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Taxonomy of Allium#Third evolutionary line

{{Short description|Classification of the plant genus Allium}}

{{DISPLAYTITLE:Taxonomy of Allium}}

The precise taxonomy of the genus Allium is still poorly understood with incorrect descriptions being widespread. With over 850 species distributed over the Northern hemisphere Allium is the sole genus in the Allieae, one of four tribes of subfamily Allioideae (Amaryllidaceae). New species continue to be described{{sfn|Deniz et al.|2015}} and Allium is both highly variable and one of the largest monocotyledonous genera,{{sfn|Li et al.|2010}} but the precise taxonomy of Allium is poorly understood,{{sfn|Li et al.|2010}}{{sfn|Deniz et al.|2015}} with incorrect descriptions being widespread. The difficulties arise from the fact that the genus displays considerable polymorphism and has adapted to a wide variety of habitats. Furthermore, traditional classifications had been based on homoplasious characteristics (what turn out to be independently evolved similar features in species from different lineages). However, the genus has been shown to be monophyletic, containing three major clades, although some proposed subgenera are not.{{sfn|Li et al.|2010}} Some progress is being made using molecular phylogenetic methods, and the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region, including the 5.8S rDNA and the two spacers ITS1 and ITS2, is one of the more commonly used markers in the study of the differentiation of the Allium species.{{sfn|Deniz et al.|2015}}

Allium includes a number of taxonomic groupings previously considered separate genera (Caloscordum Herb., Milula Prain and Nectaroscordum Lindl.) Allium spicatum had been treated by many authors as Milula spicata, the only species in the monospecific genus Milula. In 2000, it was shown to be embedded in Allium.{{sfn|Friesen et al.|2000}}

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Description

The genus Allium are herbaceous geophytes is characterised by bulbs enclosed in membranous tunics, that may become fibrous and may be carried on rhizomes, with tepals that are free or almost free, and a subgynobasic style. The majority of species produce cysteine sulphoxides that are the source of their distinctive garlic and onion odor and taste. About twenty species are grown as edible crops, such as onions, garlic and leeks, while others are foraged from the wild, such as ramps. Many species are xerophytic and the over 850 species are found almost exclusively in the Northern hemisphere, being particularly diverse in the warm dry summers and cool wet winters of the Mediterranean.{{sfn|Deniz et al.|2015}} The main centre of diversity is the Old World with species rich areas in Central Asia as well as the Mediterranean Basin. A second centre, in the New World, is western North America.{{sfn|Wheeler et al.|2013}}

History

File:Linnaeus Allium 1753.jpg' description of Allium, Species Plantarum 1753]]

Descriptions of Allium taxonomy date back at least as far as Carolus Clusius' Rariarum plantarum historia (1601).{{sfn|Clusius|1601}} When Linnaeus formerly described the genus Allium in his Species Plantarum (1753), there were thirty species with this name. He placed Allium in a grouping he referred to as Hexandria monogynia (i.e. six stamens and one pistil) containing 51 genera in all.{{sfn|Linnaeus Sexual System|2015}} In 1763, Michel Adanson, who proposed the concept of families of plants, included Allium and related genera as a grouping within 'Liliaceae' as Section IV, Les Oignons (Onions), or Cepae in Latin. De Jussieu is officially recognised as the first formal establishment of the suprageneric grouping into families (Ordo) in 1789. In this system Allium was one of fourteen genera in Ordo VI, Asphodeles (Asphodeli), of the third class (Stamina epigyna) of Monocots. Jean Henri Jaume Saint-Hilaire (1805), who developed the concept of Amaryllidaceae, continued Jussieu's treatment of Allium under Asphodeli (which he considered synonymous with Adanson's Liliaceae and Jussieu's Asphodeli). He placed Allium in an unnamed monotypic section of Asphodeli defined as Fleurs en ombelle, racine bulbeuse. Calice à six parties egales (umbellate flowers, bulbous, calyx of six equal parts).

Subsequently, de Candolle reverted the family name back to Liliaceae from Asphodeli. He divided the Liliaceae into a series of Ordres, and the second ordre was named Asphodèles, based on Jussieus' family of that name, in which he placed Allium. The term 'Alliaceae' then reappeared in its subfamilial form, Allieae, in Dumortier's Florula Belgica (1827), with six genera. The 'Alliaceae' have been treated as Allieae within the family Liliaceae (or Aspholecaceae, a partial synonym) by most authorities since.

Regel produced a major monograph of the genus in 1875,{{sfn|von Regel|1875}} and this remained the major reference work for over 100 years till the molecularly based study of Friesen and colleagues in 2006.{{sfn|Friesen|Fritsch|Blattner|2006}} Despite recent advances the precise taxonomy of Allium remains still poorly understood with incorrect descriptions being widespread.{{sfn|Saghir et al.|1966}}{{sfn|Li et al.|2010}}{{sfn|Deniz et al.|2015}}

Phylogeny

{{Clade

| style= font-size:90%; line-height:100%

| label1 = Amaryllidaceae: Subfamily Allioideae

|1=

{{Clade

| 1= {{clade

| 1= {{clade

| 1= Tribe Allieae (monogeneric, Allium)

| 2= {{clade

| 1= Tribe Tulbaghieae

| 2= Tribes Gilliesieae, Leucocoryneae

}}}}}}}}

}}

Subdivision

Linnaeus originally grouped his 30 species into three alliances, e.g. Foliis caulinis planis and as the number of recognised species increased, so did the number of subgroups. Since then, many attempts have been made to divide the growing number of recognised species into infrageneric subgroupings, initially as sections, and then as subgenera further divided into sections. For a brief history, see Friesen et al. (2006){{sfn|Friesen|Fritsch|Blattner|2006}} and Li et al. (2010){{sfn|Li et al.|2010}} Regel's 1875 treatise on Allium divided his 262 species between the six sections proposed by Don, in his 1832 monograph on the genus.{{sfn|Don|1832}} Stearn (1944) described 14 subgenera.{{sfn|Stearn|1944}} Traub (1968) described 3 subgenera, 36 sections and subsections and about 600 species.{{sfn|Traub|1968}} By 1992 there were 6 sub-genera, 50 sections and subsections and 600–700 species.{{sfn|Hanelt et al.|1992a}} The situation was further confused by the presence of over 1,000 taxonomic names, many of which turned out to be synonyms.{{sfn|Gregory et al.|1998}}{{sfn|Saghir et al.|1966}}

The modern era of phylogenetic analysis dates to 1996.{{sfn|von Berg et al.|1996}} In 2006 Friesen, Fritsch, and Blattner{{sfn|Friesen|Fritsch|Blattner|2006}} described a new classification with 15 subgenera, 56 sections, and about 780 species based on the nuclear ribosomal gene internal transcribed spacers. Some of the subgenera correspond to the once separate genera (Caloscordum, Milula, Nectaroscordum) included in the Gilliesieae.{{sfn|Li et al.|2010}}{{sfn|Sykorova et al.|2006}} The terminology has varied with some authors subdividing subgenera into Sections and others Alliances.

The term alliance has been used for both subgroupings within species, e.g. Allium nigrum, as well as infrageneric subsections. These alliances are informal groupings based on morphological similarity and reflecting hypotheses of evolutionary relationship. and can be used between any two formal ranks.{{sfn|Fritsch et al.|2010}} For instance the some 70 North American species were divided into nine well-defined species alliances, of which the largest was the Allium falcifolium alliance with 31 taxa.{{sfn|Rieseberg et al.|1987}} These alliances are usually referred to as the Ownbey alliances, after Marion Ownbey{{sfn|Saghir et al.|1966}} and were also used by Traub.{{sfn|Traub|1968}} A number of classification schemes have chosen to retain these, the Traub system not being universally accepted.{{sfn|Friesen|Fritsch|Blattner|2006}}{{sfn|Wheeler et al.|2013}}

Subsequent molecular phylogenetic studies have shown the 2006 classification is a considerable improvement over previous classifications, but some of its subgenera and sections are probably not monophyletic. Meanwhile, the number of new species continued to increase, reaching 800 by 2009, 900 by 2016{{sfn|Koçyiğıt et al.|2016}} and the pace of discovery has not decreased. Detailed studies have focused on a number of subgenera, including Amerallium. Amerallium is strongly supported as monophyletic.{{sfn|Nguyen et al.|2008}} Subgenus Melanocrommyum has also been the subject of considerable study (see below), while work on subgenus Allium has focused on section Allium, including Allium ampeloprasum, although sampling was not sufficient to test the monophyly of the section.{{sfn|Hirschegger et al.|2010}}

The major evolutionary lineages or lines correspond to the three major clades. Line one (the oldest) with three subgenera is predominantly bulbous, the second, with five subgenera and the third with seven subgenera contain both bulbous and rhizomatous taxa.{{sfn|Li et al.|2010}} Banfi and colleagues (2011) have suggested that the phylogenetic trichotomy of this genus Allium sensu lato is sufficiently distinct as to warrant splitting it into three separate genera. Banfi's scheme thus proposes the restoring the three originally separate genera Nectaroscordum Lindl. (type: N. siculum), Caloscordum Herb. (type: C. neriniflorum) and Allium L. sensu stricto (type: A. sativum) to correspond to lines 1-3.{{sfn|Banfi et al.|2011}}

= Evolutionary lines and subgenera =

The three evolutionary lineages and 15 subgenera here represent the classification schemes of Friesen et al. (2006){{sfn|Friesen|Fritsch|Blattner|2006}} and Li (2010),{{sfn|Li et al.|2010}} and subsequent additional species{{sfn|Brullo et al.|2003}}{{sfn|Nguyen et al.|2008}}{{sfn|Tzanoudakis|Trigas|2015}}{{sfn|Koçyiğıt et al.|2016}} and revisions.{{sfn|Choi|Oh|2011}}

{{cladogram

| title=Cladogram of evolutionary lines in Allium{{sfn|Friesen|Fritsch|Blattner|2006}}

| align=center

| cladogram={{clade|style="text-align:left; padding:2.5px; background:#eef"; width:800px;

| label1=Allium

| 1={{clade

| 1=First evolutionary line

| 2={{clade

| 1=Second evolutionary line

| 2=Third evolutionary line

}}

}}

}}

}}

;Evolutionary lines and subgenera (number of sections/number of species)

== First evolutionary line ==

Although this lineage consists of three subgenera, nearly all the species are attributed to subgenus Amerallium, the third largest subgenus of Allium. The lineage is considered to represent the most ancient line within Allium, and to be the only lineage that is predominantly bulbous, the other two having both bulbous and rhizomatous taxa. Nectaroscordum and Microscordum are bulbous, but Amerallium contains some rhizomatous elements. Within this lineage Amerallium is a sister group to the other two subgenera (Microscordum+Nectaroscordum).{{sfn|Li et al.|2010}}

=== Subgenus ''Nectaroscordum''===

File:Allium siculum in bloom.jpg

Disjunct distribution, involving the western Mediterranean (type species) and southwest Asia

=== Subgenus ''Microscordum''===

East Asia

=== Subgenus ''Amerallium''===

File:Allium canadense, 2015-06-10, Fox Chapel, 01.jpg]]

This large monophyletic subgenus is extremely diverse, both morphologically and ecologically and is characterised by leaves with one row of vascular bundles, absence of palisade parenchyma and a subepidermal position of laticifers, with a predominant base chromosome number x=7.{{sfn|Li et al.|2010}}

;Taxonomy

Amerallium is a relatively large subgenus with about 120–140 species. Under the alliance system of classification proposed by Ownbey (1966), species north of Mexico and two Mexican endemics were treated as eight informal alliances: the A. acuminatum, A. campanulatum, A. canadense, A. cernuum, A. falcifolium, A. kunthii, A. sanbornii, and A. validum alliances.{{sfn|Saghir et al.|1966}} Traub (1968) then arranged the New World alliances into four sections: Amerallium Traub, Caulorhizideum Traub, Lophioprason Traub, and Rhopetoprason Traub. In addition he arranged the Old World species into 6 sections.{{sfn|Traub|1968}}

Since Traub's revision of the subgenus, two biogeographical sister clades (or alliances) have been recognised. The Old World clade is represented by two relatively small groups from the Mediterranean and East Asia. The larger New World clade by all North American species of Allium. The New World sections are Lophioprason, Amerallium, and Rhophetoprason, while the Old World is represented by sections Arctoprasum, Briseis, Narkissoprason, Molium, Bromatorrhiza and Rhynchocarpum.{{sfn|Friesen|Fritsch|Blattner|2006}}

The subgenus is thought to originate in the Old World, with a later split, and to have its origin in the higher latitudes of East Asia, at the time of transition from Cretaceous to Tertiary, dispersing to western North America. Twelve sections were subsequently recognized, with sections Amerallium and Molium further split into two subsections.{{sfn|Friesen|Fritsch|Blattner|2006}}{{sfn|Li et al.|2010}}{{sfn|Wheeler et al.|2013}}

;Distribution

Amerallium is widely distributed within North America, Europe, north Africa, Ethiopia, the Caucasus, northern Iran, southeast Tibet, and southwest China.{{sfn|Wheeler et al.|2013}} The greatest species diversity occurs in North America with 81 species recognized in the 2002 Flora of North America (north of Mexico) and a further 13 are unique to Mexico,{{sfn|Serna|López-Ferrari|1992}} and a total of 26 species recognised there.{{sfn|Wheeler et al.|2013}} Within N America, the genus covers most of the area south of the 53rd parallel, including the oak hillsides of California and Oregon, deserts of Nevada and Texas, alpine meadows of Utah and Idaho, prairies of Nebraska and Manitoba, and forest glades of Missouri and Arkansas.{{sfn|Wheeler et al.|2013}}

;Uses

Both bulbous and rhizomatous species occur in both Old World and New World alliances. The subgenus includes both ornamentals, such as A. moly, A. roseum, A. unifolium and A. neapolitanum, and culinary species such as A. ursinum.{{sfn|Friesen|Fritsch|Blattner|2006}}{{sfn|Wheeler et al.|2013}}

15 Sections{{sfn|Wheeler et al.|2013}}

====Section ''Amerallium''====

====Section ''Arctoprasum''====

  • Section Arctoprasum Kirschl.

File:wild garlic allium ursinum arp.jpg

  • Allium ursinum L. ramsons, buckrams, wild garlic, broad-leaved garlic, wood garlic, bear's garlic

==== Section ''Briseis'' ====

==== Section ''Bromatorrhiza'' ====

  • Section Bromatorrhiza Ekberg

File:Allium wallichii GotBot 2015 004.jpg

==== Section ''Caulorhizideum'' ====

  • Section Caulorhizideum Traub

File:Swamp onions Allium validum closeup.jpg

==== Section ''Chamaeprason'' ====

==== Section ''Lophioprason'' ====

  • Section Lophioprason Traub

File:Allium acuminatum (4045880754).jpg

==== Section ''Molium'' ====

  • Section Molium G.Don ex Koch

File:Allium roseum0.jpg

==== Section ''Narkissoprason'' ====

  • Section Narkissoprason Hermann

File:Allium narcissiflorum31072004fleurpédoncules.JPG

==== Other ====

== Second evolutionary line ==

Nearly all the species in this lineage of five subgenera are accounted for by subgenus Melanocrommyum, which is most closely associated with subgenera Vvedenskya and Porphyroprason, phylogenetically. These three genera are late-branching whereas the remaining two subgenera, Caloscordum and Anguinum, are early-branching.{{sfn|Li et al.|2010}} Of the five subgenera, the large Melanocrommymum and the oligo- or monotypic Caloscordum, Vvedenskya and Porphyroprason are bulbous and the remaining small subgenus Anguinum is rhizomatous.{{sfn|Fritsch et al.|2010}}

=== Subgenus ''Caloscordum''===

East Asia

;Sections

=== Subgenus ''Anguinum''===

Two distinct distributions:

1. Eurasian-American (A. victorialis alliance, including A. tricoccum) 2. East Asia (A. prattii, A. ovalifolium)

;Sections

=== Subgenus ''Porphyroprason'' ===

;Sections

  • Section Porphyroprason Ekberg 1 sp.
  • Allium oreophilum C.A.Mey. (Syn. Allium ostrowskianum Regel)

=== Subgenus ''Vvedenskya '' ===

;Sections

=== Subgenus ''Melanocrommyum''===

File:Allium nigrum GotBot 2015 003.jpg

This Eurasian subgenus, the second largest, is complex and has had a confusing taxonomic history and is extremely diverse, morphologically. It is distributed from the Mediterranean to the Near and Middle East, to north-western China and Pakistan in the east, and southern Siberia in the north. The centre of diversity is Central Asia where it evolved, but its ancestry is located in East Asia.{{sfn|Li et al.|2010}} The 2006 classification of Fritsch and colleagues included 150 species but this has continued to grow. An extensive molecular based study in 2010 confirmed its monophyly but showed that the traditional sections were either para- or polyphyletic. On the other hand, a number of monophyletic subgroups were recognised, with about 40 clades, although their exact relationships remained not fully resolved. Consequently, traditional sections required considerable re-alignment. Eventually 160 species and subspecies were recognised in 20 sections and 22 subsections.{{sfn|Deniz et al.|2015}}{{sfn|Fritsch et al.|2010}}{{sfn|Fragman-Sapir|Fritsch|2011}}

Description: The subgenus is characterised by true tunicated bulbs, annual roots, leaves that are mostly broad and flat with subterranean sheath parts that are barely visible above the ground, scapes that are strong and most often strictly upright and of varying length, and large, fasciculate to globular inflorescences. The latter are composed of many moderately small to large, often star-like, flowers, and some of which have a sweet or noticeable odor.{{sfn|Fritsch et al.|2010}}{{sfn|Li et al.|2010}}

History: Early (prior to 1950) classifications of Allium included many of the members of this subgenus within the bulbous section, Mollium based on morphological characteristics. Mollium was later raised to subgenus level (and then again reduced to a section of Amerallium after transferring many species to Melanocrommyum. The subgenus was then divided into sections in 1969. Molecular methods in the 1990s confirmed the identity of Melanocrommyum as a distinct monophyletic group, together with the presence of several subgroups, but the deeper relationships remained inconsistent.{{sfn|Fritsch et al.|2010}}

Subdivision: Subdivision of the subgenus was first proposed by Wendelbo in 1966,{{sfn|Wendelbo|1966}} proposing section Regeloprason Wendelbo, followed in 1969 by Melanocrommyum Webb & Berthel., Kaloprason K. Koch, Acanthoprason Wendelbo, Megaloprason Wendelbo, and Thaumasioprason Wendelbo.{{sfn|Wendelbo|1969}} Kamelin (1973) provided an alternative arrangement of sections,{{sfn|Kamelin|1973}} which was supplanted by the Gatersleben Allium Group classification (1992) which used a broad range of variables.{{sfn|Hanelt et al.|1992a}}

The use of molecular markers to develop phylogeny began in the 1990s and showed that the subgenus was a well separated taxon with a number of subgeneric groupings. Friesen and colleagues (2006) carried out an extensive molecular phylogenetic study {{sfn|Friesen|Fritsch|Blattner|2006}} resulting in a taxonomy based on 15 sections. These were then further subdivided into five of the sections to create 17 subsections. While Melanocrommyum itself appeared monophyletic, most of the sections were either para- or polyphyletic, favouring the formation of a larger number of smaller subgroups. In their study there were a number of larger sections with 15–35 species, Acmopetala, Megaloprason, Regeloprason, Kaloprason, and Acanthoprason. The remaining sections are either oligogotypic with 2–8 species (Compactoprason, Pseudoprason, Miniprason, Brevicaule, Thaumasioprason, Verticillata) or monotypic (Acaule, Aroidea, Popovia).

In a more focused study in 2010 this was expanded to 20 sections and 22 subsections, or in some cases, e.g. section Melanocrommyum (type: A. nigrum) into nine alliances and Acanthoprason into seven.{{sfn|Fritsch et al.|2010}} This section is the most diverse one within the subgenus in which subgroups differ according to the relationships of the lengths of leaves and scapes (leaves shorter, equal or longer than scapes) and inflorescences (fasciculate, umbellate or subglobose).{{sfn|Fritsch et al.|2006}} The increased number of sections resulted from the splitting of some of the earlier sections, such as Acmopetala. The two species in the resulting section Longibidentata are sister to all the remaining sections (core clade). This section, together with another new section, Decipientia form the basal clade. Although Li et al. (2010) included three sections, their study was confined to species endemic to China.{{sfn|Li et al.|2010}}

Uses: The subgenus also contains many species grown as ornamentals, such as A. giganteum, A. cristophii, A. schubertii, A. aflatunense, A. atropurpureum, A. nigrum and A. karataviense. These species are predominantly from Southwestern and Central Asia, where they are used for both culinary and medicinal purposes. The latter usage is associated with the presence of cysteine sulphoxides and also radical scavenger activity, although many members of the subgenus possess less of these compounds and lack the distinctive taste and smell of garlic and onion, their properties appear to be associated with dithiodipyrroles and sulfur-pyridins. These substances also occur in the ornamental species, that were introduced into European and North American gardens in the early 19th century, and now are represented by an increasing number of named cultivars and hybrids. Cysteine sulphoxides are also largely responsible for the flavour and spicy taste of these species, predominantly the isomeric cysteine derivatives alliin and isoalliin.{{sfn|Fritsch et al.|2006}}

15 sections

  • Section Acanthoprason Type A. akaka
  • Section Acaule Type A. hexaceras
  • Section Acmopetala Type A. backhousianum
  • 7 subsections
  • Section Aroidea Type A. aroides
  • Section Asteroprason Type A. elburzense
  • 2 subsections
  • Section Brevicaule Type A. sergii
  • Section Compactoprason Type A. giganteum
  • 3 subsections
  • Section Decipientia Type A. decipiens
  • Section Kaloprason Type A. caspium
  • 3 subsections
  • Section Longibidentata Type A. fetisowii
  • Section Megaloprason Type A. rosenbachianum
  • 4 subsections
  • Section Melanocrommyum Type A. nigrum
  • Section Miniprason Type A. karataviense
  • Section Popovia Type A. gypsaceum
  • Section Procerallium Type Allium stipitatum
  • 2 subsections
  • Section Pseudoprason Type A. koelzii
  • Section Regeloprason Type A. regelii
  • 3 subsections
  • Section Stellata Type A. taeniopetalum
  • Section Thaumasioprason Type A. mirum
  • Section Verticillata Type A. verticillatum

;Sections{{sfn|Fritsch et al.|2010}}

File:Allium akaka-IMG 2180.jpg

File:Allium cristophii04.jpg

File:Allium giganteum 001.JPG

File:Allium atropurpureum 2012.jpg

File:Allium karataviense (Poland, Lublin).jpg

  • Allium karataviense Regel (Syn. Allium cabulicum Baker, Allium singulifolium Rech. f.; ? incl. subsp. henrikii Ruksans)
  • Section Popovia Khass. & R.M.Fritsch
  • Allium gypsaceum Popov et Vved.
  • Section Procerallium R. M. Fritsch
  • Subsection Elatae R. M. Fritsch
  • Allium stipitatum Regel Type (subsection and section) Persian shallot
  • Allium altissimum Regel
  • Subsection Costatae R. M. Fritsch
  • Allium hollandicum R. M. Fritsch (Syn. Allium aflatunense hort. non B. Fedtsch.) flowering onion
  • Allium jesdianum Boiss. & Buhse Type
  • Allium rosenorum R.M. Fritsch (Syn. Allium rosenbachianum auct. non Regel)
  • Section Pseudoprason (Wendelbo) K.Persson & Wendelbo
  • Allium hooshidaryae Mashayekhi, Zarre & R.M.Fritsch
  • Allium koelzii (Wendelbo) K.Perss. et Wendelbo Type
  • Section Regeloprason Wendelbo

File:Allium regelii GotBot 2015 001.jpg

== Third evolutionary line ==

The third evolutionary line contains the most number of subgenera (seven) and also the largest subgenus of the genus Allium, subgenus Allium which includes the type species of the genus, Allium sativum. This subgenus also contains the majority of the species in the line. Within the lineage the phylogeny is complex. Two small subgenera Butomissa and Cyathophora form a sister clade to the remaining five subgenera, with Butomissa as the first branching group. Amongst the remaining five subgenera, Rhizirideum forms a medium-sized subgenus that is the sister to the other four larger subgenera. However, they may not be monophyletic.{{sfn|Li et al.|2010}} Of the seven subgenera, the large subgenus Allium represents the bulbous element.{{sfn|Fritsch et al.|2010}}

=== Subgenus ''Butomissa'' ===

File:'Allium tuberosum' in the Walled Garden of Goodnestone Park Kent England.jpg]]

2 sections

  • Section Austromontana Type A. oreoprasum
  • Section Butomissa Type A. ramosum

;Sections

  • Section Austromontana N.Friesen

:Mountains from eastern to central Asia up to the borderline of the eastern Mediterranean

:Siberian–Mongolian–North Chinese steppes

  • Allium ramosum L. (Syn. Allium odorum L., Allium tataricum L. f., Allium lancipetalum Y.P.Hsu, Allium potaninii Regel, Allium weichanicum Palibin) Type
  • Allium tuberosum Rottler ex Spreng Chinese chives

=== Subgenus ''Cyathophora'' ===

File:Allium cyathophorum farreri 2.JPG

Asia (Tibet and the Himalayas)

3 sections

  • Section Coleoblastus Type A. mairei
  • Section Cyathophora Type A. cyathophorum
  • Section Milula Type A. spicatum

;Sections

=== Subgenus ''Rhizirideum'' ===

File:Allium senescens.jpg

~ 37 species. Eurasian steppes, with greatest diversity in southern Siberia and Mongolia. Only a few species distributed in Europe, with Portugal as most western point. Some species occur also in Korea and far eastern Russia, and one in Japan.

5 sections

  • Section Caespitosoprason Type A. polyrhizum
  • Section Eduardia Type A. eduardii
  • Section Rhizirideum Type A. senescens
  • Section Rhizomatosa Type A. caespitosum
  • Section Tenuissima Type A. tenuissimum

;Sections

=== Subgenus ''Allium'' ===

File:Vitlöksblomma.JPG

Subgenus Allium, the youngest of the subgenera, is predominantly Mediterranean but its distribution extends east towards Central Asia. This very large subgenus is divided into 15 - 16 sections{{efn|Friesen et al. include section Costulatae within section Allium, while others treat it separately}} and demonstrates two main groups. One has been referred to as classical Allium with tripartite inner filaments and only one thick storage cataphyll. The other is more diverse morphologically reflected in less closely related sections. A number of sections appear to be non-monophyletic, including Avulsea, Pallasia, Brevispatha and Kopetdagia.{{sfn|Hirschegger et al.|2010}} It includes both ornamentals, such as A. sphaerocephalon, A. caeruleum, A. carinatum and A. flavum as well as food crops such as A. sativum and A. ampeloprasum.

16 Sections

  • Section Allium Type A. sativum
  • Section Avulsea Type A. rubellum
  • Section Brevidentia Type A. brevidens
  • Section Brevispatha Type A. parciflorum
  • Section Caerulea Type A. caeruleum
  • Section Codonoprasum Type A. oleraceum
  • Section Costulatae Type A. filidens
  • Section Crystallina Type A. crystallinum
  • Section Eremoprasum Type A. sabulosum
  • Section Kopetdagia Type A. kopedeganse
  • Section Longivaginata Type A. longivaginatum
  • Section Minuta Type A. minutum
  • Section Mediasia Type A. turkestanicum
  • Section Multicaulea Type A. lehmannianum
  • Section Pallasia Type A. pallasii
  • Section Spathulata Type A. spathulatum

;Sections

==== Section ''Allium'' ====

This is the largest section with about 114 species, a number of which are economically important, such as A. sativum (garlic) and A. ampeloprasum (leek). This section also expresses frequent polyploidy and contains a number of species whose boundaries have been difficult to establish, notably A. ampeloprasum which includes a number of subspecies and varieties, as well as synonymous species, which have been labelled the "A. ampeloprasum complex". Horticulturally, it is represented by at least four groups, including leeks, whose exact ancestry has been considered uncertain. In the molecular phylogenetic study by Hirschegger and colleagues (2010) showed section Allium to be a well supported clade with two main subclades, one of which included two smaller clades. All of the tetraploid forms of A. ampeloprasum were resolved in a single clade, and leeks appeared to be more closely allied to A. iranicum and A. atroviolaceum than A. ampeloprasum. Restoration of A. porrum L. was therefore proposed for the tertraploid forms, reserving A. ampeloprasum for the forms known horticulturally as great headed garlic and A. ampeloprasum var. babingtonii.{{sfn|Hirschegger et al.|2010}}

==== Section ''Avulsea'' ====

==== Section ''Brevidentia'' ====

==== Section ''Brevispatha'' ====

==== Section ''Caerulea'' ====

  • Section Caerulea (Omelcz.) F.O.Khass.
  • Allium caeruleum Pall. (Syn. Allium azureum Ledeb., Allium viviparum Kar. & Kir.) Type blue globe onion
  • Allium caesium Schrenk (Syn.: Allium urceolatum Regel)
  • Allium delicatulum J.F.E.Siev. ex Schult. & Schult. f.

==== Section ''Codonoprasum'' ====

Section Codonoprason is strongly monophyletic{{sfn|Friesen|Fritsch|Blattner|2006}}{{sfn|Salmeri et al.|2016}} and has its centre of diversity in the Mediterranean region, particularly Greece and Turkey, but extends to other areas of Europe, North Africa and the Middle East. It was originally conceived of as a separate genus, Codonoprasum by Reichenbach in 1828. The taxonomy of the section is complicated with inconsistent speciation. In 2005 the section was considered to consist of 58 species and 7 subspecies.{{sfn|Seregin|2005}} The section is characterised as large plants with multiflowered inflorescences, long pedicels, very long spathe valves and a cylindrical-campanulate perigon, with unequal and long-caudate spathe leaves.{{sfn|Hanelt|1996}}{{sfn|Salmeri et al.|2016}}

Historically the section has been considered to have a number of subsections. Friesen recognised 2,{{sfn|Friesen|Fritsch|Blattner|2006}} while others have described 3, e.g.;{{sfn|Cesmedziev|Terzijski|1997}}

: Codonoprasum (Rchb.) Kamelin

: Longistamineum Cheshm. ex Omelczuk

: Haemoprason (F. Herm.) Cheshm.

Many species were previously included in a grouping referred to as the Paniculatum complex. Molecular studies demonstrate the presence of two clades within the section. Clade A contains the two autumn flowering species, Allium tardans and Allium parciflorum as a subclade. Clade B contains the smaller taxa within the section.

==== Section ''Costulatae'' ====

==== Other ====

  • Section Crystallina F.O.Khass. & Yengalycheva
  • Allium crystallinum Vved.
  • Section Eremoprasum (Kamelin) F.O.Khass. ex R.M.Fritsch & N.Friesen
  • Allium sabulosum Steven ex Bunge Type
  • Section Kopetdagia F. O. Khassanov
  • Allium kopetdagense Vved.
  • Section Longivaginata (Kamelin) F.O.Khass. ex R.M.Fritsch & N.Friesen
  • Allium longivaginatum Wendelbo
  • Section Minuta F. O. Khassanov
  • Allium minutum Vved.
  • Section Mediasia F.O.Khass., Yengalycheva & N.Friesen
  • Allium turkestanicum Regel
  • Section Multicaulea F.O.Khass. & Yengalycheva
  • Allium lehmannianum Merckl. ex Bunge
  • Section Pallasia (Tzag.) F.O.Khass. ex R.M.Fritsch & N.Friesen
  • Allium pallasii Murray Type
  • Allium tanguticum Regel
  • Section Spathulata F.O. Khass. & R.M.Fritsch
  • Allium spathulatum Khass. & R.M.Fritsch
  • Unplaced
  • Allium macrostemon Bunge (Syn. Allium grayi Regel, Allium nipponicum Franch. & Sav.){{efn|The history of A. macrostemon is complex. Historically the species was included in subgenus Allium section Scorodon s.l.. When the species in the section were redistributed by Friesen et al. 2006{{sfn|Friesen|Fritsch|Blattner|2006}} they were unable to allocate this species to a section and questioned whether a new section should be created. Nguyen et al. (2008){{sfn|Nguyen et al.|2008}} found it most closely related to species within section Codonoprason. In contrast Li et al. (2010){{sfn|Li et al.|2010}} placed it in section Allium and Choi et al. (2012){{sfn|Choi et al.|2012}} believed it belonged in section Caerulea, but did not recommend moving it on the basis of available information. It is therefore unplaced within subgenus Allium or considered the sole member of section Scorodon s.l.}}

=== Subgenus ''Reticulatobulbosa'' ===

File:Allium barsczewskii GotBot 2015 001.jpg]]

The second largest subgenus in the third evolutionary line.

5 sections.

  • Section Campanulata Type A. xiphopetalum
  • Section Nigrimontana Type A. drobovii
  • Section Reticulatobulbosa Type A. lineare
  • Section Scabriscapa Type A. scabriscapum
  • Section Sikkimensia Type A. sikkimense

;Sections

: Kazakhstan

:Southwestern and southern China

=== Subgenus ''Polyprason'' ===

File:Allium carolinianum.JPG]]

4 sections

  • Section Daghestanica Type A. daghestanicum
  • Section Falcatifolia Type A. carolinianum
  • Section Oreiprason Type A. saxatile
  • Section Scorodon Type A. moschatum

;Sections

  • Section Daghestanica (Tscholok.) N.Friesen

: 2 geographical alliances

:: 1. Caucasian species (A. daghestanicum, A. gunibicum)

:: 2. European species from the eastern Alps to the Pyrenees

: Montane to subalpine belt of Central Asian mountains

=== Subgenus ''Cepa'' ===

File:Oignons-FR-2013.jpg

Polyphyletic. 5 sections.{{sfn|Choi et al.|2012}}

  • Section Annuloprason Type A. fedschenkoanum
  • Section Cepa Type A. cepa
  • Section Condensatum Type A. condensatum
  • Section Sacculiferum Type A. sacculiferum
  • Section Schoenoprasum Type A. schoenoprasum

;Sections

: Eastern Siberia and Mongolia north to Korea and Japan

=Species=

{{main|List of Allium species}}

Etymology

The name Allium is ancient, and the plant was known to both the Romans and the Greeks.{{sfn|Jay|2016}} The name is thought to be Celtic in origin, meaning "to burn", in reference to its taste and smell.{{sfn|Motta|Motta|1962}} One of the earliest uses of the name in botany was by Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (1656–1708).

Notes

{{notelist}}

References

{{Reflist|20em|refs=

{{harvnb|Adanson|1763|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/6958#page/596/mode/1up VIII. Liliaceae Section IV. Cepae Part II. p. 50]}}

{{harvnb|Adanson|1763|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/6958#page/588/mode/1up VIII. Liliaceae. Part II. p. 42]}}

{{harvnb|De Lamarck|De Candolle|1815|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=C_MHAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA198 Vingtième Famille Liliacées Liliaceae pp. 198–255]}}

{{harvnb|De Lamarck|De Candolle|1815|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=C_MHAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA204 Liliaceae Asphodèles CCXLII: Ail Allium pp. 218–228]}}

{{harvnb|De Lamarck|De Candolle|1815|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=C_MHAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA204 Liliaceae Asphodèles CCXLII: Ail Allium pp. 218–228]}}

{{harvnb |Dahlgren|Clifford |Yeo|1985|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8YLuCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA198 Tribus Allieae]}}

{{harvnb|Dumortier|1827|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3FU-AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA139 Fam. 104. Asphodeleae Juss. Trib. 1 Allieae pp. 139–140]}}

{{harvnb|FNA|2008|Loc=[http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=101086 v. 26 WM Dale, TD Jacobsen Allium]}}

{{harvnb|GRIN|2015|loc=[https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxonomygenus.aspx?id=403 Allium]}}

{{harvnb|Jussieu|1789|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/7125#page/146/mode/1up ordo VII Narcissi. pp. 51–53]}}

{{harvnb|Linnaeus|1753|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/13829#page/306/mode/1up Allium pp. 294–301]}}

{{harvnb|Linnaeus|1753|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/13829#page/297/mode/1up Hexandria monogynia pp. 285–332]}}

{{harvnb|Reichenbach|1828|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=UL0nAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA66 Alliaceae p. 66]}}

{{harvnb|Jaume Saint-Hilaire|1805|loc=[https://archive.org/details/expositiondesfa00saingoog/page/n289 Asphodelées vol. 1. pp. 126–133]}}

{{harvnb|Jaume Saint-Hilaire|1805|loc=[https://archive.org/details/expositiondesfa00saingoog/page/n295 Asphodelées Cinquième Section vol. 1. pp. 132–133]}}

}}

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= Chapters =

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= Articles and theses =

  • {{cite journal|last1=Choi|first1=Hyeok JAE|last2=Oh|first2=Byoung UN|title=A partial revision of Allium (Amaryllidaceae) in Korea and north-eastern China |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259483667|journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society|date=October 2011|volume=167|issue=2|pages=153–211|doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.2011.01166.x|doi-access=free}}
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  • {{cite journal|last1=Deniz|first1=İsmail Gökhan|last2=Genç|first2=İlker|last3=Sarı|first3=Duygu |title=Morphological and molecular data reveal a new species of Allium (Amaryllidaceae) from SW Anatolia, Turkey|journal=Phytotaxa|date=9 June 2015|volume=212|issue=4|pages=283–292 |url=http://www.biotaxa.org/Phytotaxa/article/download/phytotaxa.212.4.4/13689 |doi=10.11646/phytotaxa.212.4.4 |ref={{harvid|Deniz et al.|2015}}|doi-access=free}}
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  • {{cite journal|last1=Ekşi|first1=Gülnur|last2=Koyuncu|first2=Mehmet|last3=Özkan|first3=Ayşe Mİne Gençler|title=Allium ekimianum: a new species (Amaryllidaceae) from Turkey|journal=PhytoKeys|date=6 April 2016|issue=62|pages=83–93|doi=10.3897/phytokeys.62.7796|pmid=27212884|pmc=4856905 |doi-access=free }}
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  • {{cite journal|last1=Friesen|first1=N.|last2=Fritsch|first2=R.|last3=Bachmann|first3=K.|title=Hybrid origin of some ornamentals of Allium subgenus Melanocrommyum verified with GISH and RAPD|journal=Theoretical and Applied Genetics|date=17 December 1997|volume=95|issue=8|pages=1229–1238|doi=10.1007/s001220050686|s2cid=21554910 |url=https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/3857203/3114_29305y.pdf}}
  • {{cite journal |last1=Friesen |first1=Nikolai |last2=Fritsch |first2=Reinhard M. |last3=Pollner |first3=Sven |last4=Blattner |first4=Frank R. |year=2000 |title=Molecular and Morphological Evidence for an Origin of the Aberrant Genus Milula within Himalayan Species of Allium (Alliacae) |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |volume=17 |issue=2| pages=209–218 |doi=10.1006/mpev.2000.0844 |pmid=11083935 |bibcode=2000MolPE..17..209F |ref={{harvid|Friesen et al.|2000}}}}
  • {{cite journal|last1=Fritsch|first1=RM|last2=Gurushidze|first2=M|last3=Jedelská|first3=J|last4=Keusgen |first4=M|date=2006|title=More than a pretty face - ornamental "drumstick onions" of Allium subg. Melanocrommyum are also potential medicinal plants |journal=Herbertia|volume=60 |pages=26–59 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/247472799|ref={{harvid|Fritsch et al.|2006}}}}
  • {{cite journal|last1=Fritsch|first1=R|last2=Keusgen|first2=M|title=Occurrence and taxonomic significance of cysteine sulphoxides in the genus Allium L. (Alliaceae)|journal=Phytochemistry |date=June 2006|volume=67|issue=11|pages=1127–1135 |doi=10.1016/j.phytochem.2006.03.006|pmid=16626766 |bibcode=2006PChem..67.1127F|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7153311}}
  • {{cite journal|last1=Gurushidze|first1=Maia|last2=Fuchs|first2=Jörg|last3=Blattner|first3=Frank R.|title=The Evolution of Genome Size Variation in Drumstick Onions (Allium subgenus Melanocrommyum)|journal=Systematic Botany |date=1 March 2012|volume=37|issue=1|pages=96–104|doi=10.1600/036364412X616675|s2cid=85838253|ref={{harvid|Gurushidze et al.|2012}}}}
  • {{cite journal|last1=Hanelt|first1=Peter|title=Taxonomic problems in Mediterranean Allium, and relationships with non-Mediterranean Allium groups|journal=Bocconea|date=1996|volume=5|pages=259–265 |url=http://www.herbmedit.org/bocconea/5-259.pdf}}
  • {{cite journal|last1=Khassanov|first1=Furkat O.|last2=Yengalycheva|first2=Svetlana S.|last3=Japakova |first3=Ulbosoon N.|title=Taxonomic remarks on Allium L. subg. Allium sect. Allium s. lat. |journal=Botanische Jahrbücher für Systematik, Pflanzengeschichte und Pflanzengeographie |date=24 June 1997|volume=119|issue=2|pages=267–275 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312579222}}
  • {{cite journal|last1=Khassanov|first1=F. O.|last2=Shomuradov|first2=H.|last3=Tojibaev|first3=K.|title=A new Allium L . species from middle Asia|journal=Linzer Biologische Beiträge|date=18 December 2007 |volume=39|issue=2 |pages=799–802 |url=http://www.zobodat.at/pdf/LBB_0039_2_0799-0802.pdf}}
  • {{cite journal|last1=Rieseberg|first1=Loren H.|last2=Peterson|first2=Paul M.|last3=Soltis|first3=Douglas E.|last4=Annable|first4=Carol R.|title=Genetic Divergence and Isozyme Number Variation Among Four Varieties of Allium douglasii (Alliaceae)|journal=American Journal of Botany|date=November 1987|volume=74|issue=11|pages=1614|doi=10.2307/2444130|ref={{harvid|Rieseberg et al.|1987}}|jstor=2444130}}
  • {{cite journal|last1=Saghir|first1=AR|last2=Mann|first2=LK|last3=Yamaguchi|first3=M|title=Composition of Volatiles in Allium as Related to Habitat, Stage of Growth, and Plant Part|journal=Plant Physiology|date=1965|volume=40|issue=4|pages=681–5|pmc=550361|pmid=16656143|doi=10.1104/pp.40.4.681}}
  • {{cite journal|last1=Saghir|first1=Abdur Rahman B.|last2=Mann|first2=Louis K.|last3=Ownbey|first3=Marion|last4=Berg|first4=Rolf Y.|title=Composition of Volatiles in Relation to Taxonomy of American Alliums|journal=American Journal of Botany|date=May 1966|volume=53|issue=5|pages=477–484|doi=10.2307/2440346|jstor=2440346 |ref={{harvid|Saghir et al.|1966}}}}
  • {{cite journal|last1=Stearn|first1=W. T.|author-link=William T. Stearn|title=Notes on the genus Allium in the Old World; its distribution, names, literature, classification and garden-worthy species|journal=Herbertia|date=1944|volume=11|pages=11–34}}
  • {{cite journal|last1=Sykorova|first1=E.|last2=Fajkus|first2=J.|last3=Meznikova|first3=M.|last4=Lim |first4=K. Y.|last5=Neplechova|first5=K.|last6=Blattner|first6=F. R.|last7=Chase|first7=M. W.|last8=Leitch |first8=A. R. |title=Minisatellite telomeres occur in the family Alliaceae but are lost in Allium |journal=American Journal of Botany|date=1 June 2006|volume=93|issue=6|pages=814–823 |pmid=21642143 |doi=10.3732/ajb.93.6.814 |ref={{harvid|Sykorova et al.|2006}}|doi-access=free}}
  • {{cite journal|last1=Traub|first1=Hamilton P|author-link=hamilton Traub|title= The subgenera, sections and subsections of Allium L.|journal=Plant Life|date=1968|volume=24|pages=147–163}}
  • {{cite journal|last1=Wendelbo|first1=Per|author-link=Per Erland Berg Wendelbo |title=New taxa and synonyms in Allium and Nectaroscordum of S.W. Asia|journal=Acta Horti Gothoborgensis |date=1966 |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=15–55}}
  • {{cite journal|last1=Wendelbo|first1=Per|author-link=Per Erland Berg Wendelbo| title=New subgenera, sections and species of Allium|journal=Botaniska Notiser|date=1969|volume=122|pages=25–37}}
  • {{cite journal|last1=Zubaida Yousaf|last2=Zabta Khan Shinwari|last3=Rizwana ALEEM Qureshi|last4=Mir Ajab Khan|last5=Syed Shahinshah Gilani|title=Can complexity of the genus Allium L., be resolved through some numerical techniques?|journal=Pak. J. Bot.|date=2004|volume=36|issue=3|pages=487–501 |url=http://www.pakbs.org/pjbot/PDFs/36(3)/PJB36(3)487.pdf|access-date=28 January 2015}}

== Phylogenetics ==

  • {{cite journal|last1=von Berg|first1=Gerlinde Linne|last2=Samoylov|first2=Alexander|last3=Klaas |first3=Manfred|last4=Hanelt|first4=Peter|title=Chloroplast DNA restriction analysis and the infrageneric grouping of Allium (Alliaceae)|journal=Plant Systematics and Evolution|date=September 1996 |volume=200 |issue=3–4|pages=253–261|doi=10.1007/bf00984939|bibcode=1996PSyEv.200..253V |s2cid=12751231|ref={{harvid|von Berg et al.|1996}}}}
  • {{cite journal|last1=Choi|first1=Hyeok Jae|last2=Cota-Sánchez|first2=J. Hugo|title=A taxonomic revision of Allium (Alliaceae) in the Canadian prairie provinces |journal=Botany |date=September 2010 |volume=88|issue=9|pages=787–809|doi=10.1139/B10-056 |url=http://www.herbarium.usask.ca/research/articles/Choi_Cota-Sanchez_AlliumPrairieProv_Botany_2010.pdf}}
  • {{cite journal|last1= Choi|first1=Hyeok Jae|last2=Davis|first2=Arthur R.|last3=Cota-Sánchez |first3=J. Hugo|title=Comparative Floral Structure of Four New World Allium (Amaryllidaceae) Species|journal=Systematic Botany |volume=36|issue=4|pages=870–882|date=2011|doi=10.1600/036364411x604895 |s2cid=85573965|ref={{harvid|Choi et al.|2011}}}}
  • {{cite journal|last1=Choi|first1=Hyeok Jae|last2=Giussani|first2=Liliana M.|last3=Jang|first3=Chang Gee |last4=Oh|first4=Byoung Un|last5=Cota-Sánchez|first5=J. Hugo|title=Systematics of disjunct northeastern Asian and northern North American Allium (Amaryllidaceae)|journal=Botany|date=June 2012 |volume=90 |issue=6 |pages=491–508 |doi=10.1139/b2012-031 |hdl=11336/68813 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237155366|ref={{harvid|Choi et al.|2012}}|hdl-access=free}}
  • {{cite journal|last1=Friesen|first1=N|last2=Fritsch|first2=RM|last3=Blattner|first3=Frank R |title=Phylogeny and new intrageneric classification of Allium (Alliaceae) based on nuclear ribosomal DNA ITS sequences |journal=Aliso |date=2006|volume=22|pages=372–395 |doi=10.5642/aliso.20062201.31 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228372845|access-date=13 October 2015|doi-access=free}}
  • {{cite journal|last1=Friesen|first1=Nikolai|title=Die Gattung Allium – Taxonomischer Überblick und wissenschaftliche Sammlung im Botanischen Garten der Universität Osnabrück|journal=Osnabrücker Naturwissenschaftliche Mitteilungen |date=2008|volume=33/34|pages=95–110 |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/14521944.pdf|language=de}}
  • {{cite journal|last1=Fritsch|first1=R.M.|last2=Abbasi|first2=M.|title=New taxa and other contributions to the taxonomy of Allium L. (Alliaceae) in Iran|journal=Rostaniha|date=2008|volume=9|issue=Supplement 2|pages=1–73 |url=http://en.journals.sid.ir/ViewPaper.aspx?ID=142913}}
  • {{cite journal|last1=Huang|first1=De-Qing|last2=Yang|first2=Jing-Tian|last3=Zhou|first3=Chun-Jing|last4=Zhou|first4=Song-Dong|last5=He|first5=Xing-Jin|title=Phylogenetic reappraisal of Allium subgenus Cyathophora (Amaryllidaceae) and related taxa, with a proposal of two new sections|journal=Journal of Plant Research|date=21 December 2013|volume=127|issue=2|pages=275–286|doi=10.1007/s10265-013-0617-8|pmid=24362461|s2cid=15531719}}
  • {{cite journal|last1=İpek|first1=Meryem|last2=İpek|first2=Ahmet|last3=Simon|first3=Philipp W.|title=Testing the utility of matK and ITS DNA regions for discrimination of Allium species|journal=Turkish Journal of Botany|date=2014|volume=38|pages=203–212|doi=10.3906/bot-1308-46|doi-access=free}}
  • {{cite journal|last1=Li|first1=Q.-Q.|last2=Zhou|first2=S.-D.|last3=He|first3=X.-J.|last4=Yu|first4=Y. |last5=Zhang|first5=Y.-C.|last6=Wei|first6=X.-Q.|title=Phylogeny and biogeography of Allium (Amaryllidaceae: Allieae) based on nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer and chloroplast rps16 sequences, focusing on the inclusion of species endemic to China|journal=Annals of Botany|date=21 October 2010|volume=106 |issue=5 |pages=709–733 |pmid=20966186 |doi=10.1093/aob/mcq177 |pmc=2958792|ref={{harvid|Li et al.|2010}}}}
  • {{cite journal |last1=Nguyen |first1=Nhu H. |last2=Driscoll |first2=Heather E. |last3=Specht |first3=Chelsea D. |year=2008 |title=A molecular phylogeny of the wild onions (Allium; Alliaceae) with a focus on the western North American center of diversity |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |volume=47 |issue=3| pages=1157–1172 |pmid=18226928 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2007.12.006 |bibcode=2008MolPE..47.1157N |url=https://nature.berkeley.edu/brunslab/papers/nguyen2008.pdf |ref={{harvid|Nguyen et al.|2008}}}}
  • {{cite journal|last1=Peterson|first1=Paul M.|last2=Annable|first2=Carol R.|last3=Rieseberg|first3=Loren H.|title=Systematic Relationships and Nomenclatural Changes in the Allium douglasii Complex (Alliaceae) |journal=Systematic Botany|date=April 1988|volume=13|issue=2|pages=207|doi=10.2307/2419099|jstor=2419099}}
  • {{cite journal|last1=Seregin|first1=Alexey P.|last2=Anačkov|first2=Goran|last3=Friesen|first3=Nikolai |title=Molecular and morphological revision of the Allium saxatile group (Amaryllidaceae): geographical isolation as the driving force of underestimated speciation|journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society |date=May 2015|volume=178|issue=1|pages=67–101|doi=10.1111/boj.12269|doi-access=free}}
  • {{cite thesis|last1=Wheeler|first1=Erica Jean|date=December 2011|title=Phylogenetic and phylogenomic studies of wild oni ons (Allium, Amaryllidaceae ) at three taxonomic scales|publisher=University of Missouri |url=https://mospace.umsystem.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10355/14504/research.pdf?sequence=2 |access-date=29 September 2016|type=PhD}}

=== Subgenera and sections===

; Line 1

  • {{cite journal|last1=Samoylov|first1=A.|last2=Friesen|first2=N.|last3=Pollner|first3=S.|last4=Hanelt|first4=P.|title=Use of chloroplast DNA polymorphisms for the phylogenetic study of Allium subgenus Amerallium and subgenus Bromatorrhiza (Alliaceae) II|journal=Feddes Repertorium|date=1999|volume=110|issue=1–2|pages=103–109|doi=10.1002/fedr.19991100118}}
  • {{cite journal|last1=Wheeler|first1=E. J.|last2=Mashayekhi|first2=S.|last3=McNeal|first3=D. W. |last4=Columbus|first4=J. T.|last5=Pires|first5=J. C.|title=Molecular systematics of Allium subgenus Amerallium (Amaryllidaceae) in North America|journal=American Journal of Botany|date=26 March 2013 |volume=100|issue=4|pages=701–711|doi=10.3732/ajb.1200641|pmid=23535771|ref={{harvid|Wheeler et al.|2013}}}}

; Line 2

  • {{cite journal | last1 = Li | first1 = R. J. | last2 = Shang | first2 = Z. Y. | last3 = Cui | first3 = T. C. | last4 = Xu | first4 = J. M. | year = 1996 | title = Studies on karyotypes and phylogenetic relationship of Allium sect. Caloscordum (Liliaceae) from China | journal = Acta Phytotax. Sin. | volume = 34 | pages = 288–295 |language=zh}}
  • {{cite journal|last1=Li|first1=Qin-Qin|last2=Zhou|first2=Song-Dong|last3=Huang|first3=De-Qing|last4=He |first4=Xing-Jin|last5=Wei|first5=Xian-Qin|title=Molecular phylogeny, divergence time estimates and historical biogeography within one of the world's largest monocot genera|journal=AoB Plants|date=2016 |volume=8|pages=plw041|doi=10.1093/aobpla/plw041|pmid=27339054|pmc=4976397|ref={{harvid|Li et al.|2016}}}}
  • {{cite journal|last1=Fritsch|first1=RM|last2=Blattner|first2=FR|last3=Gurushidze|first3=M|title=New classification of Allium L. subg. Melanocrommyum (Webb & Berthel) Rouy (Alliaceae) based on molecular and morphological characters|journal=Phyton|date=2010|volume=49|pages=145–220 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/234074694|access-date=13 October 2015|ref={{harvid|Fritsch et al.|2010}}}}
  • {{cite journal|last1=Gurushidze|first1=Maia|last2=Fritsch|first2=Reinhard M|last3=Blattner|first3=Frank R|title=Species-level phylogeny of Allium subgenus Melanocrommyum: Incomplete lineage sorting, hybridization and trnF gene duplication|journal=Taxon|date=2010|volume=59|issue=3|pages=829–840|doi=10.1002/tax.593012}}

; Line 3

  • {{cite journal|last1=Dubouzet|first1=J. G.|last2=Shinoda|first2=K.|last3=Murata|first3=N.|title=Phylogeny of Allium L. subgenus Rhizirideum (G. Don ex Koch) Wendelbo according to dot blot hybridization with randomly amplified DNA probes|journal=Theoretical and Applied Genetics|date=17 December 1997|volume=95|issue=8|pages=1223–1228|doi=10.1007/s001220050685|s2cid=33083704}}
  • {{cite journal|last1=van Raamsdonk|first1=L.W.D.|last2=Vrielink-van Ginkel|first2=M.|last3=Kik|first3=C. |title=Phylogeny reconstruction and hybrid analysis in Allium subgenus Rhizirideum |journal=Theoretical and Applied Genetics|date=12 May 2000|volume=100|issue=7|pages=1000–1009|doi=10.1007/s001220051381|s2cid=12912078 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/40138669}}

:subgen. Allium

  • {{cite journal | last1 = Hirschegger | first1 = Pablo | last2 = Jaške | first2 = Jernej | last3 = Trontelj | first3 = Peter | last4 = Bohanec | first4 = Borut | year = 2010 | title = Origins of Allium ampeloprasum horticultural groups and a molecular phylogeny of the section Allium (Allium; Alliaceae)". | journal = Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution | volume = 54 | issue = 2| pages = 488–497 | doi = 10.1016/j.ympev.2009.08.030 |ref={{harvid|Hirschegger et al.|2010}} | pmid=19733249| bibcode = 2010MolPE..54..488H }}

::sect. Codonoprasum

  • {{cite journal|last1=Biel|first1=Burkhard|last2=Tan|first2=Kit|last3=Tzanoudakis|first3=Dimitrios|title=A new autumn-flowering species of Allium from the island of Sifnos (Cyclades, Greece) |journal=Willdenowia |date=27 February 2006 |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=367–372 |doi=10.3372/wi.36.36132 |s2cid=54003924 |url=http://www.bgbm.fu-berlin.de/sites/default/files/documents/wi36-1Biel%2Bal.pdf}}
  • {{cite journal|last1=Brullo|first1=Salvatore |last2=Guglielmo|first2=Anna |last3=Pavone|first3=Pietro |last4=Salmeri|first4=Cristina |last5=Terrasi|first5=M. Carmen |title=Three new species of Allium sect. Codonoprasum from Greece |journal=Plant Biosystems|date=January 2003|volume=137|issue=2|pages=131–140 |doi=10.1080/11263500312331351391 |bibcode=2003PBios.137..131B |s2cid=86821437 |ref={{harvid|Brullo et al.|2003}}}}
  • {{cite journal|last1=Cesmedziev|first1=I|last2=Terzijski|first2=D|date=1997 |title=A scanning electron microscopic study of the spermoderm in Allium subg. Codonoprasum (Alliaceae) |journal=Bocconea |volume=5|pages=755–758 |url=http://147.163.105.223/bocconea/5-755.pdf}}
  • {{cite journal|last1=Koçyiğit|first1=Mine|last2=Özhatay|first2=Neriman|title=A contribution to the genus Allium L. (Sect. Codonoprasum) in Turkey|journal=Turkish Journal of Botany|date=2010|volume=34 |pages=391–395 |url=http://journals.tubitak.gov.tr/botany/issues/bot-10-34-5/bot-34-5-4-0907-91.pdf|access-date=10 January 2017}}
  • {{cite journal|last1=Koçyiğıt|first1=Mine|last2=Yeşıl|first2=Yeter|last3=Koyuncu|first3=Mehmet |title=Allium dumanii (A. sect. Codonoprasum, Amaryllidaceae), a new species from E Turkey |journal=Willdenowia|date=14 January 2016|volume=46|issue=1|pages=113–119|doi=10.3372/wi.46.46109|s2cid=88440208|ref={{harvid|Koçyiğıt et al.|2016}}|doi-access=free}}
  • {{cite journal|last1=Salmeri|first1=Cristina|last2=Brullo|first2=Cristian|last3=Brullo|first3=Salvatore |last4=Galdo|first4=Giampietro Giusso Del|last5=Moysiyenko|first5=Ivan I.|title=What is Allium paniculatum? Establishing taxonomic and molecular phylogenetic relationships within A. sect. Codonoprasum|journal=Journal of Systematics and Evolution|date=March 2016|volume=54|issue=2|pages=123–135|doi=10.1111/jse.12170|s2cid=83671442|ref={{harvid|Salmeri et al.|2016}}}}
  • {{cite journal|last1=Seregin|first1=Alexey|title=Allium L. sect. Codonoprasum Reichenb. (Alliaceae), a taxonomic and chorological study: what is a taxonomic value of narrow endemics?|journal=Proceedings of the XVII International Botanical Congress. Vienna, Austria, Europe|date=17–23 July 2005|doi=10.13140/2.1.2555.9047 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267463023|access-date=10 January 2017}}
  • {{cite journal|last1=Trigas|first1=Panayiotis|last2=Gregoris|first2=Iatrou|last3=Tzanoudakis |first3=Dimitris|title=Allium apergii sp. nov. (Alliaceae, A. sect. Codonoprasum) from Evvia Island, Greece|journal=Journal of Biological Research|date=January 2010|volume=14|pages=225–229 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267863458}}
  • {{cite journal|last1=Tzanoudakis|first1=Dimitris|last2=Trigas|first2=Panayiotis|title=Allium occultum, a new species of A. sect. Codonoprasum (Amaryllidaceae) from Skiros Island (W Aegean, Greece) |journal=Phytotaxa |date=12 March 2015|volume=202|issue=2|pages=135|doi=10.11646/phytotaxa.202.2.5}}

= Websites =

  • {{cite web|title=Flora of North America|year=2008 |url=http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=1 |access-date=3 October 2016|ref={{harvid|FNA|2008}}}}
  • {{cite web|title=Linnaeus Sexual System|website=CronkLab|publisher=Biodiversity Research Centre, University of British Columbia |url=http://cronklab.wikidot.com/linnaeus-sexual-system |access-date=26 January 2015|ref={{harvid|Linnaeus Sexual System|2015}}}}
  • [http://www.pacificbulbsociety.org/pbswiki/index.php/Allium Pacific Bulb Society: Allium]
  • [http://www.pacificbulbsociety.org/pbswiki/index.php/RhizomatousAlliums Pacific Bulb Society: Rhizomatous Alliums]

== Databases ==

  • {{cite web|last=GRIN|title=GRIN Taxonomy for Plants |publisher=Germplasm Resources Information Network |date=2015 |url=https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/abouttaxonomy.aspx |access-date=8 August 2014}}

{{refend}}

External links

  • {{Commons category-inline|Allium|Allium}}
  • {{Wikispecies-inline|Allium|Allium}}

{{Taxonomy of...}}

Allium