, at flowering, and at early pod development are particularly sensitive to these constraints. Apart from nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, other nutrient deficiencies causing significant yield losses are calcium, iron and boron. Biotic stresses mainly include pests, diseases, and weeds. Among insects pests, pod borers, aphids, and mites are of importance. The most important diseases are leaf spots, rusts, and the toxin-producing fungus Aspergillus.{{cite book |url=https://www.eolss.net/ebooklib/bookinfo/soils-plant-growth-crop-production.aspx |title=Soils, Plant Growth and Crop Production Volume II |date=2010 |publisher=EOLSS Publishers |isbn=978-1-84826-368-0 |editor=Willy H. Verheye |page=153 |chapter=Growth and Production of Groundnuts}}

File:Harvest of peanuts.jpg, Cameroon, 2016)]]

Harvesting occurs in two stages.{{self-published inline|date=February 2020}} In mechanized systems, a machine is used to cut off the main root of the peanut plant by cutting through the soil just below the level of the peanut pods. The machine lifts the "bush" from the ground, shakes it, then inverts it, leaving the plant upside down to keep the peanuts out of the soil. This allows the peanuts to dry slowly to a little less than a third of their original moisture level over three to four days. Traditionally, peanuts were pulled and inverted by hand.

After the peanuts have dried sufficiently, they are threshed, removing the peanut pods from the rest of the bush. Peanuts must be dried properly and stored in dry conditions. If they are too high in moisture, or if storage conditions are poor, they may become infected by the mold fungus Aspergillus flavus. Many strains of this fungus release toxic and highly carcinogenic substances called aflatoxins.

If peanut plants are subjected to severe drought during pod formation, or if pods are not properly stored, they may become contaminated with the mold Aspergillus flavus which may produce carcinogenic substances called aflatoxins. Lower-quality peanuts, particularly where mold is evident, are more likely to be contaminated.{{cite journal |last1=Hirano |first1=S |last2=Shima |first2=T |last3=Shimada |first3=T |date=August 2001 |title=[Proportion of aflatoxin B1 contaminated kernels and its concentration in imported peanut samples] |journal=Shokuhin Eiseigaku Zasshi |volume=42 |issue=4 |pages=237–42 |doi=10.3358/shokueishi.42.237 |pmid=11817138 |doi-access=free}} The USDA tests every truckload of raw peanuts for aflatoxin; any containing aflatoxin levels of more than 15 parts per billion are destroyed. The peanut industry has manufacturing steps to ensure all peanuts are inspected for aflatoxin.7 CFR 2011 – Part 996a{{Full citation needed|date=November 2012}} Peanuts tested to have high aflatoxin are used to make peanut oil where the mold can be removed.{{cite web |date=April 26, 2017 |title=Why Georgia farmers decided to shell their own peanuts |url=https://newfoodeconomy.org/georgia-peanut-farmers-face-an-unlikely-challenge-shelling/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190704053851/https://newfoodeconomy.org/georgia-peanut-farmers-face-an-unlikely-challenge-shelling/ |archive-date=July 4, 2019 |access-date=July 4, 2019 |website=New Food Economy |language=en-CA}}

The plant leaves can also be affected by a fungus, Alternaria arachidis.{{cite web |title=Species Fungorum - Names Record |url=https://www.speciesfungorum.org/Names/NamesRecord.asp?RecordID=308498 |access-date=August 7, 2023 |website=www.speciesfungorum.org}}

{{Main|Peanut allergy}}

Some people (1.4–2% in Europe and the United States{{Cite journal |vauthors=Lange L, et al |date=28 September 2021 |title=White paper on peanut allergy – part 1: Epidemiology, burden of disease, health economic aspects |journal=Allergo J Int. |volume=30 |issue=8 |pages=261–269 |doi=10.1007/s40629-021-00189-z |pmc=8477625 |pmid=34603938}}) report that they experience allergic reactions to peanut exposure; symptoms can be especially severe, ranging from watery eyes to anaphylactic shock, the latter of which is generally fatal if untreated. Eating a small amount of peanuts can cause a reaction. Because of their widespread use in prepared and packaged foods, avoiding peanuts can be difficult. Reading ingredients and warnings on product packaging is necessary to avoid this allergen. Foods processed in facilities that also handle peanuts on the same equipment as other foods are required to carry such warnings on their labels. Avoiding cross-contamination with peanuts and peanut products (along with other severe allergens like shellfish) is a promoted and common practice of which chefs and restaurants worldwide are becoming aware.

The hygiene hypothesis of allergy states that a lack of early childhood exposure to infectious agents like germs and parasites could be causing the increase in food allergies.{{cite web |date=May 14, 2010 |title=Peanut Allergy on the Rise: Why? |url=http://www.webmd.com/allergies/news/20100514/peanut-allergies-in-kids-on-the-rise |access-date=May 18, 2010 |website=WebMD}}

Studies comparing age of peanut introduction in Great Britain with introduction in Israel showed that delaying exposure to peanuts in childhood can dramatically increase the risk of developing peanut allergies.[http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/38370/title/Food_allergy_advice_may_be_peanuts Food allergy advice may be peanuts] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081109032845/http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/38370/title/Food_allergy_advice_may_be_peanuts|date=November 9, 2008}}, Science News, December 6, 2008{{cite journal |last1=Høst |first1=A |last2=Halken |first2=S |last3=Muraro |first3=A |last4=Dreborg |first4=S |last5=Niggemann |first5=B |last6=Aalberse |first6=R |last7=Arshad |first7=SH |last8=Von Berg |first8=A |last9=Carlsen |first9=KH |last10=Duschén |first10=Karel |last11=Eigenmann |first11=Philippe A. |last12=Hill |first12=David |last13=Jones |first13=Catherine |last14=Mellon |first14=Michael |last15=Oldeus |first15=Göran |display-authors=8 |year=2008 |title=Dietary prevention of allergic diseases in infants and small children |journal=Pediatric Allergy and Immunology |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=1–4 |doi=10.1111/j.1399-3038.2007.00680.x |pmid=18199086 |s2cid=8831420 |last16=Oranje |first16=Arnold |last17=Pascual |first17=Cristina |last18=Prescott |first18=Susan |last19=Sampson |first19=Hugh |last20=Svartengren |first20=Magnus |last21=Wahn |first21=Ulrich |last22=Warner |first22=Jill A. |last23=Warner |first23=John O. |last24=Vandenplas |first24=Yvan |last25=Wickman |first25=Magnus |last26=Zeiger |first26=Robert S.}}

Peanut allergy has been associated with the use of skin preparations containing peanut oil among children, but the evidence is not regarded as conclusive.{{cite journal |vauthors=Lack G, Fox D, Northstone K, Golding J |year=2003 |title=Factors Associated with the Development of Peanut Allergy in Childhood |journal=New England Journal of Medicine |volume=348 |issue=11 |pages=977–85 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa013536 |pmid=12637607 |s2cid=13280248 |doi-access=free}} Peanut allergies have also been associated with family history and intake of soy products.

Some school districts in the US and elsewhere have banned peanuts or products containing peanuts.{{cite news |last=Hartocollis |first=Anemona |date=September 23, 1998 |title=Nothing's Safe: Some Schools Ban Peanut Butter as Allergy Threat |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?sec=health&res=9907E3D81E30F930A1575AC0A96E958260 |access-date=August 18, 2009 |work=The New York Times}}{{cite news |last=Nevius |first=C.W. |date=September 9, 2003 |title=One 5-year-old's allergy leads to class peanut ban |url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/2003/09/09/MN79933.DTL%0D |access-date=August 18, 2009 |work=San Francisco Chronicle}}{{cite web |date=September 14, 2008 |title=School peanut ban in need of review |url=http://www.nashuatelegraph.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20080914/OPINION01/309149938 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081005120233/http://www.nashuatelegraph.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20080914/OPINION01/309149938 |url-status=dead |archive-date=October 5, 2008 |access-date=August 18, 2009 |work=Nashua Telegraph}} However, the efficacy of the bans in reducing allergic reactions is uncertain. A 2015 study in Canada found no difference in the percentage of accidental exposures occurring in schools prohibiting peanuts compared to schools allowing them.{{Cite journal |last1=Cherkaoui |first1=Sabrine |last2=Ben-Shoshan |first2=Moshe |last3=Alizadehfar |first3=Reza |last4=Asai |first4=Yuka |last5=Chan |first5=Edmond |last6=Cheuk |first6=Stephen |last7=Shand |first7=Greg |last8=St-Pierre |first8=Yvan |last9=Harada |first9=Laurie |date=January 1, 2015 |title=Accidental exposures to peanut in a large cohort of Canadian children with peanut allergy |journal=Clinical and Translational Allergy |volume=5 |page=16 |doi=10.1186/s13601-015-0055-x |issn=2045-7022 |pmc=4389801 |pmid=25861446 |doi-access=free}}

Refined peanut oil will not cause allergic reactions in most people with peanut allergies.{{cite web |title=The anaphylaxis campaign: peanut oil |url=http://www.anaphylaxis.org.uk/information/peanut_oil.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080418090105/http://www.anaphylaxis.org.uk/information/peanut_oil.html |archive-date=April 18, 2008 |access-date=August 18, 2009 |publisher=Anaphylaxis.org.uk}} However, crude (unrefined) peanut oils have been shown to contain protein, which may cause allergic reactions.{{cite journal |vauthors=Hoffman DR, Collins-Williams C |year=1994 |title=Cold-pressed peanut oils may contain peanut allergen |journal=The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology |volume=93 |issue=4 |pages=801–2 |doi=10.1016/0091-6749(94)90262-3 |pmid=8163791 |doi-access=free}} In a randomized, double-blind crossover study, 60 people with proven peanut allergy were challenged with both crude peanut oil and refined peanut oil. The authors concluded, "Crude peanut oil caused allergic reactions in 10% of allergic subjects studied and should continue to be avoided." They also stated, "Refined peanut oil does not seem to pose a risk to most people with peanut allergy." However, they point out that refined peanut oil can still pose a risk to peanut-allergic individuals if the oil that has previously been used for cooking foods containing peanuts is reused.{{cite journal |vauthors=Hourihane JO, Bedwani SJ, Dean TP, Warner JO |year=1997 |title=Randomised, double blind, crossover challenge study of allergenicity of peanut oils in subjects allergic to peanuts |journal=BMJ |volume=314 |issue=7087 |pages=1084–8 |doi=10.1136/bmj.314.7087.1084 |pmc=2126478 |pmid=9133891}}

{{nutritionalvalue

| name = Peanut, valencia, raw

| kJ = 2385

| water = 4.26 g

| protein = 25 g

| fat = 48 g

| satfat = 7 g

| monofat = 24 g

| polyfat = 16 g

| carbs = 21 g

| fiber = 9 g

| sugars = 0.0 g

| iron_mg = 2

| calcium_mg = 62

| magnesium_mg = 184

| phosphorus_mg = 336

| potassium_mg = 332

| manganese_mg = 2.0

| zinc_mg = 3.3

| vitC_mg = 0.0

| pantothenic_mg = 1.8

| vitB6_mg = 0.3

| folate_ug = 246

| thiamin_mg = 0.6

| vitE_mg = 6.6

| riboflavin_mg = 0.3

| niacin_mg = 12.9

| sodium_mg = 6

|

tryptophan = 0.2445 g

| threonine = 0.859 g

| isoleucine = 0.882 g

| leucine = 1.627 g

| lysine = 0.901 g

| methionine = 0.308 g

| cystine = 0.322 g

| phenylalanine = 1.300 g

| tyrosine = 1.020 g

| valine = 1.052 g

| arginine = 3.001 g

| histidine = 0.634 g

| alanine = 0.997 g

| aspartic acid = 3.060 g

| glutamic acid = 5.243 g

| glycine = 1.512 g

| proline = 1.107 g

| serine = 1.236 g

| float = right

| note = [https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/172430/nutrients Link to full USDA Database entry]

}}

Raw Valencia peanuts are 4% water, 48% fat, 25% protein, and 21% carbohydrates, including 9% dietary fiber (USDA nutrient data).

Peanuts are rich in essential nutrients. In a reference amount of {{convert|100|g|oz|frac=2|abbr=off|adj=on}}, peanuts provide {{convert|2385|kJ|kcal|abbr=off}} of food energy, and are an excellent source (defined as more than 20% of the Daily Value, DV) of several B vitamins, vitamin E, several dietary minerals, such as manganese (95% DV), magnesium (52% DV) and phosphorus (48% DV), and dietary fiber. The fats are mainly polyunsaturated and monounsaturated (83% of total fats when combined).

Some studies show that regular consumption of peanuts is associated with a lower specific risk of mortality from certain diseases.{{Cite journal |last1=Bao |first1=Ying |last2=Han |first2=Jiali |last3=Hu |first3=Frank B. |last4=Giovannucci |first4=Edward L. |last5=Stampfer |first5=Meir J. |last6=Willett |first6=Walter C. |last7=Fuchs |first7=Charles S. |date=November 21, 2013 |title=Association of Nut Consumption with Total and Cause-Specific Mortality |journal=New England Journal of Medicine |volume=369 |issue=21 |pages=2001–2011 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa1307352 |issn=0028-4793 |pmc=3931001 |pmid=24256379}} However, the study designs do not allow cause and effect to be inferred. According to the US Food and Drug Administration, "Scientific evidence suggests but does not prove that eating 1.5 ounces per day of most nuts (such as peanuts) as part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol may reduce the risk of heart disease."{{cite web |author=Taylor CL |date=July 14, 2003 |title=Qualified Health Claims: Letter of Enforcement Discretion – Nuts and Coronary Heart Disease (Docket No 02P-0505) |url=https://www.fda.gov/Food/IngredientsPackagingLabeling/LabelingNutrition/ucm072926.htm |access-date=October 14, 2015 |publisher=Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, FDA}}

{{see also|List of peanut dishes}}

{{more citations needed|section|date=December 2017}}

File:peanutjar.jpg

Dry-roasting peanuts is a common form of preparation. Dry peanuts can be roasted in the shell or shelled in a home oven if spread out one layer deep in a pan and baked at a temperature of {{cvt|177|C}} for 15 to 20 min (shelled) and 20 to 25 min (in shell).

Boiled peanuts are a popular snack in India, China, West Africa, and the southern United States. In the US South, boiled peanuts are often prepared in briny water and sold in streetside stands.

A distinction can be drawn between raw and green peanuts. A green peanut is a term to describe farm-fresh harvested peanuts that have not been dehydrated. They are available from grocery stores, food distributors, and farmers markets during the growing season. Raw peanuts are also uncooked but have been dried/dehydrated and must be rehydrated before boiling (usually in a bowl full of water overnight). Once rehydrated, the raw peanuts are ready to be boiled.{{cite web | url= http://www.boiledpeanuts.com/faq.html | title= FAQ | website= BoiledPeanuts.com | publisher= The Lee Bros | accessdate= October 30, 2011 | archive-date= November 13, 2011 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20111113031350/http://www.boiledpeanuts.com/faq.html | url-status= dead }}

{{main|Peanut oil}}

File:4 gallons of peanut oil.jpg

Peanut oil is often used in cooking because it has a mild flavor and a relatively high smoke point. Due to its high monounsaturated content, it is considered more healthful than saturated oils and is resistant to rancidity. The several types of peanut oil include aromatic roasted peanut oil, refined peanut oil, extra virgin or cold-pressed peanut oil, and peanut extract. Refined peanut oil is exempt from allergen labeling laws in the US.{{cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/Food/LabelingNutrition/FoodAllergensLabeling/GuidanceComplianceRegulatoryInformation/ucm106187.htm |title=Food Allergen Labeling and Consumer Protection Act of 2004 (Public Law 108-282, Title II) |publisher=US Food & Drug Administration | website= FDA.gov |access-date=May 30, 2011}}

A common cooking and salad oil, peanut oil is 46% monounsaturated fats (primarily oleic acid), 32% polyunsaturated fats (primarily linoleic acid), and 17% saturated fats (primarily palmitic acid).{{cite web |date=2014 |title=Nutrition facts for oil, peanut, salad or cooking, USDA Nutrient Data |url=http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/fats-and-oils/506/2 |access-date=January 15, 2015 |publisher=Conde Nast, USDA National Nutrient Database, version SR-21}}{{cite journal |author=Ozcan MM |year=2010 |title=Some nutritional characteristics of kernel and oil of peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jos/59/1/59_1_1/_pdf |journal=J Oleo Sci |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=1–5 |doi=10.5650/jos.59.1 |pmid=20032593 |doi-access=free}} Extractable from whole peanuts using a simple water and centrifugation method, the oil is being considered by NASA's Advanced Life Support program for future long-duration human space missions.{{cite journal |vauthors=Shi L, Lu JY, Jones G, Loretan PA, Hill WA |year=1998 |title=Characteristics and composition of peanut oil prepared by an aqueous extraction method |journal=Life Support Biosph Sci |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=225–9 |pmid=11541680}}

{{main|Peanut butter}}

File:PeanutButter.jpg

Peanut butter is a food paste or spread made from ground dry roasted peanuts. It often contains additional ingredients that modify the taste or texture, such as salt, sweeteners, or emulsifiers. Many companies have added twists on traditionally plain peanut butter by adding various flavor varieties, such as chocolate, birthday cake, and cinnamon raisin.{{cite web|last=Boyd |first= Kristine |url= https://www.tlc.com/parenting/crazy-peanut-butter-flavors-you-need-to-try-now- |title=Crazy Peanut Butter Flavors You Need to Try Now! | Parenting |publisher= | website= TLC.com |date=November 6, 2017 |accessdate= August 6, 2022}} Peanut butter is served as a spread on bread, toast or crackers, and used to make sandwiches (notably the peanut butter and jelly sandwich). It is also used in a number of confections, such as peanut-flavored granola bars or croissants and other pastries. The United States{{cite web |url= https://www.census.gov/econ/isp/sampler.php?naicscode=311911&naicslevel=6 |title=U.S. Exports of (NAICS 311911) Roasted Nuts & Peanut Butter With All Countries| website= census.gov |publisher= US Census Bureau |date= 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150619221251/http://www.census.gov/econ/isp/sampler.php?naicscode=311911&naicslevel=6 |archive-date=June 19, 2015 }} is a leading exporter of peanut butter, and itself consumes $800 million of peanut butter annually.{{cite web |last1=Chakravorty |first1=Rup |title=Breeding a better peanut butter |url= https://www.agronomy.org/science-news/breeding-better-peanut-butter |publisher=American Society of Agronomy| website= agronomy.org |access-date=October 15, 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151110080259/https://www.agronomy.org/science-news/breeding-better-peanut-butter |archive-date=November 10, 2015 }}

{{main|Peanut flour}}

Peanut flour is used in gluten-free cooking.

Peanut protein concentrates and isolates are commercially produced from defatted peanut flour using several methods. Peanut flour concentrates (about 70% protein) are produced from dehulled kernels by removing most of the oil and the water-soluble, non-protein components. Hydraulic pressing, screw pressing, solvent extraction, and pre-pressing followed by solvent extraction may be used for oil removal, after which protein isolation and purification are implemented.{{cite book | last=Wang | first=Qiang | title=Peanuts: processing technology and product development | publisher= Academic Press, Elsevier | location= London | year=2016 | isbn=978-0-12-809595-9 | oclc=951217525 |doi= 10.1016/C2015-0-02292-4}}

File:Cacahuates_Japoneses.jpg, invented in Mexico]]

Peanuts are particularly common in Peruvian and Mexican cuisine, both of which marry indigenous and European ingredients. For instance, in Peru, a popular traditional dish is picante de cuy,{{cite web|title = Gastronomía de Huánuco - Platos típicos - Pachamanca Picante de cuy|url = http://www.huanuco.com/departamento/cultura/gastronomia/|website = huanuco.com|access-date = October 26, 2015}} a roasted guinea pig served in a sauce of ground peanuts (ingredients native to South America) with roasted onions and garlic (ingredients from European cuisine). Also, in the Peruvian city of Arequipa, a dish called ocopa consists of a smooth sauce of roasted peanuts and hot peppers (both native to the region) with roasted onions, garlic, and oil, poured over meat or potatoes.{{cite web|title = Menú, recetas, cocina, nutricion|url = http://menuperu.elcomercio.pe/recetas/ocopa-1197|website = menuperu.elcomercio.pe|access-date = October 26, 2015|archive-date = November 17, 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151117021747/http://menuperu.elcomercio.pe/recetas/ocopa-1197|url-status = dead}} Another example is a fricassee combining a similar mixture with sautéed seafood or boiled and shredded chicken. These dishes are generally known as ajíes, meaning "hot peppers", such as ají de pollo and ají de mariscos (seafood ajíes may omit peanuts). In Mexico, it is also used to prepare different traditional dishes, such as chicken in peanut sauce (encacahuatado), and is used as the main ingredient for the preparation of other famous dishes such as red pipián, mole poblano and oaxacan mole negro.{{cite web |title=Demystifying mole, Mexico's national dish |url=https://www.mexconnect.com/articles/2122-demystifying-mole-mexico-s-national-dish/ |website=MexConnect |access-date=January 2, 2025}}

Likewise, during colonial times in Peru, the Spanish used peanuts to replace nuts unavailable locally but used extensively in Spanish cuisine, such as almonds and pine nuts, typically ground or as a paste mixed with rice, meats, and vegetables for dishes like rice pilaf.

Throughout the region, many candies and snacks are made using peanuts. In Mexico, it is common to find them in different presentations as a snack or candy: salty, "Japanese" peanuts, praline, enchilados or in the form of a traditional sweet made with peanuts and honey called palanqueta, and even as peanut marzipan. There is a similar form of peanut candy in Brazil, called pé-de-moleque, made with peanuts and molasses, which resembles the Indian chikki in form.{{cite web| title = Brazilian sweets and desserts you must taste| url = https://riodejaneirobycariocas.com/7-brazilian-sweets-and-desserts-you-must-taste-in-rio-de-janeiro/| website = riodejaneirobycariocas.com| date = December 20, 2019|access-date = April 8, 2023}}

{{See also|Israeli_cuisine#Confections.2C_sweets_and_snack_foods|l1=Israeli sweets and snack foods}}

Crunchy coated peanuts, called kabukim in Hebrew, are a popular snack in Israel. Kabukim are commonly sold by weight at corner stores where fresh nuts and seeds are sold, though they are also available packaged. The coating typically consists of flour, salt, starch, lecithin, and sometimes sesame seeds. The origin of the name is obscure (it may be derived from kabuk, which means nutshell or husk in Turkish). An additional variety of crunchy coated peanuts popular in Israel is "American peanuts". The coating of this variety is thinner but harder to crack.

Bamba puffs are a popular snack in Israel. Their shape is similar to Cheez Doodles, but they are made of peanuts and corn.

File:9471Peanuts snack of the Philippines 06.jpg

Peanuts are also widely used in Southeast Asian cuisine, such as in Malaysia, Vietnam, and Indonesia, where they are typically made into a spicy sauce. Peanuts came to Indonesia from the Philippines, where the legume was derived from Mexico during Spanish colonization. One Philippine dish using peanuts is kare-kare, a mixture of meat and peanut butter. Apart from being used in dishes, fried shelled peanuts are a common inexpensive snack in the Philippines. The peanuts are commonly served plain salted with garlic chips and variants, including adobo and chili flavors.

Common Indonesian peanut-based dishes include gado-gado, pecel, karedok, and ketoprak, vegetable salads mixed with peanut sauce, and the peanut-based sauce, satay.

File:Boiled Groundnut.jpg

In the Indian subcontinent, peanuts are a light snack, usually roasted and salted (sometimes with the addition of chilli powder), and often sold roasted in pods or boiled with salt. They are also made into dessert or sweet snack of peanut brittle by processing with refined sugar and jaggery. Indian cuisine uses roasted, crushed peanuts to give a crunchy body to salads; they are added whole (without pods) to leafy vegetable stews for the same reason. Another use is peanut oil for cooking. Most Indians use mustard, sunflower, and peanut oil for cooking. In South India, groundnut chutney is eaten with dosa and idli as breakfast. Peanuts are also used in sweets and savory items in South India and also as a flavor in tamarind rice. Kovilpatti is known for its sweet peanut chikki or peanut brittle, which is also used in savory and sweet mixtures, such as Bombay mix.

Peanuts grow well in southern Mali and adjacent regions of the Ivory Coast, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Nigeria, and Senegal; peanuts are similar in both agricultural and culinary qualities to the Bambara groundnut native to the region, and West Africans have adopted the crop as a staple. Peanut sauce, prepared with onions, garlic, peanut butter/paste, and vegetables such as carrots, cabbage, and cauliflower, can be vegetarian (the peanuts supplying ample protein) or prepared with meat, usually chicken.

Peanuts are used in the Malian meat stew maafe. In Ghana, peanut butter is used for peanut butter soup nkate nkwan.Ghanaian cuisine Crushed peanuts may also be used for peanut candies nkate cake and kuli-kuli, as well as other local foods such as oto. Peanut butter is an ingredient in Nigeria's "African salad". Peanut powder is an important ingredient in the spicy coating for kebabs (Suya) in Nigeria and Ghana.

File:Plante d'arachide.jpg

Peanuts are a common ingredient of several types of relishes (dishes which accompany nshima) eaten in Malawi, and in the eastern part of Zambia, and these dishes are common throughout both countries. Thick peanut butter sauces are also made in Uganda to serve with rice and other starchy foods. Groundnut stew, called ebinyebwa in Luganda-speaking areas of Uganda, is made by boiling ground peanut flour with other ingredients, such as cabbage, mushrooms, dried fish, meat or other vegetables.{{cite web |url= http://www.monitor.co.ug/SpecialReports/ugandaat50/-/1370466/1381822/-/uj1i9az/-/index.html|title=Ebinyebwa; a tale of the Ugandan groundnut stew| website= monitor.co.ug| publisher= Daily Monitor/Monitor Publications Ltd | place= Kampala, Uganda| date=April 8, 2008|access-date=December 28, 2015}} Across East Africa, roasted peanuts, often in cones of newspaper, are obtained from street vendors.

File:Roasted Peanuts (2019).jpg

The state of Georgia leads the US in peanut production, with 49 percent of the nation's peanut acreage and output. In 2014, farmers cultivated 591,000 acres of peanuts, yielding of 2.4 billion pounds. The most famous peanut farmer was Jimmy Carter of Sumter County, Georgia who became US president in 1976.John Beasley, "Peanuts" New Georgia Encyclopedia (2019) [https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/business-economy/peanuts/ online]

In the US and Canada, peanuts are used in candies, cakes, cookies, and other sweets. Individually, they are eaten dry-roasted with or without salt. Ninety-five percent of Canadians eat peanuts or peanut butter, with the average consumption of {{convert|3|kg|lb|frac=2}} of peanuts per person annually, and 79% of Canadians consume peanut butter weekly.{{cite web| title= Peanuts in Canada| website= peanutbureau.ca| url= http://www.peanutbureau.ca/all-about-peanuts/peanuts-in-canada.html| publisher= Peanut Bureau of Canada| access-date= December 6, 2017| date= 2017| archive-date= December 7, 2017| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171207015440/http://www.peanutbureau.ca/all-about-peanuts/peanuts-in-canada.html| url-status= dead}} In the United States, peanuts and peanut butter are central to American dietary practices, and are typically considered as comfort foods.{{cite web| first1=Karina | last1= Martinez-Carter|title=As American as peanut butter| url= https://psmag.com/social-justice/american-peanut-butter-73234| website= psmag.com |publisher= Pacific Standard|access-date=December 6, 2017|date=February 14, 2014}} Peanuts were sold at fairs or by pushcart operators through the 19th century.{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Andrew F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7-WcKK01H1cC |title=Fast Food and Junk Food: An Encyclopedia of What We Love to Eat |date=2012 |publisher= ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-313-39393-8 |page=41 |language=en}} Peanut butter is a common peanut-based food, representing half of the American total peanut consumption and $850 million in annual retail sales.{{cite web|title=History of Peanuts & Peanut Butter| website= nationalpeanutboard.org | url= http://nationalpeanutboard.org/peanut-info/history-peanuts-peanut-butter.htm| publisher=US National Peanut Board|access-date=December 6, 2017|date=2017}} Peanut soup is found on restaurant menus in the southeastern states.{{cite web|title=The history of peanut soup|url=http://thevirginiamarketplace.blogspot.ca/2012/09/peanut-soup-mix-considered-asouthern.html| publisher= The Virginia Marketplace|access-date= December 6, 2017|date=September 19, 2012}} In some southern portions of the US, peanuts are boiled for several hours until soft and moist.{{cite web|title=16 Fun Facts about Peanuts & Peanut Butter; Number 13| url= http://nationalpeanutboard.org/peanut-info/fun-facts.htm| website= nationalpeanutboard.org |publisher=US National Peanut Board|access-date=December 6, 2017|date=2017}} Peanuts are also deep-fried, sometimes within the shell. Per person, Americans eat {{convert|6|lb|kg|order=flip|abbr=on|}} of peanut products annually, spending a total of $2 billion in peanut retail purchases.

In 2020, world production of peanuts (reported as groundnuts in shells) was 54 million tonnes, an 8% increase over 2019 production. China had 34% of global production, followed by India (19%). Other significant producers were Nigeria, the US, and Sudan.

Peanuts have a variety of industrial end uses. Paint, varnish, lubricating oil, leather dressings, furniture polish, insecticides, and nitroglycerin are made from peanut oil. Soap is made from saponified oil, and many cosmetics contain peanut oil and its derivatives. The protein portion is used in the manufacture of some textile fibers. Peanut shells are used in the manufacture of plastic, wallboard, abrasives, fuel, cellulose (used in rayon and paper), and mucilage (glue).

With their high protein concentration, peanuts are used to help fight malnutrition. Plumpy Nut, MANA Nutrition,{{Cite web |last=Lee |first=M. J. |date=2025-03-03 |title=USAID reinstates contracts for Georgia company that helps feed malnourished kids after Elon Musk responds to CNN reporting {{!}} CNN Politics |url=https://www.cnn.com/2025/03/03/politics/usaid-reinstates-contracts-for-georgia-company/index.html |access-date=2025-03-03 |website=CNN |language=en}}{{cite web|last=Raymond|first=Bret|title=Rwaza Health Centre: Efficacy Study Results|url=http://mananutrition.org/img/uploads/MANA-Report-final.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118120743/http://mananutrition.org/img/uploads/MANA-Report-final.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=January 18, 2012|website=mananutrition.org|publisher=MANA Nutrition|access-date=July 15, 2011}} and Medika Mamba{{cite web

|url = http://mfkhaiti.org/index.php/the_solution/medika_mamba/

|title = Meds & Food For Kids :: — Medika Mamba

|work = mfkhaiti.org

|access-date = April 23, 2010

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}} are high-protein, high-energy, and high-nutrient peanut-based pastes developed to be used as a therapeutic food to aid in famine relief. The World Health Organization, UNICEF, Project Peanut Butter, and Doctors Without Borders have used these products to help save malnourished children in developing countries.

Peanuts can be used like other legumes and grains to make a lactose-free, milk-like beverage, peanut milk, which is promoted in Africa as a way to reduce malnutrition among children.

{{See also|Peanut pie (byproduct)}}

Peanut plant tops and crop residues can be used for silage.Heuzé V., Thiollet H., Tran G., Lebas F., 2017. Peanut forage. Feedipedia, a program by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ, and FAO. https://www.feedipedia.org/node/695 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824174944/https://www.feedipedia.org/node/695 |date=August 24, 2017 }}

The protein cake (oilcake meal) residue from oil processing is used as animal feed and soil fertilizer. Groundnut cake is a livestock feed, mostly used by cattle as protein supplements.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xq5Nxnd7v5MC&q=Preparation+of+groundnut+cake&pg=PA73|title=Fermented Grain Legumes, Seeds and Nuts|access-date=May 25, 2015|isbn=9789251044445|last1=Deshpande|first1=S. S.|year=2000|publisher=Food & Agriculture Org. }} It is one of the most important and valuable feeds for all types of livestock and one of the most active ingredients for poultry rations.{{Cite journal |last=Onwudike |first=O.C. |date=November 1986 |title=Palm kernel meal as a feed for poultry. 1. Composition of palm kernel meal and availability of its amino acids to chicks |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0377840186901082 |journal=Animal Feed Science and Technology |language=en |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=179–186 |doi=10.1016/0377-8401(86)90108-2}} Poor storage of the cake may sometimes result in its contamination by aflatoxin, a naturally occurring mycotoxin that is produced by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus.{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/wairdocs/ilri/x5480e/x5480e03.htm|title=3. Feed values and feeding potential of major agro-byproducts|work=fao.org|access-date=May 25, 2015|archive-date=May 28, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150528215615/http://www.fao.org/wairdocs/ilri/x5480e/x5480e03.htm|url-status=dead}} The major constituents of the cake are essential amino acids such as lysine and glutamine. Other components are crude fiber, crude protein, and fat.{{Citation needed|date=December 2019|reason=removed citation to predatory publisher content}}

Some peanuts can also be fed whole to livestock, for example, those over the peanut quota in the US or those with a higher aflatoxin content than that permitted by the food regulations.Heuzé V., Thiollet H., Tran G., Bastianelli D., Lebas F., 2017. Peanut seeds. Feedipedia, a program by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ, and FAO. https://www.feedipedia.org/node/55 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824180241/https://www.feedipedia.org/node/55 |date=August 24, 2017 }}

Peanut processing often requires dehulling: the hulls generated in large amounts by the peanut industries can feed livestock, particularly ruminants.Heuzé V., Thiollet H., Tran G., Edouard N., Bastianelli D., Lebas F., 2017. Peanut hulls. Feedipedia, a program by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ, and FAO. https://www.feedipedia.org/node/696 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824215328/https://www.feedipedia.org/node/696 |date=August 24, 2017 }}

File:Roasted Peanuts with shell.jpg|Roasted Peanuts with shell

File:Nut warning 1.jpg|A warning sign for the presence of peanuts and peanut dust

File:Arachis hypogaea Flower.jpg|Arachis hypogaea flower

File:Peanut stalks.jpg|Peanut pegs penetrating the ground

File:Peanut closeup.jpg|Textural detail

File:Closeup of Peanuts, selling at a market in Jagadishpur Hat.jpg|Closeup of Peanuts, selling in India

File:Developing pods of Peanut.jpg|Developing pods of peanut

File:Peanut harvester.JPG|Track-type peanut harvester

File:Peanut Collection (8074787813).jpg|Harvesting peanuts by hand (Haiti, 2012)

File:SevMamra.jpg|A bowl of sev mamra, consisting of puffed rice, peanuts and fried seasoned noodles

File:Peanut chikki, a popular foodstuff of jaggery and peanut is available commercially all over India.jpg|Peanut sweet known as chikki made from peanuts and jaggery

{{portal|Food}}

{{div col|colwidth=30em}}

• Aflatoxin
• African Groundnut Council
• BBCH-scale (peanut)
• Beer Nuts
• Columbian exchange
• Cracker nuts
• Ground nut soup
• List of peanut dishes
• List of edible seeds
• Peanut pie
• Power snack
• Tanganyika groundnut scheme, a failure started in 1951
• Universal Nut Sheller

{{div col end}}

{{reflist}}

• Beasley, John (2019). [https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/business-economy/peanuts/ "Peanuts"]. New Georgia Encyclopedia; 49% of the American peanut crop is grown in the state of Georgia.
• Cumo, Christopher, ed. (2015). [https://archive.org/details/foodsthatchanged0000cumo Foods That Changed History: How Foods Shaped Civilization from the Ancient World to the Present]. Facts on File.
• Hammons, R. O. (1994). "The origin and history of the groundnut" in The groundnut crop: a scientific basis for improvement. Springer Netherlands. pp. 24–42.
• Hughes, Meredith Sayles (1999). Spill the Beans and Pass the Peanuts: Legumes. Lerner.
• Johnson, Sylvia A. (1997). [https://archive.org/details/tomatoespotatoes00john Tomatoes, Potatoes, Corn, and Beans: How the Foods of the Americas Changed Eating around the World]. Atheneum Books.
• Krampner, Jon (2013). Creamy and Crunchy: An Informal History of Peanut Butter, the All-American Food. Columbia University Press.
• Singh, B., and U. Singh (1991). [http://oar.icrisat.org/4992/1/PlantFoodsforHumanNutrition_41_2_165-177_1991.pdf "Peanut as a Source of Protein for Human Foods"]. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition 41:165–177.
• Skolnick, Helen S., et al. (2001). [https://cdr.lib.unc.edu/downloads/sb397b298 "The Natural History of Peanut Allergy"]. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 107.2:367–374.
• Smith, Andrew F. (2002). Peanuts: The Illustrious History of the Goober Pea. University of Illinois Press.
• Smart, J. (1994). The Groundnut Crop: A Scientific Basis for Improvement. Chapman and Hall.
• United States Bureau of Agricultural Economics (1947). [https://archive.org/details/peanutsinsouther65unit/page/n2/mode/1up Peanuts in Southern Agriculture].
• Variath, Murali T., and P. Janila (2017). [http://oar.icrisat.org/10492/1/Economic%20and%20Academic%20Importance.pdf "Economic and Academic Importance of Peanut"]. The Peanut Genome pp. 7–26.

{{Commons}}

• {{Cookbook-inline|Peanut}}

{{Nuts}}

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Category:Arachis

Category:Convenience foods

Category:Crops originating from indigenous Americans

Category:Crops originating from South America

Category:Crops

Category:Edible legumes

Category:Edible nuts and seeds

Category:Nitrogen-fixing crops

Category:Oil seeds

Category:Plants described in 1753

Category:Snack foods

Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus