Radical right (Europe)
{{short description|Right-wing groups in Europe since 1970}}
{{pp-sock|small=yes}}
{{use Oxford spelling|date=July 2019}}
{{use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{conservatism sidebar}}
In political science, the terms radical right, reactionary right, populist right, and hard right have been used to refer to the range of nationalist, right-wing and far-right political parties that have grown in support in Europe since the late 1970s. Populist right groups have shared a number of causes, which typically include opposition to globalisation and immigration, criticism of multiculturalism, and opposition to the European Union,{{cite web|url=http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/id/ipa/10756.pdf|title=Right Wing Populism in Europe – How do we Respond?|last=Hillebrand|first=Ernst|date=May 2014|publisher=Friedrich Ebert Foundation}} with some opposing liberal democracy or rejecting democracy altogether in favor of "Illiberal democracy" or outright authoritarian dictatorship.{{Cite web |title=Are far right parties a threat to the European Union? |url=https://www.sciencespo.fr/en/news/are-far-right-parties-a-threat-to-the-european-union |access-date=2024-06-22 |website=Sciences Po |language=en}}{{cite web | url=https://yris.yira.org/column/the-global-resurgence-of-populism-as-a-social-movement-unifying-the-people-or-creating-social-cleavages/ | title=The Global Resurgence of Populism as a Social Movement: Unifying the People or Creating Social Cleavages - the Yale Review of International Studies | date=19 October 2018 }}{{Cite web |date=December 2007 |title=The Sociology of the Radical Right |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228160049 |access-date=22 June 2024 |website=researchgate.net}}{{Cite web |title=Illiberal Democracy and the Struggle on the Right |url=https://www.journalofdemocracy.org/articles/illiberal-democracy-and-the-struggle-on-the-right/ |access-date=2024-07-31 |website=Journal of Democracy |language=en-US}}{{Cite web |title=The populist challenge to liberal democracy |url=https://www.brookings.edu/articles/the-populist-challenge-to-liberal-democracy/ |access-date=2024-07-31 |website=Brookings |language=en-US}}{{cite journal |last1=Golder |first1=Matt |title=Far Right Parties in Europe |journal=Annual Review of Political Science |date=2016 |volume=19 |pages=477–497 |doi=10.1146/annurev-polisci-042814-012441 |doi-access=free}}
The ideological spectrum of the radical right extends from staunchly right-wing national conservatism and right-wing populism to far-right Third Positionism and other neo-fascist ideologies.{{sfn|Bar-On|2018|p=24}}{{sfn|Minkenberg|2011|p=46}}{{Cite web |date=11 August 2019 |title=The national conservatism movement just began—does it have a future? |url=https://www.dailydot.com/debug/national-conservatism/ |website=The Daily Dot}}
Terminology and definition
The Friedrich Ebert Foundation, in a 2011 book, defines the terms "right-wing extremist" and "right-wing populist" differently.{{cite book|url=http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/do/08338.pdf|isbn=978-3-86872-617-6|publisher=Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung Forum Berlin Project "Combating Right-Wing Extremism"|editor1=Nora Langenbacher|editor2=Britta Schellenberg|editor3=Karen Margolis|year=2011|title=Is Europe on the "Right" Path? Right-wing extremism and right-wing populism in Europe}}
In 1996, the Dutch political scientist Cas Mudde noted that in most European countries, the terms "radical right" and "extreme right" were used interchangeably.{{sfn|Mudde|1996|p=230}} He cited Germany as an exception, noting that among political scientists in that nation, the term "radical right" (Rechsradikalismus) was used in reference to those right-wing groups which were outside the political mainstream but which did not threaten "the free democratic order"; the term was thus used in contrast to the "extreme right" (Rechsextremen), which referred to groups which did threaten the constitutionality of the state and could therefore be banned under German law.{{sfn|Mudde|1996|pp=230–231}} According to the German scientist Klaus Wahl "the radical right can be scaled by using different degrees of militancy and aggressiveness from right-wing populism to racism, terrorism, and totalitarianism".{{Cite book|last=Wahl, Klaus |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1126278982|title=The Radical Right. Biopsychosocial Roots and International Variations.|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2020|isbn=978-3-030-25130-7|location=London|pages=14|oclc=1126278982}}
The term "radical right" originated in U.S. political discourse, where it was applied to various anti-communist groups which were active in the 1950s era of McCarthyism.{{sfn|Kaplan|Weinberg|1998|p=10}} The term and accompanying concept then entered Western Europe through the social sciences.{{sfn|Kaplan|Weinberg|1998|p=10}} Conversely, the term "right-wing extremism" developed among European scholars, particularly those in Germany, to describe right-wing groups that developed in the decades following the Second World War, such as the West German National Democratic Party and the French Poujadists.{{sfn|Kaplan|Weinberg|1998|pp=10–11}} This term then came to be adopted by some scholars in the U.S.{{sfn|Kaplan|Weinberg|1998|p=11}}
=Defining Europe's populist right=
{{Quote box
| width = 25em
| align = right
| quote = "The rise of new parties on the right in the 1980s led to a great deal of controversy over how these parties are defined. Some authors argue that these parties share essential characteristics, while others point to the unique national features and circumstances of each party. Some see them as throwbacks to the fascist era, while others see them as mixing right-wing, liberal, and populist platforms to broaden their electoral appeal. The party ideologues themselves have argued that they cannot be placed on the left-to-right spectrum."
| source = — Terri E. Givens, 2005.{{sfn|Givens|2005|p=18}}
}}
In his study of the movement in Europe, David Art defined the term "radical right" as referring to "a specific type of far right party that began to emerge in the late 1970s"; as Art used it, "far right" was "an umbrella term for any political party, voluntary association, or extra-parliamentary movement that differentiates itself from the mainstream right".{{sfn|Art|2011|p=10}}
Most commentators have agreed that these varied radical right parties have a number of common characteristics.{{sfn|Givens|2005|p=20}}
Givens stated that the two characteristics shared by these radical rights groups were:
- "They take an anti-immigrant stance by proposing stronger immigrant controls and the repatriation of unemployed immigrants, and they call for a national (i.e., citizens only) preference in social benefits and employment ('welfare chauvinism').
- "In contrast to earlier extreme right or fascist parties, they work within a country's political and electoral system. Although they do not have the goal of tearing down the current political system, they are anti-establishment. They consider themselves "outsiders" in the party system, and therefore not tainted by government or mainstream parties' scandals."{{sfn|Givens|2005|p=20}}
In 2000, Minkenberg characterised the "radical right" as "a political ideology, the core element of which is a myth of a homogeneous nation, a
romantic and populist ultranationalism which is directed against the concept of liberal and pluralistic democracy and its underlying principles of individualism and universalism. The contemporary radical right does not want to return to pre-democratic regimes such as monarchy or feudalism. It wants government by the people, but in terms of ethnocracy instead of democracy."{{sfn|Minkenberg|2000|pp=174–175}} In 2020, Wahl summarized that "ideologies of the radical right emphasize social and economic threats in the modern and postmodern world (e.g., globalization, immigration). The radical right also promises protection against such threats by an emphatic ethnic construction of 'we', the people, as a familiar, homogeneous in-group, anti-modern, or reactionary structures of family, society, an authoritarian state, nationalism, the discrimination, or exclusion of immigrants and other minorities ... While favoring traditional social and cultural structures (traditional family and gender roles, religion, etc.) the radical right uses modern technologies and does not ascribe to a specific economic policy; some parties tend toward a liberal, free-market policy, and others more to a welfare state policy."
Journalist Nick Robins-Early characterised the European radical right as focusing on "sometimes vitriolic anti-Euro, anti-immigrant sentiment, as well as renewed security fears" within European nations.{{sfn|Robins-Early|2015}} According to political scientist Andrej Zaslove, populist radical right parties "employ an anti‐state, anti‐bureaucratic, anti‐elite, anti‐European Union political message."{{Cite journal|last=Zaslove|first=Andrej|date=2004-03-01|title=The Dark Side of European Politics: Unmasking the Radical Right|journal=Journal of European Integration|volume=26|issue=1|pages=61–81|doi=10.1080/0703633042000197799|s2cid=143702243|issn=0703-6337}}
The European migrant crisis has caused a significant uptick in the populist support for right-wing parties.{{cite web|url=http://www.wsj.com/articles/europes-populist-politicians-win-voters-hearts-1463689360 |title=Europe's Populist Politicians Tap Into Deep-Seated Frustration |work=The Wall Street Journal |date=2 June 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160602132220/http://www.wsj.com/articles/europes-populist-politicians-win-voters-hearts-1463689360 |archive-date=June 2, 2016 }}{{cite web|url=http://carnegieeurope.eu/strategiceurope/?fa=62990 |title=Judy Asks: Will Populist Parties Run Europe? |publisher=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace |date=4 June 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604012801/http://carnegieeurope.eu/strategiceurope/?fa=62990 |archive-date=June 4, 2016 }} A 2016 article in The New York Times argued that the "once-unthinkable" British vote to leave the EU is the result of "Populist anger against the established political order".{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/25/world/europe/brexit-eu-politics.html|title=Populist Anger Upends Politics on Both Sides of the Atlantic|date=25 June 2016|work=The New York Times}}
=Base of support=
The 2005 paper in the European Journal of Political Research argues that the two groups most likely to vote for populist right parties are "blue-collar workers – who support extensive state intervention in the economy – and owners of small businesses – who are against such state intervention".{{cite journal|last1=Ivarsflaten|first1=Elisabeth|title=The vulnerable populist right parties: No economic realignment fuelling their electoral success|journal=European Journal of Political Research|volume=44|issue=3|year=2005|pages=465–492|issn=0304-4130|doi=10.1111/j.1475-6765.2005.00235.x}}
A 2014 article by the Friedrich Ebert Foundation argued that economic inequality is growing the gap "between the winners of globalisation and its losers. The first group live in urban areas, have relatively stable jobs and access to modern communications and transport, but fears nevertheless that it will soon share the fate of the second group. The second group, meanwhile, are threatened by unemployment or stuck in poorly paid and precarious jobs. They belong to the working class or consider themselves part of the lower middle class and fear – for themselves or their children – (further) social decline. Such people live in de-industrialised areas, or rural or semi-urban areas, on the periphery of globalised metropolises to which they have no access."
Scholars have argued that neoliberalism has led to European "social and economic insecurity" in the working and middle classes, leading to the growth of right wing populism.{{cite web|url=http://www.guystanding.com/files/documents/Siren_conf_2004_abstracts.pdf |title=Changes in working life and the appeal of right-wing populism in Europe|date=17–18 June 2004|work=Forschungs- und Beratungsstelle Arbeitswelt}}
Minkenberg termed the supporters of the radical right "modernization losers", in that they are from the sectors of society whose "social and cultural capital is shrinking and they are intent on defending it against encroachments on their traditional entitlements."{{sfn|Minkenberg|2000|pp=182–183}} He described this base as those who exhibit "unease, rigid thinking, authoritarian attitudes and traditional values – all of which reinforce each other."{{sfn|Minkenberg|2000|p=183}}
Connections and links
File:Calais - Manifestation contre les clandestins, l'immigration-invasion et l'islamisation de l'Europe, 8 novembre 2015 (22).JPG hold banners saying "Remigration" and "Diversity is a code word for white genocide", 8 November 2015.]]
A number of radical right elements express a desire for fascist or neo-Nazi rule in Europe.{{citation needed|date=December 2023}}
Political scientist Michael Minkenberg stressed that the radical right was "a modern phenomenon", stating that it is only "vaguely connected" to previous right-wing movements because it has "undergone a phase of renewal, as a result of social and cultural modernisation shifts in post-war Europe."{{sfn|Minkenberg|2000|p=170}} As such he opined that describing it using terms such as "fascism" or "neo-fascism", which were closely linked the right-wing movements of the early 20th century, was an "increasingly obsolete" approach.{{sfn|Minkenberg|2000|pp=170–171}}
Minkenberg argued that the radical right groups in Eastern Europe, including in Eastern Germany, were distinct from their counterparts in Western Europe.{{sfn|Minkenberg|2000|p=188}} He added that "the East European radical right is more reverse-oriented than its Western counterpart, i.e. more antidemocratic and more militant" and that because of the relatively new establishment of liberal democracy in Eastern Europe, violence still could be used as a political tool by the Eastern radical right.{{sfn|Minkenberg|2000|p=189}}
Jeffrey Kaplan and Leonard Weinberg's 1998 book The Emergence of a Euro-American Radical Right says that populist right wing movements are supported by extra-parliamentary groups with electorally unpalatable views, such as Christian Identity movements, anti-Semitic conspiracy theories, the promotion of scientific racism and Holocaust denial, and neo-Nazi economic theories like Strasserism.{{sfn|Kaplan|Weinberg|1998|p=56}}
=Connections to the radical right in the U.S.=
{{Quote box|width=25em|align=right|quote="[There is a] growing similarity of economic and social conditions in Western Europe and the United States. The effect of this concurrence, the appearance of a multicultural and multiracial Western Europe and its consequent resemblance to the United States in particular, has promoted racial resentments. Some whites, defined as Aryans, Teutons, and so on, have become so alienated from their respective national societies they have become sympathetic to the formation of a racial folk community that is Euro-American in scope and indeed reaches out to include 'kinsmen' in South Africa, Australia and New Zealand as well."|source=— Jeffrey Kaplan and Leonard Weinberg, 1998.{{sfn|Kaplan|Weinberg|1998|pp=195–196}} }}
In 1998, the political scientists Jeffrey Kaplan and Leonard Weinberg argued that the interaction of right-wingers and the transmission of ideas between right-wing groups in Western Europe and the United States was common, having been aided by the development of the internet.{{sfn|Kaplan|Weinberg|1998|pp=7–9}} They believed that in the late 20th century, a discernible "Euro-American radical right" that would promote a trans-national form of white identity politics, promoting populist grievance narratives around groups which feel besieged by non-white peoples through multiculturalism.{{sfn|Kaplan|Weinberg|1998|p=18}} This concept of a unified "white" race was not always explicitly racialist, in many cases, it was conceived of as a bond which was created by "cultural affinity and a sense of common historical experience and a shared ultimate destiny".{{sfn|Kaplan|Weinberg|1998|p=18}}
Kaplan and Weinberg also identified differences in the radical right movements of Europe and North America. They noted that European radical right political parties had been able to achieve electoral successes in a way that their American counterparts had failed to do.{{sfn|Kaplan|Weinberg|1998|pp=45–46}} Instead, radical right activists in the U.S. had attempted to circumvent the restrictions of the two-party system by joining right-wing trends within the Republican Party.{{sfn|Kaplan|Weinberg|1998|pp=61–62}} They also noted that legal restrictions on such groups differed in the two continents; in the U.S., the First Amendment protected the free speech of radical right groups, while in most West European nations there were laws prohibiting hate speech and (in several countries) Holocaust denial, thus forcing European radical right groups to present a more moderate image.{{sfn|Kaplan|Weinberg|1998|p=46}}
The election of President Donald Trump in the United States has drawn praise from the European radical right,{{Cite web|url=https://globalnews.ca/news/3058010/white-supremacists-and-far-right-leaders-praise-donald-trump-election-win/|title = White supremacists and EU far-right leaders praise Donald Trump election win |work=Global News|first=Andrew|last=Russell|date=November 9, 2016|access-date=24 July 2023}} and following his election, connections were expanded, with Trump's National Security Advisor Michael Flynn meeting with the Freedom Party of Austria,{{Cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/michael-flynn-putin-trump-austria-far-right-2016-12|title = A far-right Austrian leader who just signed a pact with Putin says he met with Trump's national security adviser in New York|website = Business Insider|first=Natasha|last=Bertrand|date=December 20, 2016|access-date=24 July 2023}} and former White House chief strategist Steve Bannon founding The Movement, a network intended to advance European radical right causes.{{Cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/steve-bannon-moving-europe-movement-foundation-far-right-wing-politics-george-soros-a8458641.html|title=Steve Bannon to set up 'The Movement' foundation to boost far-right across Europe|first=Peter|last=Stubley|website=The Independent|date=23 July 2018|access-date=24 July 2023}} Trump also initially made supportive remarks towards Marine Le Pen's candidacy in the 2017 French presidential election.{{Cite web|url=https://www.politico.com/story/2017/04/21/trump-supports-marine-le-pen-237464|title = Trump expresses support for French candidate le Pen|website = Politico|first=Aidan|last=Quigley|date=21 April 2017|access-date=24 July 2023}} In February 2025, U.S. Vice President JD Vance gave a speech at the Munich Security Conference condemning the annulment of the 2024 Romanian presidential election after radical right candidate Călin Georgescu won a plurality of the votes, and criticising the German Christian Democratic Union for its cordon sanitaire against the Alternative for Germany party.{{cite news|work=CNN|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2025/02/14/europe/jd-vance-munich-speech-europe-voters-intl/index.html|title=Vance turns on European allies in blistering speech that downplayed threats from Russia and China}}
=Russian connections=
Some radical right parties, such as the French National Rally,{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2017/03/24/russias-putin-meets-french-presidential-contender-le-pen-in-kremlin.html|title = Russia's Putin meets French presidential contender le Pen in Kremlin|website = CNBC|date = 24 March 2017|agency=Reuters|author=|access-date=24 July 2023}} the Alternative for Germany,{{Cite news|url=https://www.ft.com/content/d78bd9b8-f833-11e6-9516-2d969e0d3b65|title=Russia adds Germany's AfD to contacts book of European populists|newspaper=Financial Times|date=21 February 2017|last1=Hille|first1=Kathrin|last2=Chazan|first2=Guy|url-access=subscription|access-date=24 July 2023}} the Dutch Forum for Democracy,{{Cite web|url=https://www.politico.eu/article/dutch-far-right-leader-baudet-had-ties-to-russia-report/|title = Dutch far-right leader Baudet had ties to Russia, report says|date = 17 April 2020|work=Politico|first=Eline|last=Schaart|access-date=24 July 2023}} the Freedom Party of Austria,{{Cite news|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-austria-freedom-party-pact-putins-party/28185013.html|title=Austrian Far-Right Party Signs Cooperation Pact With United Russia|newspaper=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty|date=19 December 2016|access-date=24 July 2023|author=}} the Italian Northern League,{{Cite web|url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/putins-party-signs-cooperation-deal-with-italys-far-right-lega-nord|title = Putin's Party Signs Cooperation Deal with Italy's Far-Right Lega Nord|website = The Daily Beast|first=Andrew|last=Desiderio|date=11 April 2017 |orig-date=first published 6 March 2017|access-date=24 July 2023}} the Bulgarian Attack{{Cite web|url=https://khpg.org//en/1423879542|title=Bulgaria's Far-Right Attaka Party 'recognizes' Crimea as Russia|website=Kharkiv Human Rights Protection Group|date=16 February 2015|first=Halya|last=Coynash|access-date=24 July 2023}} and the Hungarian Jobbik{{Cite web|url=https://budapestbeacon.com/jobbik-mep-accused-of-spying-for-russia/|title = Jobbik MEP accused of spying for Russia|date = 17 May 2014}} have cultivated relations with the Russian government. The Freedom Party of Austria{{Cite news|last=Smale|first=Alison|date=2016-12-19|title=Austria's Far Right Signs a Cooperation Pact With Putin's Party|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/12/19/world/europe/austrias-far-right-signs-a-cooperation-pact-with-putins-party.html|access-date=2022-02-07|issn=0362-4331}} and Northern League{{Cite web|last=Desiderio|first=Andrew|date=2017-03-06|title=Putin's Party Signs Cooperation Deal with Italy's Far-Right Lega Nord|url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/cheats/2017/03/06/putin-s-party-signs-cooperation-deal-with-italy-s-far-right-lega-nord|access-date=2022-02-07|website=The Daily Beast|language=en}} have signed cooperation agreements with the ruling party of Russia, United Russia. Russia has also been accused of providing assistance to several radical right parties in Europe.{{Cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/europe-s-far-right-enjoys-backing-russia-s-putin-n718926|title = Why Putin is Bolstering Europe's Far-Right Populism|website = NBC News|orig-date=first published February 12, 2017|date=February 13, 2017|first=Matt|last=Bradley|access-date=24 July 2023}}
=Indian connections=
In 2019, several radical right parties participated in the only permitted international delegation in Kashmir following the revocation of the special status of Jammu and Kashmir, on the invitation of India's Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) government. The parties that participated included the National Rally, the Northern League, the Alternative for Germany, the Spanish Vox, the British Brexit Party, the Polish Law and Justice and the Belgian Vlaams Belang.{{cite news|work=The New York Times|title=India Finally Lets Lawmakers Into Kashmir: Far-Right Europeans|date=29 October 2019|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/29/world/asia/india-kashmir-european.html|first=Maria|last=Abi-Habib|access-date=24 July 2023|url-access=subscription}}{{cite news|work=The Telegraph|location=India|title=22 of 27 EU parliamentarians visiting Kashmir are from Right-wing parties|date=28 October 2019|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/22-of-27-eu-parliamentarians-visiting-kashmir-are-from-right-wing-parties/cid/1714921|author=|access-date=24 July 2023}} This was described by Eviaine Leidig in Foreign Policy as evidence of growing connections between the radical right in Europe and Right wing supporters in India.{{Cite web|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/01/21/india-kashmir-modi-eu-hindu-nationalists-rss-the-far-right-is-going-global/|title = The Far-Right is Going Global|work=Foreign Policy|first=Eviane|last=Leidig|date=January 21, 2020|access-date=24 July 2023}} The Fidesz government in Hungary has also expressed support for India on Kashmir and the Citizenship Amendment Act protests.{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/mail-today/story/we-back-india-on-caa-nrc-and-kashmir-hungarian-foreign-minister-1637601-2020-01-17|title = We back india on CAA, NRC and Kashmir: Hungarian foreign minister|work=India Today|first=Geeta|last=Mohan|date=January 17, 2020|access-date=24 July 2023}} The BJP previously established a relationship with the Jobbik party in Hungary.{{cite news|title=Svensk högerextremist hjälper indiska nationalister|language=sv|date=10 January 2018|url=https://www.dn.se/nyheter/varlden/svensk-hogerextremist-hjalper-indiska-nationalister/|work=Dagens Nyheter|access-date=24 July 2023|url-access=registration}}
=Israeli connections=
Many radical right parties, including Vlaams Belang, Attack, the Freedom Party of Austria, the Alliance for the Union of Romanians and the Sweden Democrats, have sought improved ties with Israel and its ruling party, Likud, in an effort to counter accusations of anti-Semitism domestically.{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-europe-islam-far-right-idUSTRE6BJ37120101220|title = Europe far right courts Israel in anti-Islam drive|newspaper = Reuters|date = 20 December 2010}}{{cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/far-right-woos-israel-in-anti-islam-drive-1.869103|title=Far right woos Israel in anti-Islam drive|newspaper=The Irish Times|agency=Reuters|date=20 December 2010|access-date=24 July 2023}}{{cite news|work=Jerusalem Post|date=August 28, 2023|url=https://www.jpost.com/israel-news/article-756593|title=Far-right MP admits Romania's role in Holocaust in meeting with Israelis}} Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu has cultivated these relationships, particularly with the Northern League and Hungary under Fidesz, in order to build international support for Israeli policies.{{Cite web|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/02/24/why-benjamin-netanyahu-loves-the-european-far-right-orban-kaczynski-pis-fidesz-visegrad-likud-antisemitism-hungary-poland-illiberalism/|title = Why Benjamin Netanyahu Loves the European Far-Right|work=Foreign Policy|first=Zeev|last=Sternhell|date=February 24, 2019|access-date=24 July 2023}} Likud's foreign affairs director endorsed a vote for Vox in the April 2019 Spanish general election on behalf of his party, before backtracking and claiming it was only a personal endorsement.{{Cite news|url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium-likud-foreign-affairs-director-endorsed-spain-s-far-right-party-vox-then-apologize-1.7170237|title = Netanyahu Party's Foreign Affairs Director Endorsed Spain's Far-right Party Vox – then Apologized|newspaper=Haaretz|first=Noa|last=Landau|date=April 27, 2019|url-access=subscription|access-date=24 July 2023}} Netanyahu's son, Yair Netanyahu, later wished luck to Fidesz leader Viktor Orban, Brexit Party leader Nigel Farage, Northern League leader Matteo Salvini and Dutch Party for Freedom leader Geert Wilders in the 2019 European Parliament election.{{Cite web|url=https://jewishnews.timesofisrael.com/yair-netanyahu-criticised-over-tweet-backing-farage-orban-and-wilders/|title = Yair Netanyahu criticised over tweet backing Farage, Orban and Wilders|work=Jewish News|date=May 22, 2019|access-date=24 July 2023|author=}} In 2023, Likud participated in an Identity and Democracy Party conference hosted by Salvini in Rome.{{cite news|work=Repubblica|title=Salvini prepara il suo cantiere nero per sorpassare Meloni in Europa|date=11 October 2023|url=https://www.repubblica.it/politica/2023/10/11/news/salvini_coalizione_meloni_europa-417476877/}} In 2024, Likud minister Amichai Chikli addressed a Vox rally, where he met with National Rally leader Marine Le Pen.{{Cite web|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/at-hard-right-conference-minister-blasts-spains-plans-to-recognize-palestinian-state/|title=At hard-right conference, minister blasts Spain's plans to recognize Palestinian state | The Times of Israel|website=The Times of Israel }}{{cite web | url=https://www.lopinion.fr/politique/la-rencontre-marine-le-pen-avec-un-ministre-israelien-deplait-au-crif | title=La rencontre Marine le Pen avec un ministre israélien déplaît au Crif | date=28 May 2024 }} Chikli later expressed support for Le Pen becoming President of France, and suggested his view was shared by Netanyahu;{{cite news|work=Times of Israel|title=Far-right Le Pen would be 'excellent' as French president, says Likud minister|date=2 July 2024|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/far-right-le-pen-would-be-excellent-as-french-president-says-likud-minister/}} Chikli also noted his "excellent contact" with the National Rally.{{cite news|work=Haaretz|date=26 June 2024|title=Israeli Minister Praises France's Far-right Party President, Breaking Israel's Official Boycott of National Rally
|url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2024-06-26/ty-article/.premium/minister-praises-frances-far-right-party-president-breaking-israels-official-boycott/00000190-53c3-d31c-afb9-dfd39a180000}}
=Other international connections=
Arab states including Egypt,{{Cite web|url=https://lobelog.com/egyptian-president-abdel-fattah-al-sisi-and-europes-islamophobes-an-unsavory-alliance/|title = Egyptian President Abdel Fattah Al-Sisi and Europe's Islamophobes: An Unsavory Alliance|date = 3 November 2019|work=Lobe Log|first=Eldaré|last=Mamedov|access-date=24 July 2023}} Syria,{{Cite web|url=https://english.alaraby.co.uk/english/news/2017/2/3/syrian-regime-welcomes-far-right-politician-and-worst-belgian-ever|title = Syrian regime welcomes far-right politician and 'worst Belgian ever'|date = 3 February 2017|work=The New Arab|first=Robert|last=Cusack|access-date=24 July 2023}} the United Arab Emirates{{Cite web|url=https://english.alaraby.co.uk/english/news/2016/10/29/french-far-right-courting-uae-funding-for-presidential-election-campaign|title=French far-right 'courting UAE funding' for presidential election campaign|date=30 October 2016|work=The New Arab|author=|access-date=24 July 2023}} and Saudi Arabia{{Cite web|url=https://intpolicydigest.org/2019/01/02/saudi-arabia-and-the-west-s-right-wing-a-dubious-alliance/|title = Saudi Arabia and the West's Right Wing: A Dubious Alliance|date = 2 January 2019|work=International Policy Digest|first=James|last=Dorsey|access-date=24 July 2023}} have been described as courting ties with the European radical right in recent years, based on shared concerns towards the rise of Islamism.{{Cite web|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/03/29/arab-regimes-are-the-worlds-most-powerful-islamophobes/|title = Arab Regimes Are the World's Most Powerful Islamophobes|work=Foreign Policy|first1=Ola |last1=Salem |first2=Hassan |last2=Hassan|date=March 29, 2019|access-date=24 July 2023}} In the past, radical right parties had also developed relationships with Ba'athist Iraq,{{Cite web|url=https://theintercept.com/2017/09/08/syria-why-white-nationalists-love-bashar-al-assad-charlottesville/|title=Why White Nationalists Love Bashar al-Assad|date=8 September 2017|work=The Intercept|first=Mariam|last=Elba|access-date=24 July 2023}} the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya{{Cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/austria/3223381/Thousands-gather-for-funeral-of-Austrian-far-Right-leader-Joerg-Haider.html|title=Thousands gather for funeral of Austrian far-Right leader Joerg Haider|website=The Telegraph|first=Bojan|last=Pancevski|date=18 October 2008|access-date=24 July 2023}} and the government of Morocco.{{Cite web|url=http://www.middleeasteye.net/opinion/morocco-and-frances-far-right-dangerous-liaisons|title=Morocco and France's far right: Dangerous liaisons?|website=Middle East Eye|first=Aziz|last=Chahir|date=10 January 2020|access-date=24 July 2023}} In 2011, politicians from the Freedom Party of Austria were involved in arranging clandestine peace talks between Libya's Saif al-Islam Gaddafi and Israel's Ayoob Kara.{{Cite news|url=https://www.haaretz.com/1.5162539|title=Report: Gadhafi's Son Was Ready to Sign Peace Treaty with Israel After Libya Fighting|author=|newspaper=Haaretz|url-access=subscription|agency=Associated Press|date=September 1, 2011}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.jpost.com/breaking-news/kara-gaddafis-son-was-ready-to-aid-gilad-schalit-effort|title = Kara: Gaddafi's son was ready to aid Gilad Schalit effort|work=The Jerusalem Post|first=Rebecca Anna|last=Stoil|date=May 5, 2011|access-date=24 July 2023}}
The Justice and Development Party{{Cite web|url=https://mondediplo.com/2016/11/10Hungary|title = Hungary looks to the past for its future|date = November 2016|work=Le Monde Diplomatique|first= Evelyne|last=Pieiller|access-date=24 July 2023}} and Nationalist Movement Party,{{cite news|work=BBC News|title=Macaristan'da seçimler öncesi 'Türkiye, İslam ve Allah' tartışması|trans-title=Debate on 'Türkiye, Islam and Allah' before the elections in Hungary|url=https://www.bbc.com/turkce/haberler-dunya-42973915|first=Tarık|last=Demirkan|date=8 February 2018}} which together form the ruling government coalition in Turkey, have developed ties with Jobbik, inviting leading Jobbik members to their events. However, most radical right parties in Europe, such as the Northern League, National Rally and Greek Solution, hold strongly anti-Turkish views.{{Cite web|url=https://greekcitytimes.com/2020/05/05/greek-party-leader-we-should-have-destroyed-turkish-jets-harassing-our-defence-minister/|title=Greek Party Leader: We should have destroyed Turkish jets harassing our Defence Minister|work=Greek City Times|first=Paul|last=Antonopoulos |date=5 May 2020|access-date=24 July 2023}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.dailysabah.com/europe/2019/12/06/italys-salvini-to-boycott-nutella-over-turkish-hazelnuts|title = Italy's Salvini to boycott Nutella over Turkish hazelnuts|website = Daily Sabah|date = 6 December 2019|agency=DPA|access-date=24 July 2023}} The leader of the predecessor of the National Rally, the National Front, Jean-Marie Le Pen, had a friendship with Welfare Party leader Necmettin Erbakan, based on their shared right-wing nationalism and their belief that it was impossible to combine Islamic and Christian civilization.{{cite news|title=Necmettin Erbakan|type=obituary|work=The Telegraph|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/politics-obituaries/8441553/Necmettin-Erbakan.html|date=10 April 2011|access-date=24 July 2023}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.milligazete.com.tr/haber/2862585/fransiz-saginin-guclu-ismi-le-pen-erbakan-sivri-zekali-bir-stratejist-idi|title = Fransız sağının güçlü ismi le Pen: Erbakan sivri zekâlı bir stratejist|language=tr|trans-title=French hard right figure Le Pen: Erbakan is a sharp-witted strategist|date=17 July 2019|access-date=24 July 2023}}
The former dictator of the Central African Republic, Jean-Bédel Bokassa, received extensive support from the National Front, and let the party use his castle in France as a training facility.{{cite book|page=171|first=E. Brian|last=Tilley|title=Dark Age: The Political Odyssey of Emperor Bokassa|year=1997|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press}}
During the presidency of Jair Bolsonaro in Brazil, the Brazilian government developed close ties with radical right parties in Hungary, Italy and Poland.{{Cite web|url=https://nacla.org/news/2019/08/21/bolsonaro-and-brazil-court-global-far-right|title = Bolsonaro and Brazil Court the Global Far Right|work=NACLA|first=Raphael Tsavkko|last=Garcia|date=August 21, 2019|access-date=24 July 2023}} In addition, Bolsonaro has developed relations with Vox{{cite web|url=https://europeanconservative.com/articles/news/voxs-abascal-meets-bolsonaro-to-promote-transatlantic-alliance/|work=The European Conservative|title=VOX's Abascal Meets Bolsonaro to Promote Transatlantic Alliance|first=Robert|last=Semonsen|date=December 15, 2021|access-date=24 July 2023}} and with the Portuguese Chega.{{cite web|url=https://www.publico.pt/2023/04/07/politica/noticia/ventura-anuncia-bolsonaro-salvini-vao-estar-evento-chega-2045366|work=Publico|title=Ventura anuncia que Bolsonaro e Salvini vão estar em evento do Chega|language=pt|trans-title=Ventura announces that Bolsonaro and Salvini will be at the Chega event|author=Lusa|date=7 April 2023|access-date=24 July 2023}}
=Connections to extra-parliamentary right-wing groups=
Alongside the radical right political parties, there are also extra-parliamentary groups which – having no need to express views that will be electorally palatable – are able to express a more heterogenous array of right-wing views.{{sfn|Kaplan|Weinberg|1998|pp=55–56}} These extra-parliamentary rightist groups are often religious in nature, affiliated either with Christian Identity or with Odinism,{{sfn|Kaplan|Weinberg|1998|p=56}} reflecting a greater racial mysticism than was present in earlier right-wing movements.{{sfn|Kaplan|Weinberg|1998|p=128}} Such groups often believe that Western governments are under the control of a Zionist Occupation Government (ZOG), thus expressing explicitly anti-Semitic views.{{sfn|Kaplan|Weinberg|1998|pp=56–57}} Such groups are also less enthusiastic about capitalism and free markets as the radical right political parties are, instead being influenced by Strasserism and favouring greater state control of the economy.{{sfn|Kaplan|Weinberg|1998|pp=57–58}}
Such extra-parliamentary groups often exhibit ritual or ceremonial practices to commemorate perceived past achievements of the right-wing, for instance by marking Adolf Hitler's birthday or the death date of Rudolf Hess.{{sfn|Kaplan|Weinberg|1998|p=58}} They are also associated with violent activities, with such violence often being utilised not just for political aims but also as an expressive and enjoyable activity.{{sfn|Kaplan|Weinberg|1998|p=58}}
There are also more intellectually-oriented radical right organisations which hold conferences and publish journals devoted to the promotion of scientific racism and Holocaust denial.{{sfn|Kaplan|Weinberg|1998|pp=80–90}} Material promoting Holocaust denial is typically published in the United Kingdom or United States and then smuggled into continental Europe, where the publication of such material is widely illegal.{{sfn|Kaplan|Weinberg|1998|p=92}}
Examples
A 2015 study on modern populism by Kirk A. Hawkins of Brigham Young University used human coding to rate the level of perceived populist rhetoric in party manifestos and political speeches. Parties with high populism scores included Chega, the British National Party, the Swiss People's Party, the National Democratic Party of Germany, the National Rally, the People's Party, National Democracy, Sweden Democrats, the Party for Freedom, Forum for Democracy, Law and Justice, Vox and United Poland parties.{{cite web|last=Hawkins|first=Kirk A.|date=13 July 2015|url=http://populism.byu.edu/App_Data/Publications/Hawkins_Silva_Provo_January.25.pdf|title=Mapping Populist Parties in Europe and the Americas|website=Team Populism|publisher=Brigham Young University|access-date=24 September 2022}}
The political scientists Robert Ford and Matthew Goodwin characterised the UK Independence Party as being on the radical right.{{sfn|Ford|Goodwin|2014}}
Since the 2010s, multiple radical right parties have formed part of governments in Europe. This has included Fidesz in Hungary (Since 2010), Law and Justice in Poland (2015–2023), the Finns Party in Finland, Lega and Brothers of Italy in Italy, the Party for Freedom in the Netherlands, the Slovak National Party in Slovakia, the Slovenian Democratic Party in Slovenia, the Homeland Movement in Croatia, and the Freedom Party of Austria in Austria (2017–2019).{{Cite web |date=2020-12-03 |title=The rise of the far right- building a trade union response |url=https://www.tuc.org.uk/TheRiseoftheFarRight |access-date=2024-03-15 |website=www.tuc.org.uk |language=en}}{{cite journal |last1=Donà |first1=Alessia |title=The rise of the Radical Right in Italy: the case of Fratelli d'Italia |journal=Journal of Modern Italian Studies |date=2022 |volume=27 |issue=5 |pages=775–794 |doi=10.1080/1354571X.2022.2113216 |doi-access=free|hdl=11572/352744 |hdl-access=free }}
See also
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
- White backlash
- Alliance for Peace and Freedom
- Alternative for Germany
- Der Flügel
- Alt-right
- Britain First
- British National Party
- Congress of the New Right
- Conservative People's Party of Estonia
- Europe of Nations and Freedom
- European New Right
- Falange Española de las JONS
- Far-right subcultures
- Fascism in Europe
- Fidesz, Hungary
- Golden Dawn
- Lega Nord
- List of active nationalist parties in Europe
- Movement for a Europe of Nations and Freedom
- National Rally
- Neo-nationalism
- Our Homeland Movement, Hungary
- Party for Freedom
- Party of the Swedes
- Post-fascism
- Pro Germany Citizens' Movement
- Right-wing populism
- The Radical Right in Western Europe
- UK Independence Party
- Ultraconservatism
- Vlaams Belang
{{div col end}}
References
=Footnotes=
{{Reflist|30em}}
=Sources and further reading=
{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
- {{cite book|last=Wahl|first=Klaus|title=The Radical Right. Biopsychosocial Roots and International Variations.|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|location=London|pages=14|year=2020|isbn=978-3-030-25130-7}}
- {{cite book |last=Art |first=David |title=Inside the Radical Right: The Development of Anti-Immigrant Parties in Western Europe |date=2011 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781139498838 |url={{GBurl|9dUTXJakqLoC}} }}
- {{cite journal|title=The Breakthrough of Another West European Populist Radical Right Party? The Case of the True Finns|last=Arter|first=David|journal=Government and Opposition|volume=45|number=4|pages=484–504|year=2010|doi=10.1111/j.1477-7053.2010.01321.x|doi-access=free}}
- {{cite journal|last1=Bale|first1=Tim|last2=Green-Pedersen|first2=Christoffer|last3=Krouwel|first3=André|last4=Luther|first4=Kurt Richard|last5=Sitter|first5=Nick|title=If You Can't Beat Them, Join Them? Explaining Social Democratic Responses to the Challenge from the Populist Radical Right in Western Europe|year=2010|journal=Political Studies|volume=58|issue=3|pages=410–426|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9248.2009.00783.x|s2cid=145633247|url=http://qmro.qmul.ac.uk/xmlui/handle/123456789/2979}}
- {{cite encyclopedia |last=Bar-On |first=Tamir |contribution=The Radical Right and Nationalism |title=The Oxford Handbook of the Radical Right |others=Jens Rydgren (ed.) |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=2018 |pages=17–41 |isbn=9780190644185}}
- {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Bale |first1=Tim |last2=Hough |first2=Dan |last3=Van Kessel |first3=Stijn |contribution=In or Out of Proportion ? Labour and Social Democratic Parties' Responses to the Radical Right |title=Class Politics and the Radical Right |others=Jens Rydgren (ed.) |publisher=Routledge |location=London and New York |year=2013 |pages=91–106 |isbn=978-1136160615}}
- {{cite book|title=Radical Right-Wing Populism in Western Europe|last=Betz|first=Hans-Georg|author-link=Hans-Georg Betz|publisher=Macmillan|location=Basingstoke|year=1994}}
- {{cite book|title=Revolt on the Right: Explaining Support for the Radical Right in Britain|last1=Ford|first1=Robert|author-link1=Robert Ford (academic)|last2=Goodwin|first2=Matthew|author-link2=Matthew Goodwin|year=2014|publisher=Routledge|location=London and New York|isbn=978-0415661508}}
- {{cite book|title=Voting Radical Right in Western Europe|last=Givens|first=Terri E.|author-link=Terri Givens|year=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-1139446709}}
- {{cite book|title=The Emergence of a Euro-American Radical Right|last1=Kaplan|first1=Jeffrey|author-link=Jeffrey Kaplan (academic)|last2=Weinberg|first2=Leonard|publisher=Rutgers University Press|location=New Brunswick|year=1998|isbn=978-0813525648}}
- {{cite journal|title=Radical-Right and Neo-Fascist Political Parties in Western Europe|last=Karapin|first=Roger|journal=Comparative Politics|volume=30|number=2|year=1998|pages=213–234|jstor=422288|doi=10.2307/422288|url=https://academicworks.cuny.edu/hc_pubs/660}}
- {{cite book|title=The Radical Right in Western Europe: A Comparative Analysis|last=Kitschelt|first=Herbert|author-link=Herbert Kitschelt|edition=new|publisher=University of Michigan Press|year=1997|isbn=978-0472084418}}
- {{cite encyclopedia |last=Minkenberg |first=Michael |contribution=The Radical Right in Europe Today: Trends and Patterns in East and West |title=Is Europe on the "Right" Path |others=Nora Langenbacher and Britta Schellenberg (eds.) |publisher=Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung |location=Bonn |year=2011 |pages=37–55 |isbn=978-3-86872-617-6}}
- {{cite journal|title=The Renewal of the Radical Right: Between Modernity and Anti-modernity|last=Minkenberg|first=Michael|journal=Government and Opposition|volume=33|issue=2|pages=170–188|year=2000|doi=10.1111/1477-7053.00022|s2cid=144136434}}
- Minkenberg, Michael. "The Radical Right and Anti-Immigrant Politics in Liberal Democracies since World War II: Evolution of a Political and Research Field." Polity 53.3 (2021): 394-417. doi.org/10.1086/714167
- {{cite journal|title=The War of Words: Defining the Extreme Right Party Family|last=Mudde|first=Cas|author-link=Cas Mudde|year=1996|journal=West European Politics|volume=19|issue=2|pages=225–248|doi=10.1080/01402389608425132}}
- {{cite book|title=Populist Radical Right Parties in Europe|last=Mudde|first=Cas|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|year=2007|isbn=978-0521616324}}
- {{cite book|title=Radical Right: Voters and Parties in the Electoral Market|last=Norris|first=Pippa|author-link=Pippa Norris|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|year=2005|isbn=978-0521613859}}
- {{cite web|title=A Field Guide To Europe's Radical Right Political Parties|last=Robins-Early|first=Nick|website=The Huffington Post|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2015/02/12/europe-far-right_n_6511022.html|date=12 February 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150214163537/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2015/02/12/europe-far-right_n_6511022.html|archive-date=14 February 2015}}
- {{cite journal|title=The Sociology of the Radical Right|last=Rydgren|first=Jens|author-link=Jens Rydgren|journal=Annual Review of Sociology|volume=33|pages=241–262|year=2007|doi=10.1146/annurev.soc.33.040406.131752}}
- {{cite journal|title=The Dark Side of European Politics: Unmasking the Radical Right|last=Zaslov|first=Andrej|journal=Journal of European Integration|year=2004|volume=26|number=1|pages=61–81|doi=10.1080/0703633042000197799|s2cid=143702243}}
{{refend}}
Category:Antisemitism in Europe
Category:Conservatism in Europe
Category:Islamophobia in Europe
Category:National conservatism
Category:Pan-European nationalism