:Energy in Turkey

File:CO2 emissions Turkey.svg

{{See also|Electricity sector in Turkey#Policy and regulation}}

The Energy Market Regulatory Authority was created in 2001.

{{See also|Economy of Turkey#Energy security}}

File:Primary energy supply in Turkey.svg|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220420044311/https://enerji.gov.tr/enerji-isleri-genel-mudurlugu-denge-tablolari|archive-date=20 April 2022}}]]

Turkey meets a quarter of its energy demand from national resources. The Centre for Economics and Foreign Policy Studies (EDAM), a think tank, says that in the 2010s, fossil fuel imports were probably the largest structural vulnerability of the country's economy:{{cite web|title=Turkstream Impact on Turkey's Economy and Energy Security|url=http://edam.org.tr/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/turkstream_report_eng.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181015192849/http://edam.org.tr/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/turkstream_report_eng.pdf|archive-date=15 October 2018|access-date=26 October 2018|publisher="Istanbul Economics" & "The Center for Economics and Foreign Policy" – EDAM}} they cost $41 billion in 2019 representing about a fifth of Turkey's total import bill,{{cite news|url=https://www.dailysabah.com/energy/2020/02/06/turkeys-energy-imports-fall-42-in-2019|title=Turkey's energy import bill falls more than 4% in 2019|date=6 February 2020|newspaper=Daily Sabah|access-date=21 April 2020|archive-date=7 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200207132420/https://www.dailysabah.com/energy/2020/02/06/turkeys-energy-imports-fall-42-in-2019|url-status=live}} and were a large part of the 2018 current account deficit{{cite web |title=Coal Power Plants |url=https://www.coalinturkey.com/coal-power-plants/ |website=Coal in Turkey |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=16 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016131452/https://www.coalinturkey.com/coal-power-plants/ |url-status=live }} and the country's debt problems. Although the country imports 99% of its natural gas and 93% of the petroleum it uses,{{Cite web|title=COVID-19's blow to energy markets|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/analysis/analysis-covid-19s-blow-to-energy-markets/1817106|website=www.aa.com.tr|access-date=5 May 2020|archive-date=28 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200428160122/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/analysis/analysis-covid-19s-blow-to-energy-markets/1817106|url-status=live}} in the early 2020s fossil gas supply was diversified to reduce dependence on Russia.

To secure energy supply, the government built new gas pipelines, and regasification plants. For example, gas supplies from Azerbaijan surpassed those from Russia in 2020.{{Cite web|date=2020-08-21|title=Azerbaijan Becomes Turkey's Top Gas Supplier|url=https://moderndiplomacy.eu/2020/08/21/azerbaijan-becomes-turkeys-top-gas-supplier/|access-date=2021-04-30|website=Modern Diplomacy|language=en-US}} There is a large surplus of electricity generation capacity,{{sfnp|Europe Beyond Coal|2020|p=15}} however the government aims at meeting the forecast increase in demand for electricity in Turkey by building its first nuclear power plant and more solar, wind, hydro and coal-fired power plants.{{cite news |last=Bayraktar |first=Alparslan |title=Analysis: Energy transition in Turkey |url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/analysis-energy-transition-in-turkey-139413 |newspaper=Hürriyet |date=4 December 2018 |access-date=21 April 2020 |archive-date=2 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191202083355/http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/analysis-energy-transition-in-turkey-139413 |url-status=live }} The International Climate Initiative says that, as an oil importer, Turkey can increase security of supply by increasing the proportion of renewable electricity it produces.{{Cite web|url=https://www.cobenefits.info/|title=Cobenefits|language=en-US|access-date=11 March 2020|archive-date=26 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200226191614/https://www.cobenefits.info/|url-status=live}} The International Energy Agency has suggested a carbon market, and EDAM says that in the long term, a carbon tax would reduce import dependency by speeding development of national solar and wind energy.{{cite web |last1=Bavbek |first1=Gökşin |title=Assessing the Potential Effects of a Carbon Tax in Turkey |page=9 |url=http://edam.org.tr/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/EDAM_CarbonTaxEffects_October2016.pdf |website=EDAM Energy and Climate Change Climate Action Paper Series 2016/6 |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=2 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181002141946/http://edam.org.tr/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/EDAM_CarbonTaxEffects_October2016.pdf |url-status=live }}

Because the Turkish government is very centralised,{{Cite journal|last=Savaşkan|first=Osman|date=2021-02-01|title=Political dynamics of local government reform in a development context: The case of Turkey|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/2399654420943903|journal=Environment and Planning C: Politics and Space|language=en|volume=39|issue=1|pages=204–225|doi=10.1177/2399654420943903|s2cid=225507784|issn=2399-6544}} its energy policy is national. Lack of transmission capacity was one cause of the nationwide blackout in 2015, therefore policy includes improving electricity transmission.{{Cite web|url=https://www.power-technology.com/news/ebrd-electricity-network-expansion-turkey/|title=EBRD to finance electricity distribution network expansion in Turkey|date=20 December 2019|website=Power Technology Energy News and Market Analysis|access-date=12 March 2020|archive-date=9 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200109150027/https://www.power-technology.com/news/ebrd-electricity-network-expansion-turkey/|url-status=live}} As well as natural gas storage and regasification plants to convert imported liquid natural gas (LNG) to natural gas,{{Cite news|url=https://www.dailysabah.com/energy/2020/02/11/number-of-licenses-issued-for-gas-exports-from-turkey-reaches-18|title=Number of licenses issued for gas exports from Turkey reaches 18|publisher=Anadolu Agency|date=11 February 2020|newspaper=Daily Sabah|access-date=21 April 2020|archive-date=12 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200212143218/https://www.dailysabah.com/energy/2020/02/11/number-of-licenses-issued-for-gas-exports-from-turkey-reaches-18|url-status=live}} the government supports pumped-storage hydroelectricity for long term energy storage.{{Cite web|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/energy/finance/turkey-china-us-to-build-pumped-storage-hydro-plant/28929|title=Turkey, China, US to build pumped-storage hydro plant|website=www.aa.com.tr|access-date=13 April 2020|archive-date=11 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411093745/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/energy/finance/turkey-china-us-to-build-pumped-storage-hydro-plant/28929|url-status=live}}

In 2020, renewables generated 40% of Turkey's electricity, which reduced gas import costs: but, being mainly hydroelectricity, the amount that can be produced is vulnerable to drought.{{Cite web|date=2021-02-08|title=Drought ramps up power output from gas in Turkey in 2020|url=https://www.dailysabah.com/business/energy/drought-ramps-up-power-output-from-gas-in-turkey-in-2020|url-status=live|access-date=2021-05-21|website=Daily Sabah|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707110520/https://www.dailysabah.com/business/energy/drought-ramps-up-power-output-from-gas-in-turkey-in-2020|archive-date=7 July 2022}} According to Hülya Saygılı, an economist at Turkey's central bank, although imports of solar and wind power components accounted for 12% of import costs in 2017, in EU countries this is largely due to one-time setup costs. She said that compared with Italy and Greece, Turkey has not invested enough in solar and wind power.{{cite web |last1=Saygılı |first1=Hülya |title=Renewable Energy Use in Turkey |url=http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/wps/wcm/connect/blog/en/main+menu/analyses/renewable_energy_us_+in_turkey |website=CBRT blog |date=June 2018 |access-date=17 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190218021333/http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/wps/wcm/connect/blog/en/main+menu/analyses/renewable_energy_us_+in_turkey |archive-date=18 February 2019 |url-status=live }}

File:KarabukGES.jpg

The National Energy Efficiency plan aims to decrease Turkey's energy intensity—the energy required to produce ₺1 (Turkish lira) of GDP—to the OECD average by 2023.{{sfnp|Ayas|2020|p=15}} Despite the Energy Efficiency Law and a target to reduce its energy intensity by at least 20% between 2011 and 2023; between 2005 and 2015, Turkey's energy intensity increased by seven per cent.{{cite web |title=A New Strategy for EU-Turkey Energy Cooperation |url=http://turkishpolicy.com/article/938/a-new-strategy-for-eu-turkey-energy-cooperation |publisher=Turkish Policy Quarterly |date=27 November 2018 |access-date=21 April 2020 |archive-date=21 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181221230735/http://turkishpolicy.com/article/938/a-new-strategy-for-eu-turkey-energy-cooperation |url-status=live }} According to one study, if energy policy was changed—most importantly the removal of fossil fuel subsidies—at least 20% of energy costs could be saved,{{Cite web|url=https://www.ifri.org/sites/default/files/atoms/files/sever_mediterranean_renewables_2019.pdf|title=Accelerating the Energy Transition in the Southern Mediterranean|last=Sever|first=S. Duygu|access-date=21 April 2020|archive-date=2 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191102195827/https://www.ifri.org/sites/default/files/atoms/files/sever_mediterranean_renewables_2019.pdf|url-status=live}} and according to the Chamber of Mechanical Engineers, the energy required for buildings could be cut by half. In 2019, Energy Minister Fatih Dönmez said that improvement of the energy efficiency of public buildings should take the lead and that efficiency improvements are an important source of jobs.{{Cite news|url=https://www.dailysabah.com/energy/2019/12/08/energy-efficiency-to-raise-savings-in-public-sector|title=Energy efficiency to raise savings in public sector|date=8 December 2019|newspaper=Daily Sabah|access-date=21 April 2020|archive-date=9 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191209161803/https://www.dailysabah.com/energy/2019/12/08/energy-efficiency-to-raise-savings-in-public-sector|url-status=live}} It has been suggested that more specific energy efficiency targets for buildings are needed.{{Cite web|date=June 2019|title=Enhancing Turkey's policy framework for energy efficiency of buildings, and recommendations for the way forward based on international experiences|url=https://www.shura.org.tr/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/Buildings-Energy-Efficiency-Policy-Working-Paper-3.pdf|publisher=Buildings Performance Institute Europe and SHURA Energy Transition Center}}

According to the Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources, Turkey has the potential to cut 15% to 20% of total consumption through energy conservation.{{cite web|title=Turkey Promotes Energy Conservation|url=https://www.climateinvestmentfunds.org/cif/node/3360|access-date=8 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140308161510/https://www.climateinvestmentfunds.org/cif/node/3360|archive-date=8 March 2014|url-status=dead}}

In the 21st century, Turkey's fossil fuel subsidies are around 0.2% of GDP,{{cite journal |title=Fossil fuel subsidies as a lose-lose: Fiscal and environmental burdens in Turkey |journal=New Perspectives on Turkey |volume=58 |pages=93–124 |doi=10.1017/npt.2018.7 |year=2018 |last1=Acar |first1=Sevil |last2=Challe |first2=Sarah |last3=Christopoulos |first3=Stamatios |last4=Christo |first4=Giovanna |s2cid=149594404 |url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/ca3d/038634a2b6bf7886688e17840aa7dc19652d.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227003746/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/ca3d/038634a2b6bf7886688e17840aa7dc19652d.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2020-02-27 }}{{Cite report|url=https://about.bnef.com/blog/new-report-finds-g-20-member-countries-support-fossil-fuels-at-levels-untenable-to-achieve-paris-agreement-goals/|title=Climate Policy Factbook|date=2021-07-20|publisher=BloombergNEF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707110859/https://about.bnef.com/blog/new-report-finds-g-20-member-countries-support-fossil-fuels-at-levels-untenable-to-achieve-paris-agreement-goals/|archive-date=7 July 2022}}{{rp|29}} including at least US$14 billion (US$169 per person) between January 2020 and September 2021.{{Cite web|title=Turkey|url=https://www.energypolicytracker.org/country/turkey/|access-date=2021-11-15|website=Energy Policy Tracker|language=en-US}} If unpaid damages (such as health damage from air pollution) are included road fuel subsidy is estimated at over 400 dollars per person per year and for all fossil fuels over one thousand dollars.{{Cite news |last=Taylor |first=Damian CarringtonMatthew |title=Revealed: the 'carbon bombs' set to trigger catastrophic climate breakdown |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/ng-interactive/2022/may/11/fossil-fuel-carbon-bombs-climate-breakdown-oil-gas |access-date=2022-05-13 |website=the Guardian |date=11 May 2022 |language=en}} Data on finance for fossil fuels by state-owned banks and export credit agencies is not public.{{rp|32}} The energy minister Fatih Dönmez supports coal{{cite news |title=Analysis: New Turkish energy minister bullish for coal – but lira weakness limits market |url=https://www.spglobal.com/platts/en/market-insights/latest-news/coal/071218-analysis-new-turkish-energy-minister-bullish-for-coal-but-lira-weakness-limits-market |publisher=S & P Global |date=12 Jul 2018 |access-date=21 April 2020 |archive-date=29 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029161932/https://www.spglobal.com/platts/en/market-insights/latest-news/coal/071218-analysis-new-turkish-energy-minister-bullish-for-coal-but-lira-weakness-limits-market |url-status=live }}{{cite news |title=Court says 'environment report necessary' for planned coal mine in western Turkey |url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/court-says-environment-report-necessary-for-planned-new-coal-mine-in-western-turkey-135665 |agency=Demirören News Agency |date=10 August 2018 |access-date=21 April 2020 |archive-date=16 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016164949/http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/court-says-environment-report-necessary-for-planned-new-coal-mine-in-western-turkey-135665 |url-status=live }} and most energy subsidies are for coal,[http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=FFS_TUR "Fossil Fuel Support – TUR"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190831204626/https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=FFS_TUR |date=31 August 2019 }}, OECD, accessed August 2018. which the OECD has strongly criticised.{{Cite web|url=https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/058ca239-en/index.html?itemId=/content/publication/058ca239-en&_csp_=733ba7b0813af580090c8c6aac25027b&itemIGO=oecd&itemContentType=book#section-d1e169|title=Taxing Energy Use 2019 : Using Taxes for Climate Action|website=OECD|access-date=13 April 2020|archive-date=12 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112164837/https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/058ca239-en/index.html?itemId=%2Fcontent%2Fpublication%2F058ca239-en&_csp_=733ba7b0813af580090c8c6aac25027b&itemIGO=oecd&itemContentType=book#section-d1e169|url-status=live}} Capacity mechanism payments to coal-fired power stations in Turkey in 2019 totalled ₺720 million (US${{To USD round|720|TUR|2019|sf=2}} million) compared to ₺542 million (US${{To USD round|542|TUR|2019|sf=2}} million) to gas-fired power stations in Turkey.{{Cite news|url=https://www.enerjigunlugu.net/2019da-40-santrale-1-6-milyar-lira-destek-35998h.htm|title=Kapasite mekanizmasıyla 2019'da 40 santrale 1.6 milyar lira ödendi|date=6 February 2020|publisher=Enerji Günlüğü|language=tr|access-date=21 April 2020|archive-date=12 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112164818/https://www.enerjigunlugu.net/2019da-40-santrale-1-6-milyar-lira-destek-35998h.htm|url-status=live}} In 2022 these payments totalled over US$200 million.{{Cite web |last=Ergur |first=Semih |date=2023-05-12 |title=Turkey Spent Over $200,000,000 in Fossil Fuel Subsidies in 2022 |url=https://www.climatescorecard.org/2023/05/turkey-spent-over-200000000-in-fossil-fuel-subsidies-in-2022/ |access-date=2023-09-25 |website=Climate Scorecard |language=en-US}} {{As of|2020}}, the tax per unit energy on gasoline was higher than diesel,{{Cite web|url=https://www.oecd.org/tax/tax-policy/taxing-energy-use-turkey.pdf|title=Taxing Energy Use 2019: Country Note – Turkey|website=OECD|access-date=11 January 2021|archive-date=24 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924153831/https://www.oecd.org/tax/tax-policy/taxing-energy-use-turkey.pdf|url-status=live}} despite diesel cars on average emitting more lung damaging NOx (nitrogen oxide).{{Cite news|last=Leggett|first=Theo|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-42666596|title=Reality Check: Are diesel cars always the most harmful?|date=21 January 2018|work=BBC News|access-date=13 April 2020|archive-date=16 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200716102440/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-42666596|url-status=live}}

{{Excerpt|Oil in Turkey#Subsidies and taxes}}

{{Excerpt|Gas in Turkey#Subsidies and taxes}}

Coal in Turkey is heavily subsidized.{{sfnp|Şahin|2018|p=37}} {{As of|2019}}, the government aims to keep the share of coal in the energy portfolio at around the same level in the medium to long term.{{sfnp|Tech review 7th communication|2019|p=20}} Coal's place in the government's energy policy was detailed in 2019 by the Foundation for Political, Economic and Social Research (SETA), an organisation that lobbies for the Turkish government.{{cite web |title=Yerli̇ Ve Mi̇lli̇ Enerji̇ Poli̇ti̇kaları Ekseni̇nde Kömür|trans-title=Coal on the Axis of Domestic and National Energy Policies |url=https://setav.org/assets/uploads/2019/01/A265.pdf |publisher=SETAV |access-date=13 February 2019 |archive-date=14 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190214061430/https://setav.org/assets/uploads/2019/01/A265.pdf |url-status=live }} Despite protests against coal power plants,{{cite web|title=Protest against coal power at Sirnak (Turkish)|url=http://www.greenpeace.org/turkey/tr/news/sirnaklilardan-enerji-bakanina-mesaj-020214/|access-date=21 April 2020|archive-date=11 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190911045146/http://www.greenpeace.org/turkey/tr/news/sirnaklilardan-enerji-bakanina-mesaj-020214/|url-status=live}} construction of Emba Hunutlu was subsidized,{{Cite web|url=https://www.banktrack.org/project/emba_hunutlu_coal_power_plant|title=Emba Hunutlu coal power plant|website=Banktrack|language=en|access-date=11 March 2020|archive-date=21 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221135122/https://www.banktrack.org/project/emba_hunutlu_coal_power_plant|url-status=live}} and in 2021 Turkey's sovereign wealth fund was still hoping for Chinese partners to start constructing Afşin-Elibistan C.{{Cite web|title=Afşin'de Yapılacak Olan C Termik Santral İçin Çin'li Ortaklar!|trans-title=Chinese partners for Afşin's to be constructed C thermal power plant!|url=https://www.efsushaber.com/2021/04/14/afsinde-yapilacak-olan-c-termik-santral-icin-cinli-ortaklar/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-05-21|website=www.efsushaber.com|language=tr|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707111106/https://www.efsushaber.com/2021/04/14/afsinde-yapilacak-olan-c-termik-santral-icin-cinli-ortaklar/|archive-date=7 July 2022}} Even in cities where natural gas is available, the government supports poor households with free coal. Electricity from plants which are 40% efficient and burn imported coal never costs less than around 25 USD/MWh to generate: because if the coal costs under 70 USD/tonne it is taxed to bring it up to that price.{{Cite web|date=2021-02-23|title=Turkish coal plants to widen their cost advantage in 2Q|url=https://www.argusmedia.com/en/news/2189680-turkish-coal-plants-to-widen-their-cost-advantage-in-2q|access-date=2021-03-01|website=www.argusmedia.com}}

Without subsidies, new and some existing coal power would be unprofitable, and it is claimed that path dependence or past decisions, political influence, and distorted markets are why they continue.{{Cite web|url=https://www.vox.com/energy-and-environment/2020/3/14/21177941/climate-change-coal-renewable-energy|title=4 astonishing signs of coal's declining economic viability|last=Roberts|first=David|date=14 March 2020|website=Vox|language=en|access-date=21 March 2020|archive-date=18 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200318021145/https://www.vox.com/energy-and-environment/2020/3/14/21177941/climate-change-coal-renewable-energy|url-status=live}} Although the coal industry and the government are said to have a close relationship, the falling cost of wind and solar may increase pressure against maintaining coal subsidies.{{cite journal |last1=Sencan |first1=Gokce |title=Political Reasoning and Mechanisms behind Turkey's Coal-Intensive Energy Policy in the Era of Renewables |publisher=University of California, Santa Barbara |date=2017 |doi=10.13140/RG.2.2.24500.86407 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/314827361 |access-date=21 April 2020 |archive-date=12 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112164838/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/314827361_Political_Reasoning_and_Mechanisms_behind_Turkey%27s_Coal-Intensive_Energy_Policy_in_the_Era_of_Renewables |url-status=live }} Hydroelectric plants, especially new ones, are sometimes controversial in local, international and environmental politics.{{cite journal |last1=Eren |first1=Ayşen |title=Transformation of the water-energy nexus in Turkey: Re-imagining hydroelectricity infrastructure |journal=Energy Research & Social Science |date=July 2018 |volume=41 |pages=22–31 |doi=10.1016/j.erss.2018.04.013 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2018ERSS...41...22E }} The EU might persuade Turkey to cooperate on climate change by supporting policies that reduce the country's external energy dependency in a sustainable manner.

State energy companies include Eti Mine, Turkish Coal Enterprises, Turkish Hard Coal Enterprises, the Electricity Generation Company, BOTAŞ and TEİAŞ —the electricity trading and transmission company.{{cite news |title=Turkey's state energy companies to invest $1.5B in 2019 |url=https://www.dailysabah.com/energy/2018/10/18/turkeys-state-energy-companies-to-invest-15b-in-2019 |newspaper=Daily Sabah |date=18 October 2018 |access-date=21 April 2020 |archive-date=28 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028212908/https://www.dailysabah.com/energy/2018/10/18/turkeys-state-energy-companies-to-invest-15b-in-2019 |url-status=live }} The government holds a quarter of total installed electricity supply and often offers prices below market levels.{{cite news |last1=Pamuk |first1=Humeyra |title=Once darling of foreign investors, Turkey's power market struggles |url=https://in.mobile.reuters.com/article/amp/idINKCN1LQ1S3 |access-date=11 October 2018 |work=Reuters |archive-date=11 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181011133513/https://in.mobile.reuters.com/article/amp/idINKCN1LQ1S3 |url-status=live }} Energy deals, such as those with Russia, are said to be politically motivated.{{Cite web |last1=Ergenç |first1=Ceren |last2=Göçer |first2=Derya |date=5 May 2023 |title=China's Response to Türkiye's Volatile Authoritarianism |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2023/05/chinas-response-to-turkiyes-volatile-authoritarianism?lang=en |website=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace}}

{{See also|Nuclear energy in Turkey|Renewable energy in Turkey}}

In 2024 the long-term climate plan said that by 2053, the net zero target year, renewables would supply half of primary energy.{{Cite report |url=https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/Turkiye_Long_Term_Climate_Strategy.pdf |title=2053 long term climate strategy |date=November 2024 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Urbanisation and Climate Change}}{{Rp|location=section 4.8}}The World Bank has estimated the cost and benefits, but has suggested government do far more detailed planning.{{Cite report |url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/37521 |title=Türkiye - Country Climate and Development Report |date=2022-06-13 |publisher=World Bank |language=en}} File:Wind turbines on Nurdağı 02.jpg ]]

According to the International Renewable Energy Agency and academic study, increasing the share of renewable energy could make the country more energy independent and increase employment{{sfnp|Akyazı et al|2020|p=6}} especially in Turkey's solar PV and solar heating industries.{{cite web |title=Renewable Energy and Jobs Annual Review 2018 |url=https://irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2018/May/IRENA_RE_Jobs_Annual_Review_2018.pdf |publisher=International Renewable Energy Agency |access-date=28 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190121203527/https://irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2018/May/IRENA_RE_Jobs_Annual_Review_2018.pdf |archive-date=21 January 2019 |url-status=live }} SHURA Energy Transition Center said in 2018 that a plan for solar power in Turkey beyond 2023 is needed.{{cite report|url=https://www.shura.org.tr/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/SHURA_Lessons-From-Global-Experiences-for-Accelerating-Energy-Transition-in-Turkey-Through-Solar-and-Wind-Power_Full-Report.pdf|title=Lessons from global experiences for accelerating energy transition in Turkey through solar and wind power|publisher=Shura|access-date=19 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190220063020/https://www.shura.org.tr/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/SHURA_Lessons-From-Global-Experiences-for-Accelerating-Energy-Transition-in-Turkey-Through-Solar-and-Wind-Power_Full-Report.pdf|archive-date=20 February 2019|url-status=live}} In an attempt to reduce fossil fuel imports the government supports local production of electric cars and solar cells.{{Cite web|title=Turkey to start local solar cell production on June 15|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/economy/turkey-to-start-local-solar-cell-production-on-june-15/1764779|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200323190135/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/economy/turkey-to-start-local-solar-cell-production-on-june-15/1764779|archive-date=23 March 2020|access-date=13 April 2020|website=www.aa.com.tr}} Some academics say that funding for renewables such as wind should be decentralized.{{Cite web |last=Grigoriadis |first=Theocharis N. |title=GREEN ENERGY & REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT II: POLICY & MARKET DESIGN CONSTRAINTS FOR THE TURKISH ENERGY SYSTEM |url=https://ipc.sabanciuniv.edu/Content/Images/CKeditorImages/20221202-16124740.pdf}}

For three decades from 1990, carbon intensity remained almost constant around 61 tCO2/TJ (tons of carbon dioxide per terajoule). Nuclear safety regulations and human resources could be improved{{Cite web|url=http://edam.org.tr/en/managing-the-risks-of-nuclear-energy-the-turkish-case/|title=Managing the Risks of Nuclear Energy: The Turkish Case|access-date=11 March 2020|archive-date=1 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201001014632/https://edam.org.tr/en/managing-the-risks-of-nuclear-energy-the-turkish-case/|url-status=live}} by cooperation with Euratom ( European Atomic Energy Community). In 2018, a new regulator was set up for nuclear power safety, and $0.15 per kWh of generated electricity will be set aside for waste management.{{cite news |title=Turkey sets up new nuclear regulator |url=http://www.neimagazine.com/news/newsturkey-sets-up-new-nuclear-regulator-6244883 |work=Nuclear Engineering International |date=13 July 2018 |access-date=11 January 2021 |archive-date=9 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109024823/https://www.neimagazine.com/news/newsturkey-sets-up-new-nuclear-regulator-6244883 |url-status=live }}

{{main|Air pollution in Turkey|Greenhouse gas emissions by Turkey|Climate change in Turkey}}

Retrofitting equipment for pollution control, such as flue-gas desulfurization at old lignite-fuelled plants like Soma power station,{{cite web |title=Our Continuing Investments |url=http://www.konyaseker.com.tr/en/icerik/yatirimlarimiz/6598/Our%20Continuing%20Investments |publisher=Konya Şeker |access-date=18 October 2018 |archive-date=10 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181110171639/http://konyaseker.com.tr/en/icerik/yatirimlarimiz/6598/Our%20Continuing%20Investments |url-status=live }} might not be financially possible, as they use outdated technology.{{cite web|url=http://www.tepav.org.tr/upload/files/haber/1427475571-5.Turkey___s_Compliance_with_the_Industrial_Emissions_Directive.pdf|title=Turkey's Compliance with the Industrial Emissions Directive|publisher=tepav|access-date=18 October 2018|archive-date=31 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190831204647/https://www.tepav.org.tr/upload/files/haber/1427475571-5.Turkey___s_Compliance_with_the_Industrial_Emissions_Directive.pdf|url-status=live}} The government collects data on sulfur dioxide (SO₂), NO_x and particulate air pollution from each large plant,{{cite web |last1=Hatipoglu |first1=Hakan |title=Inventory of LCPs in Turkey LCP Database explained and explored |url=https://byt.cevre.gov.tr/Pictures/Files/Editor/document/October%202015/1.5%20-%20Hakan%20-%20LCP%20Database%20-%20EN.pdf |access-date=18 October 2018 |archive-date=19 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181019040912/https://byt.cevre.gov.tr/Pictures/Files/Editor/document/October%202015/1.5%20-%20Hakan%20-%20LCP%20Database%20-%20EN.pdf |url-status=live }} but it is not published.

The energy policy aim of reducing imports (e.g. of gas) conflicts with the climate change policy aim of reducing the emission of greenhouse gases as some local resources (e.g. lignite) emit a lot of {{CO2}}. According to Ümit Şahin, who teaches climate change at Sabancı University, Turkey must abandon fossil fuel completely and switch to 100% renewable energy by 2050.{{sfnp|ŞahinTürkkan|2019|p=30}}

{{See also|Electricity sector in Turkey#Economics and finance}}

File:Renewable energy increases employment in Turkey.jpg

Turkey's energy trade deficit was over $US80 billion in 2022, causing a large foreign trade deficit.{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2023-01-31 |title=Turkey's trade deficit jumps 137 per cent in 2022 |url=https://www.duvarenglish.com/turkeys-trade-deficit-jumps-137-percent-in-2022-news-61745 |access-date=2023-06-12 |website=Duvar |language=}} Europe supports energy efficiency and renewable energy via the €1 billion Mid-size Sustainable Energy Financing Facility (MidSEFF) to finance investments in these areas.{{Cite web |title=Turkey Mid-Size Sustainable Energy Financing Facility (MidSEFF) |url=https://www.stantec.com/en/projects/turkey-projects/turkey-mid-size-sustainable-energy-financing-facility |access-date=12 January 2021 |website=Stantec |archive-date=24 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201024233113/https://www.stantec.com/en/projects/turkey-projects/turkey-mid-size-sustainable-energy-financing-facility |url-status=live }} Energy subsidies amounted to 200 billion lira in 2021.{{Cite news |last1=Devranoglu |first1=Nevzat |last2=Butler |first2=Daren |date=2022-12-30 |title=Factbox: Turkey's raft of pre-election spending to swell budget |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/turkeys-raft-pre-election-spending-swell-budget-2022-12-30/ |access-date=2022-12-31}} Up to 150kWh per month of free electricity is provided to two million poor families.{{cite news |title=2 milyon 22 bin ailenin 80 liraya kadar elektrik faturasını devlet ödeyecek |url=http://www.diken.com.tr/1-martta-basliyor-2-milyon-22-bin-ailenin-80-liraya-kadar-faturasini-devlet-odeyecek/ |work=Diken |date=28 February 2019 |access-date=21 April 2020 |archive-date=28 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190228100627/http://www.diken.com.tr/1-martta-basliyor-2-milyon-22-bin-ailenin-80-liraya-kadar-faturasini-devlet-odeyecek/ |url-status=live }}

Fatih Birol, the head of the International Energy Agency said in 2019 that, because of its falling price, the focus should be on maximizing onshore wind power in Turkey.{{Cite web|url=https://www.dailysabah.com/energy/2019/12/30/iea-head-turkey-could-benefit-from-energy-resource-glut-in-upcoming-period|title=IEA head: Turkey could benefit from energy resource glut in upcoming period|date=30 December 2019|newspaper=Daily Sabah|access-date=2020-03-12|archive-date=31 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191231155018/https://www.dailysabah.com/energy/2019/12/30/iea-head-turkey-could-benefit-from-energy-resource-glut-in-upcoming-period|url-status=live}} The economics of coal power has been modelled by Carbon Tracker.{{Cite web|url=https://carbontracker.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Global_Coal_Methodology_Vwebsite2.pdf|title=Global Coal Power Economics Model Methodology|access-date=21 April 2020|archive-date=21 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200321192104/https://carbontracker.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Global_Coal_Methodology_Vwebsite2.pdf|url-status=live}} They estimate that for new plants both wind and solar is already cheaper than coal power. And they forecast that existing coal plants will be more expensive than new solar by 2023 and new wind by 2027.{{Cite web|url=https://carbontracker.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Maps_5_Logo.pdf|title=Wind vs. Coal Power i Turkey/Solar PV vs. Coal in Turkey|date=2020|website=Carbon Tracker|access-date=21 April 2020|archive-date=18 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200318021148/https://carbontracker.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Maps_5_Logo.pdf|url-status=live}}

Most energy deals in 2019 were for renewables, and over half the investment in these was from outside the country.{{Cite report|publisher=PricewaterhouseCoopers|title=Energy Deals 2019|url=https://www.pwc.com.tr/energy-deals|date=February 2020|access-date=12 January 2021|archive-date=12 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112164833/https://www.pwc.com.tr/energy-deals|url-status=live}} The external costs of fossil fuel consumption in 2018 has been estimated as 1.5% of GDP.{{sfnp|TarantoAydınalp_KöksalDal|2020}} The government sets the price of residential gas and electricity,{{cite news |title=Erdoğan announces discounts on residence electricity and natural gas prices ahead of Turkey's elections |url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/erdogan-announces-discounts-on-residence-electricity-and-natural-gas-prices-ahead-of-elections-140004 |work=Hürriyet Daily News |date=25 December 2018 |access-date=21 April 2020 |archive-date=27 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191227115416/http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/erdogan-announces-discounts-on-residence-electricity-and-natural-gas-prices-ahead-of-elections-140004 |url-status=live }} and {{As of|2018|lc=y}}, for residential consumers, "high cost is the most important problem of Turkey's energy system".{{cite news|date=19 March 2019|title=Voters in Turkey keep energy policy in mind when voting: Survey|work=Hürriyet Daily News|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/voters-keep-energy-policy-in-mind-when-voting-survey-142016|url-status=live|access-date=21 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200609160225/https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/voters-keep-energy-policy-in-mind-when-voting-survey-142016|archive-date=9 June 2020}}

In 2022, the energy import bill was 97 billion USD. Keeping consumer prices low is a political priority. {{Cite web |last=Siccardi |first=Francesco |title=Understanding the Energy Drivers of Turkey's Foreign Policy |url=https://carnegieeurope.eu/2024/02/28/understanding-energy-drivers-of-turkey-s-foreign-policy-pub-91733}} In 2024 Shura estimated the costs of moving to clean energy at about half the benefits, which are mostly due to reduced air pollution and carbon emissions.{{Cite web |title=Net Zero 2053: The Socioeconomic Impact of Transitioning to Carbon-Free Energy in Türkiye |url=https://shura.org.tr/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/SHURA-2024-10-Rapor-Net-Sifir-2053_SosyoekonomikEtkiler_ENG.pdf}}

{{Main|Coal in Turkey}}

File:Tufanbeyli Termik Santrali.jpg]]

Coal supplies over a quarter of Turkey's primary energy.{{Cite web|url=https://www.iea.org/countries/turkey|title=Total primary energy supply (TPES) by source, Turkey|website=International Energy Agency|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200401110037/https://www.iea.org/countries/turkey|archive-date=1 April 2020|access-date=28 March 2020}} Every year, thousands of people die prematurely from coal-related causes, the most common of which is local air pollution.

Most coal mined in Turkey is lignite (brown coal), which is more polluting than other types of coal.{{cite web |title=Lignite coal – health effects and recommendations from the health sector |url=https://www.env-health.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/HEAL-Lignite-Briefing-en_web.pdf |publisher=Health and Environment Alliance (HEAL) |date=December 2018 |access-date=10 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181211010345/https://www.env-health.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/HEAL-Lignite-Briefing-en_web.pdf |archive-date=11 December 2018 |url-status=live }} Turkey's energy policy encourages mining lignite for coal-fired power stations to reduce gas imports;{{cite web|url=https://enerji.gov.tr/info-banknatural-resourcescoal|title=Coal|publisher=Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources (Turkey)|access-date=1 November 2020|archive-date=12 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112164827/https://enerji.gov.tr/info-banknatural-resourcescoal|url-status=live}} and coal supplies over 40% of domestic energy production.{{sfnp|Ersoy|2019|p=5}} Mining peaked in 2018, at over 100 million tonnes,{{cite news |title=Turkey breaks local coal production record in 2018 |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/economy/turkey-breaks-local-coal-production-record-in-2018/1366302 |agency=Anadolu Agency |date=16 January 2019 |access-date=2 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190203085042/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/economy/turkey-breaks-local-coal-production-record-in-2018/1366302 |archive-date=3 February 2019 |url-status=live }} and declined considerably in 2019. In contrast to local lignite production, Turkey imports almost all of the bituminous coal it uses. The largest coalfield in Turkey is Elbistan.{{cite news |title=Turkey transfers operating rights of seven coal fields to private companies |url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-transfers-operating-rights-of-seven-coal-fields-to-private-companies-137794 |work=Hürriyet Daily News |date=12 October 2018 |access-date=12 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181012103505/http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-transfers-operating-rights-of-seven-coal-fields-to-private-companies-137794 |archive-date=12 October 2018 |url-status=live }}

{{Excerpt|Oil in Turkey}}

{{Excerpt|Gas in Turkey}}

{{Turkey nuke plant map}}

{{Main|Nuclear power in Turkey}}

There is no nuclear power in Turkey yet, but Akkuyu Nuclear Power Plant is being built and is expected to start selling power in 2023. The nuclear power debate has a long history, with the 2018 construction start in Mersin Province being the sixth major attempt to build a nuclear power plant since 1960.{{Cite journal|last=Aydın|first=Cem İskender|date=1 January 2020|title=Nuclear energy debate in Turkey: Stakeholders, policy alternatives, and governance issues|journal=Energy Policy|volume=136|pages=111041|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2019.111041|issn=0301-4215|doi-access=free|bibcode=2020EnPol.13611041A }}

Plans for a nuclear plant in Sinop and another at İğneada have stalled.{{cite web |title=Nuclear Power in Turkey |url=https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-t-z/turkey.aspx |website=www.world-nuclear.org |publisher=World Nuclear Association |access-date=5 January 2021 |archive-date=30 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130172546/https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-t-z/turkey.aspx |url-status=live }}

In 2021, the Metropolitan Municipality of Istanbul opened country's first waste-to-energy plant. The Istanbul Waste Power Plant is capable of generating 175 MW⋅h electrical and 175 MW⋅h thermal energy by 3,000 tons waste incineration daily.

{{Main|Renewable energy in Turkey}}

File:TR Izmir asv2020-02 img01 Basmane Station.jpg

In 2022 over 40% of renewable energy was geothermal.{{Rp|page=iii}}

Although there are plenty of renewable resources for energy in Turkey,{{Cite journal | last1 = Dawood | first1 = Kamran | doi = 10.17694/bajece.06954 | title = Hybrid wind-solar reliable solution for Turkey to meet electric demand | journal = Balkan Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering | volume = 4 | issue = 2 | pages = 62–66 | year = 2016 | doi-broken-date = 1 November 2024 | url = https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/bajece/issue/36581/415798 | access-date = 12 January 2021 | archive-date = 12 January 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210112164830/https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/bajece/issue/36581/415798 | url-status = live }} for electricity only hydropower has been developed near or to the full, supplying an average of about 20% of Turkey's national electricity supply, with other renewables supplying 12%.{{cite web|title=Electricity|url=https://enerji.gov.tr/Electricity-infobank|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200716141043/https://enerji.gov.tr/Electricity-infobank|archive-date=16 July 2020|access-date=16 November 2020|publisher=Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources (Turkey)}} However, due to drought in Turkey, hydro has supplied less electricity than usual in recent years, compared to around a third in a wet year.{{cite news |title=Turkish authorities aim to boost renewable power generation to 50 per cent by 2023 |url=https://www.dailysabah.com/energy/2018/08/25/turkish-authorities-aim-to-boost-renewable-power-generation-to-50-percent-by-2023 |work=Daily Sabah |date=24 August 2018 |access-date=12 January 2021 |archive-date=24 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201124125451/https://www.dailysabah.com/energy/2018/08/25/turkish-authorities-aim-to-boost-renewable-power-generation-to-50-percent-by-2023 |url-status=live }} Turkey has invested less in solar and wind power than similar Mediterranean countries.{{cite web |last1=Saygılı |first1=Hülya |title=Renewable Energy Use in Turkey |url=http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/wps/wcm/connect/blog/en/main+menu/analyses/renewable_energy_us_+in_turkey |website=CBRT blog |date=June 2018 |access-date=17 February 2019 |archive-date=18 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190218021333/http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/wps/wcm/connect/blog/en/main+menu/analyses/renewable_energy_us_+in_turkey |url-status=live }} Turkey is a net exporter of wind power equipment, but a net importer of solar power equipment.{{cite web |title=How Turkey Can Ensure a Successful Energy Transition |date=10 July 2018 |url=https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/security/reports/2018/07/10/453281/turkey-can-ensure-successful-energy-transition/ |publisher=Center for American Progress |access-date=19 February 2019 |archive-date=20 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190220063254/https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/security/reports/2018/07/10/453281/turkey-can-ensure-successful-energy-transition/ |url-status=live }}

By greatly increasing its production of solar power in the south and wind power in the west, the country's entire energy demand could be met from renewable sources by 2050.{{Cite journal|last1=Kilickaplan|first1=Anil|last2=Bogdanov|first2=Dmitrii|last3=Peker|first3=Onur|last4=Caldera|first4=Upeksha|last5=Aghahosseini|first5=Arman|last6=Breyer|first6=Christian|date=2017-12-01|title=An energy transition pathway for Turkey to achieve 100% renewable energy powered electricity, desalination and non-energetic industrial gas demand sectors by 2050|journal=Solar Energy|volume=158|pages=218–235|doi=10.1016/j.solener.2017.09.030|bibcode=2017SoEn..158..218K|issn=0038-092X}}

Consumption of energy in Turkey is around the world average of about seventy gigajoules (GJ) per person per year.{{Cite web|title=Energy use per person|url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/per-capita-energy-use|access-date=2020-12-02|website=Our World in Data|archive-date=28 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128155350/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/per-capita-energy-use|url-status=live}} In total Turkey uses about six billion GJ of primary energy per year—{{Cite report|title=Turkey, Country Profile 2020|url=https://www.climate-transparency.org/media/turkey-country-profile-2020|year=2020|website=Climate Transparency|access-date=2 December 2020|archive-date=12 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112164845/https://www.climate-transparency.org/media/turkey-country-profile-2020|url-status=live}}{{sfnp|Turkstat report|2020|p=32}} over 80% from fossil fuels.{{sfnp|OECD|2019}} In 2022 almost a third of energy was used by industry, and a similar share by residential and services, with transport using about a quarter.{{Cite report |url=https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/T%C3%BCrkiye_1BTR.pdf |title=First Biennial Transparency Report of Türkiye |date=November 2024 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Urbanisation and Climate Change}}{{Rp|page=ii}} Most energy used in buildings is for heating.{{Cite web|last=Çoban|first=Hasan Hüseyin|date=23 November 2020|title=A 100% Renewable Energy System: The Case of Turkey In The Year 2050|url=https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/1369506|access-date=7 January 2021|archive-date=12 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112164806/https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/1369506|url-status=live}} Heating is the main use for geothermal power in Turkey. Gas consumption is concentrated in the north-west due to the concentration of industry, and the population in Istanbul.{{sfnp|DifiglioGürayMerdan|2020|p=319}} The government introduced a green electricity tariff in 2021.{{Cite web|title=Elektri̇k Pi̇yasasinda Yeni̇lenebi̇li̇r Enerji̇ Kaynak Garanti̇ Belgesi̇ Yönetmeli̇ği̇|url=https://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2020/11/20201114-2.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201116071138/https://resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2020/11/20201114-2.htm|archive-date=16 November 2020|access-date=2 January 2021|website=www.resmigazete.gov.tr}}

{{Excerpt|Electricity sector in Turkey|only=paragraphs}}

{{See also|Coal in Turkey#History}}

Four thousand years ago most of what is now Turkey was forested.{{cite journal |last1=Colak and Rotherham |date=2006 |title=A Review of the Forest Vegetation of Turkey: Its Status Past and Present and Its Future Conservation |url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/64d0/bb39fb92969a5e65770e69ab71cca70cc44d.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Biology and Environment: Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy |volume=106 B |pages=343–354 |doi=10.3318/BIOE.2006.106.3.343 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180914132343/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/64d0/bb39fb92969a5e65770e69ab71cca70cc44d.pdf |archive-date=2018-09-14 |number=3 |s2cid=46955795}} Deforestation occurred during both prehistoric{{cite journal |last1=Willcox |first1=G. H. |date=1974 |title=A History of Deforestation as Indicated by Charcoal Analysis of Four Sites in Eastern Anatolia |journal=Anatolian Studies |volume=24 |pages=117–133 |doi=10.2307/3642603 |jstor=3642603 |s2cid=131664221}} and historic times, including the Roman{{cite journal |last1=Hughes |first1=J.D. |date=2010 |title=Ancient Deforestation Revisited |journal=Journal of the History of Biology |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=43–57 |doi=10.1007/s10739-010-9247-3 |pmid=20669043 |s2cid=24975334}} and Ottoman{{cite web |title=Conference Review: "Environmental History of the Ottoman Empire and Turkey", University of Hamburg, 27-28 October 2017 |url=https://networks.h-net.org/node/19397/discussions/1065869/conference-review-environmental-history-ottoman-empire-and-turkey |website=H Net}} periods. The forests were cut down by people, partly to burn wood for heating.{{Cite journal |last1=Gümüşçü |first1=Osman |last2=Uğur |first2=Abdullah |last3=Aygören |first3=Tülay |date=2014 |title=Deforestation in Sixteenth Century Anatolia: The Case of Hüdavendi̇gar (Bursa) Sancak |url=https://belleten.gov.tr/tam-metin/193/eng |journal=Belleten |volume=78 |issue=281 |pages=167–200 |doi=10.37879/belleten.2014.167 |s2cid=245293300 |issn=0041-4255}}

Coal has been burnt since late Ottoman times.

During the late 20th and early 21st centuries the country was very exposed to oil and gas price volatility.{{Cite web|url=https://www.iea.org/countries/Turkey|title=Turkey – Countries & Regions|website=International Energy Agency|access-date=2020-04-13|archive-date=1 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200401110037/https://www.iea.org/countries/turkey|url-status=live}} Around the turn of the century many gas fired power plants were built, and BOTAŞ extended the national gas pipeline network to most of the urban population.{{Cite web|url=https://www.botas.gov.tr/uploads/galeri/794172-strplan201519_tr.pdf|title=BOTAŞ strategic plan 2015–2019|access-date=21 April 2020|archive-date=12 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112164805/https://www.botas.gov.tr/uploads/galeri/794172-strplan201519_tr.pdf|url-status=live}} As Turkey had almost no natural gas of its own this increased import dependency, particularly on Russian gas.{{Cite web|url=https://www.euronews.com/2020/01/08/turkstream-europe-needs-gas-and-russia-has-it-the-story-behind-that-new-pipeline|title=Europe needs gas and Russia has it – the story behind the new pipeline|last=Bauomy|first=Jasmin|date=8 January 2020|website=Euronews|language=en|access-date=12 March 2020|archive-date=13 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200313171806/https://www.euronews.com/2020/01/08/turkstream-europe-needs-gas-and-russia-has-it-the-story-behind-that-new-pipeline|url-status=live}} Therefore, many more regasification plants and gas storage (such as the gas storage at Lake Tuz) were built in the early 21st century, thus ensuring a much longer buffer should the main international import pipelines be cut for any reason. However growth in Turkish electricity demand has often been overestimated. Although much energy infrastructure was privatised in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, energy is still highly state controlled.

In 2021 the International Energy Agency recommended Turkey includes further electrification in

integrated scenario planning.{{Rp|page=3}}

Mckinsey suggested in 2023 that Turkey may become part of a bloc along with China and India buying fuel from Russia.{{cite news | url=https://www.economist.com/business/2023/10/19/why-big-oil-is-beefing-up-its-trading-arms | title=Why big oil is beefing up its trading arms | newspaper=The Economist }}

• Environmental issues in Turkey
• Historical Tarsus hydroelectric power plant
• Global Energy Monitor

• [https://enerji.gov.tr/Media/Dizin/EIGM/tr/Raporlar/TUEP/T%C3%BCrkiye_National_Energy_Plan.pdf National Energy Plan published 2023]
• [https://www.tskb.com.tr/uploads/file/energy-outlook-final.pdf Energy Outlook 2022] See also :tr:Türkiye Sınai Kalkınma Bankası

{{Reflist|2|refs=

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}}

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{{Commons}}

• [https://seffaflik.epias.com.tr/transparency/index.xhtml Gas and electricity markets, generation and consumption up to date statistics]
• [https://shura.org.tr/en/database/ Shura energy transition graphs]
• [https://www.epdk.gov.tr/Home/En Energy Market Regulatory Authority]
• [https://iicec.sabanciuniv.edu/ Istanbul International Centre for Energy and Climate at Sabancı University]
• [https://www.iea.org/countries/turkey "Turkey"], International Energy Agency
• [http://ggon.org/fossil-tracker/ Global Fossil Infrastructure Tracker]

{{Energy in Turkey}}

{{Asia topic|Energy in}}

{{Asia topic|Energy policy of}}

{{Energy in Europe}}

{{Europe topic|Energy policy of}}

{{Energy by country}}

{{Portalbar|Turkey|Energy}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Turkey, energy in}}

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Category:Climate change in Turkey