Coal in Turkey#Lignite

File:Zonguldak TTK limanı.jpg]]

File:Ottoman submarine Abdulhamid 1886.jpg, built in 1886, was the first submarine in history to fire a torpedo while submerged.{{Cite web|title=The First Barrow Submarines|url=http://rnsubs.co.uk/boats/nordenfelt.html|website=rnsubs.co.uk|access-date=22 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191120190656/http://rnsubs.co.uk/boats/nordenfelt.html|archive-date=20 November 2019|url-status=live}}]]

As the Ottoman Navy expanded its steam powered fleet in the 1840s to help defend the Ottoman Empire against the expanding Russian Empire, it became a national priority to find domestic coalfields. There are several apocryphal stories about the discovery of coal on the Black Sea coast in what is now Zonguldak Province. However, it is certain that the Ereğli Coal Mine Company started production in 1842 and that coal mined in Ereğli and Amasra was used to fuel steamboats.{{cite web |last1=Ayhan |first1=Arda |title=The History of Coal in Turkey and the Story of its Origins |url=http://www.miningturkeymag.com/pdfler/mak-1466845656.pdf |access-date=30 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181201005026/http://www.miningturkeymag.com/pdfler/mak-1466845656.pdf |archive-date=1 December 2018 |url-status=dead }}

In 1848 the Ereğli Coal Basin (now called the Zonguldak Basin) was mapped and claimed by Sultan Abdulmejid I, who later leased it, mainly to foreign merchants. The first customer of Turkey's coal industry was the Ottoman Navy. However, during the Crimean War in the mid-1850s, production was commandeered by the Ottoman Empire's allies, the British Royal Navy, and production increased by importing mining machinery and training Turkish miners.{{Cite web|title=Underground mining operations in Zonguldak coal mines|url=https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/44295|last=Güney|first=Mehmet|date=1966|publisher=Middle East Technical University|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200326090031/https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/44295|archive-date=26 March 2020}} By 1875 the Ottoman Navy had become the third largest in the world and expansion of the mines attracted workers from outside the area, despite the dangerous conditions.{{Citation|last1=Şengül|first1=H. Tarık|title=Zonguldak Coalfield and the Past and Future of Turkish Coal-mining Communities|date=2012|work=Changing Work and Community Identities in European Regions: Perspectives on the Past and Present|pages=154–183|editor-last=Kirk|editor-first=John|series=Identity Studies in the Social Sciences|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK|language=en|doi=10.1057/9780230353916_6|isbn=9780230353916|last2=Aytekin|first2=E. Attila|editor2-last=Contrepois|editor2-first=Sylvie|editor3-last=Jefferys|editor3-first=Steve}}

The mines in Zonguldak were shelled by Russia during World War I (WW1) to disrupt coal supply to Ottoman and German ships.{{Cite book |last=Rogan |first=Eugene |title=The fall of the Ottomans |publisher=Penguin books |pages=95}} The first coal-fired power station in Turkey, Silahtarağa Power Station (now SantralIstanbul culture center) opened in 1914, and after the destruction of the empire in WW1, and the subsequent Turkish War of Independence, the new Republic of Turkey industrialized further as part of Atatürk's reforms. Lignite from Soma supplied the army in WW1 and lignite mining began at several other coalfields in 1927.{{Cite journal|last=Atalay|first=Figen|date=2015|title=The History of the Coal Mining Industry and Mining Accidents in the World and Turkey|journal=Turkish Thoracic Journal|volume=16|issue=Suppl 1|pages=S5–S8|doi=10.5152/ttd.2015.002|issn=2148-7197|pmc=5783104|pmid=29404107}} The Zonguldak coalfield remains the only national source of the hard coal{{refn|group=note|The Energy Ministry defines “hard coal” as “bituminous coal”.{{Cite web |title=Coal |url=https://enerji.gov.tr/english-info-bank-natural-resources-coal |access-date=2025-03-05 |website= Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources |quote=Peat, lignite, sub-bituminous coal, bituminous coal (hard coal), anthracite and graphite are formed by turning into each other.}} Total organic carbon of Turkish coal is up to 72.5%,{{Cite journal|last=Şen|first=Şamil|date=2020-10-15|title=Natural fracture, cleat, and strong adsorption impact on low oil and condensate retention in the Carboniferous shales and coals of the western Black Sea Basin of Turkey|url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/aapgbull/article-abstract/104/10/2125/590892/Natural-fracture-cleat-and-strong-adsorption|journal=AAPG Bulletin|volume=104|issue=10|pages=2125–2143|doi=10.1306/02262017372|bibcode=2020BAAPG.104.2125S |s2cid=218922289|issn=0149-1423|url-access=subscription}} whereas anthracite has over 86%.{{Cite web|title=Coal explained - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)|url=https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/coal/|access-date=2020-09-26|website=www.eia.gov}} Therefore Turkey has no anthracite and the use of the phrase "hard coal" for coal mined in Turkey does not mean anthracite.}} which was historically necessary for steelmaking: its mines were nationalized in 1940.{{Cite web|title=Workers of the Ereğli̇-Zonguldak Coal Basin, 1848–1922|url=http://www.thesis.bilkent.edu.tr/0001720.pdf|last=Aytekin|first=Erden Attila|date=2001|publisher=Bilkent University|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050524172119/http://www.thesis.bilkent.edu.tr/0001720.pdf|archive-date=24 May 2005}} In the mid-20th century the state encouraged the growth of cement and steelmaking in Zonguldak. The first large coal-fired power stations were built in the late 1950s in two large lignite basins, Soma and Tuncbilek,{{Cite web |title=How Realistic Are Coal Phase-Out Timeline Targets for Turkey? |url=https://mdpi-res.com/d_attachment/sustainability/sustainability-16-01649/article_deploy/sustainability-16-01649.pdf?version=1708152234}} and in the late 20th century many power stations were constructed near lignite fields such as Elbistan coalfield.

File:Coal Stove - Kömür Sobası.JPG stove exhibited in Arıkan House, Kozan|alt=|275x275px]]

In the early 21st century there was a growing realization of the damage done by coal to public health. However, the Turkish government wished to avoid importing too much natural gas, which is a large part of the import bill, with supply dominated by Russia.{{Cite web|title=Diversify and expand: Turkey's drive towards natural gas security|url=https://www.mei.edu/publications/diversify-and-expand-turkeys-drive-towards-natural-gas-security|last=Kraemer|first=Richard|date=16 April 2020|website=Middle East Institute|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200424000857/https://www.mei.edu/publications/diversify-and-expand-turkeys-drive-towards-natural-gas-security|archive-date=24 April 2020}} The nascent environmental movement in Turkey was unable to prevent many more coal-fired power stations being built, but did stop some.{{Cite web|title=We will see beautiful days, coal-free and sunny days|url=https://bianet.org/english/environment/245812-we-will-see-beautiful-days-coal-free-and-sunny-days}} After years of struggle by environmentalists standards, such as for flue-gas desulfurization, were finally improved at the end of the 2010s.{{Cite web|title=Turkey shuts power plants for not installing filters – Turkey News|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-shuts-power-plants-for-not-installing-filters-150506|date=2 January 2020|website=Hürriyet Daily News|publisher=Demirören News Agency|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200515014055/https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-shuts-power-plants-for-not-installing-filters-150506|archive-date=15 May 2020}} As for steelmaking, most plants are now electric arc furnaces.{{Cite web|title=Statistics|url=http://www.cib.org.tr/en/statistics.html|website=Turkish Steel|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200412090508/http://www.cib.org.tr/en/statistics.html|archive-date=12 April 2020|access-date=12 April 2020}}

Starting in the 19th century, stoves took the place of wood burning ovens in traditional Anatolian houses. For heating, every room had a stove with a stovepipe or chimney. After the late 1970s, coke was reserved for use in institutions such as schools, and the more polluting but cheaper coal was supplied to households. Imports of natural gas started in the late 1980s{{Cite web|title=Republic of Turkey Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources – Natural Gas Pipelines and Projects|url=http://www.enerji.gov.tr/en-US/Pages/Natural-Gas-Pipelines-and-Projects|website=enerji.gov.tr|access-date=27 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200429042328/https://www.enerji.gov.tr/en-US/Pages/Natural-Gas-Pipelines-and-Projects|archive-date=29 April 2020|url-status=live}} and by the 2020s the pipeline distribution network had been extended to over 80% of the population.{{Cite web |title=2021 Natural Gas Distribution Sector Report |url=https://www.gazbir.org.tr/uploads/page/2021_NATURAL_GAS_DISTRIBUTION_SECTOR_REPORT.pdf |access-date=17 January 2023 |archive-date=14 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220714072811/https://www.gazbir.org.tr/uploads/page/2021_NATURAL_GAS_DISTRIBUTION_SECTOR_REPORT.pdf |url-status=dead }} However, due to energy poverty, some of those people still use coal{{Cite web|title=Household gas consumption slumps by 12.3%, association blames it on global warming!|url=https://www.paraanaliz.com/intelligence/household-gas-consumption-slumps-by-12-3-association-blames-it-on-global-warming/|date=20 April 2019|website=PA Intelligence|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200327120603/https://www.paraanaliz.com/intelligence/household-gas-consumption-slumps-by-12-3-association-blames-it-on-global-warming/|archive-date=27 March 2020|access-date=27 March 2020}} and the resulting air pollution causes illness and premature deaths.{{Cite journal|last=Yar|first=Yagiz|date=2020-05-16|title=Clean Alternatives For Household Coal - Case Study: Izmir, Turkey|url=https://repository.usfca.edu/capstone/1041|journal=Master's Projects and Capstones}} Most buildings constructed since the late 20th century have gas heating, not coal.

In the 2020s, in some provinces coal is still used for heating including public buildings,{{Cite web|title=CORONA VE KÖMÜR|url=http://www.gundem67.com/gundem-ozel/corona-ve-komur-h87408.html|access-date=2020-11-18|language=tr}} especially in rural areas, and even occasionally for cooking,{{Cite conference|title=Traditional Cooking Fuels, Ovens & Stoves in Turkey|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237781993|last1=İşler|first1=Asli|last2= Karaosmanoğlu|first2=Filiz|date= 17–18 June 2008|conference=Thirty-first IAEE International Conference|publisher=International Association for Energy Economics|location=Istanbul|access-date=27 March 2020}} although electricity and bottled gas are available everywhere. In 2019 TKI gave one and a half million tonnes of free coal{{Cite web|title=TKİ'den 2 milyon aileye bedava kömür: Dağıttığı kömür miktarı yüzde 42 azaldı|url=https://www.sozcu.com.tr/2020/ekonomi/tkiden-2-milyon-aileye-bedava-komur-dagittigi-komur-miktari-yuzde-42-azaldi-6113145/|access-date=2020-11-18|website=www.sozcu.com.tr|date=5 November 2020 |language=tr}} (mostly from Alpagut Dodurga coal mine) to households with an average per person income less than one third of the minimum wage (less than 700 lira in 2020), even in neighborhoods which have piped gas.{{Cite web|title=Kömür ve Yakacak Yardımı Başvurusu Nasıl Yapılır? Maddi Yardım 2020|url=https://www.finans365.com/komur-ve-yakacak-yardimi-basvurusu-nasil-yapilir-maddi-yardim-2020/14657/|website=Finans 365|date=30 April 2020 |language=tr|trans-title=How to apply for fuel and coal assistance? Material help 2020|access-date=6 May 2020}} In winter 22/23 TKI distributed coal to schools and other educational institutions: this coal has to meet certain indoor heating air pollution limits.{{Cite web |title=MEB'e bağlı okul ve kurumların kömür ihtiyacı TKİ tarafından karşılanacak |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/gundem/mebe-bagli-okul-ve-kurumlarin-komur-ihtiyaci-tki-tarafindan-karsilanacak/2568943 |access-date=2023-01-20 |website=www.aa.com.tr}}{{Cite web |title=Başbakanlık Mevzuatı Geliştirme ve Yayın Genel Müdürlüğü |url=https://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2010/01/20100127-9.htm |access-date=2023-01-20 |website=www.resmigazete.gov.tr}} Indoor concentration of particulates is highest in the winter.{{Cite journal|last1=Mentese|first1=Sibel|last2=Mirici|first2=Nihal A.|last3=Otkun|first3=Muserref T.|last4=Bakar|first4=Coskun|last5=Palaz|first5=Elif|last6=Tasdibi|first6=Deniz|last7=Cevizci|first7=Sibel|last8=Cotuker|first8=Osman|date=1 November 2015|title=Association between respiratory health and indoor air pollution exposure in Canakkale, Turkey|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360132315000347|journal=Building and Environment|series=Special Issue: Indoor pollutants, chemistry and health- Selected papers presented at Indoor Air 2014 conference in Hong Kong|language=en|volume=93|pages=72–83|doi=10.1016/j.buildenv.2015.01.023|bibcode=2015BuEnv..93...72M |issn=0360-1323|access-date=27 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181201151728/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360132315000347|archive-date=1 December 2018|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}} Over three quarters of carbon monoxide deaths are due to stoves: almost 200 in 2017 mostly in poorer rural areas.{{Cite journal|last1=Can|first1=Günay|last2=Sayılı|first2=Uğurcan|last3=Aksu Sayman|first3=Özden|last4=Kuyumcu|first4=Ömer Faruk|last5=Yılmaz|first5=Duygu|last6=Esen|first6=Eren|last7=Yurtseven|first7=Eray|last8=Erginöz|first8=Ethem|date=3 January 2019|title=Mapping of carbon monoxide related death risk in Turkey: a ten-year analysis based on news agency records|journal=BMC Public Health|volume=19|issue=1|pages=9|doi=10.1186/s12889-018-6342-4|issn=1471-2458|pmc=6318903|pmid=30606153 |doi-access=free }}

{{See also|Category:Coal mines in Turkey}}

File:Turkey Lignite and Bituminous Coal Deposits - DPLA - 9eb3d04756518de1cb506c9d6c0101d2.jpg

{{As of|2017|}} Turkey was 11th in the list of countries by coal production, and mined 1.3% of the world's coal, with lignite and sub-bituminous deposits widespread throughout the country.{{Cite web|title=Coal overview: Turkey|url=https://www.globalmethane.org/documents/toolsres_coal_overview_ch33_updated2020.pdf|date=2020|website=Global Methane Project}} Due to the country's geology, there is no hard coal, which has a higher energy density (over 7,250 kcal/kg), within 1000 m of the surface.{{Cite web|title=Pre-feasibility Study for Coal Mine Methane Drainage and Utilization at the Kozlu Coal Mine in Zonguldak, Turkey|url=https://www.globalmethane.org/documents/kozlu_mine_pfs_march_2015.pdf|last=Collings|first=Ronald}} All coal deposits are owned by the state but over half of mining is done by the private sector. In 2017 almost half of Turkey's coal production was mined by the state-owned mines, but the government is seeking an expansion of privatization.{{sfnp|Ersoy|2019|p=8}} As of 2019, there are 436 coal mining companies such as Akçelik,{{sfnp|Ersoy|2019|p=3}} 740 coal mines,{{cite news |title=Coal mine collapses in Turkey |url=https://en.trend.az/world/turkey/3021127.html |agency=Trend |date=18 February 2019 |access-date=28 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190301013429/https://en.trend.az/world/turkey/3021127.html |archive-date=1 March 2019 |url-status=live }} and more mining and exploration licences are being tendered.{{cite web |title=Tender announcements |url=http://mapeg.gov.tr/Ihaleler.aspx |publisher=MAPEG |access-date=24 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190225044828/http://mapeg.gov.tr/Ihaleler.aspx |archive-date=25 February 2019 |url-status=live }} However, some drilling companies are not bidding for licences because mineral exploration is more profitable and in 2018 many mining licences were combined with coal licenses.{{sfnp|Global Business Reports|2018|p=37,38}} Mining is documented in the "e-maden" computer system ("maden" means "mine" in Turkish).{{Cite web|last=|date=16 April 2021|title=30 bin kişi madencilik işlemlerini e-maden üzerinden sonuçlandırdı|trans-title=30 thousand people served by e-maden for mining procedures|url=https://www.hurriyet.com.tr/ekonomi/30-bin-kisi-madencilik-islemlerini-e-maden-uzerinden-sonuclandirdi-41789843|url-status=live|access-date=|website=Hürriyet|language=tr|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417104434/https://www.hurriyet.com.tr/ekonomi/30-bin-kisi-madencilik-islemlerini-e-maden-uzerinden-sonuclandirdi-41789843 |archive-date=17 April 2021 }} Coal miners do not have the right to strike.{{Cite web|url=https://tr.usembassy.gov/2019-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices-turkey/|title=2019 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Turkey|date=12 March 2020|website=U.S. Embassy & Consulates in Turkey|language=en-US|access-date=30 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200412084647/https://tr.usembassy.gov/2019-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices-turkey/|archive-date=12 April 2020|url-status=live}} A company called Tarhan Maden has proposed a mine in the district of Tavşanlı in Kütahya Province.{{Cite web |date=2023-06-08 |title=Tavşanlı'da açık kömür ocağı işletilecek |url=https://www.enerjigunlugu.net/tarhan-maden-kutahyada-komur-tesisi-kuracak-54443h.htm |access-date=2023-09-09 |website=Enerji Günlüğü |language=tr}} Unions have complained of mines they say are unsafe, such as Kınık coal mine.{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2022-12-29 |title=Polyak Madencilik'te direniş sürüyor: Devlet bir gün de işçinin yanında olsun |url=https://www.gazeteduvar.com.tr/polyak-madencilikte-direnis-suruyor-devlet-bir-gun-de-iscinin-yaninda-olsun-haber-1595975 |access-date=2023-09-09 |website=Gazete Duvar |language=tr-TR}}

The Zonguldak basin in the northwest is the only coal mining region in Turkey that produces hard coal: about 2 million tons a year{{Cite web|title=Enerji piyasalarında 2020 yılı öngörüleri|url=https://www.enerjigunlugu.net/enerji-piyasalarinda-2020-yili-ongoruleri-31771yy.htm|last=Di̇reskeneli̇|first=Haluk|date=3 January 2020|website=Enerji Günlüğü|language=tr|trans-title=2020 energy market outlook}} from mines including Kandilli, Amasra, Karadon, Kozlu and Üzülmez. Compared to other countries, the energy value of the coal is low, at {{convert|6,200|kcal/kg|kcal/lb|abbr=}} to {{convert|7,250|kcal/kg|kcal/lb|abbr=on}}. Up to 72.5% is organic carbon.{{Cite journal|last=Şen|first=Şamil|date=2020-10-15|title=Natural fracture, cleat, and strong adsorption impact on low oil and condensate retention in the Carboniferous shales and coals of the western Black Sea Basin of Turkey|url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/aapgbull/article-abstract/104/10/2125/590892/Natural-fracture-cleat-and-strong-adsorption|journal=AAPG Bulletin|language=en|volume=104|issue=10|pages=2125–2143|doi=10.1306/02262017372|bibcode=2020BAAPG.104.2125S |s2cid=218922289|issn=0149-1423|url-access=subscription}} 10 to 15% is coal ash, 4 to 14% moisture, and 0.8 to 1% sulfur. Although low grade it is generally of cokeable or semi-cokeable quality.{{cite web |title=Carbon Capture, Utilization and Storage in the Context of Turkish Energy Market |url=https://iicec.sabanciuniv.edu/sites/iicec.sabanciuniv.edu/files/1806%20IICECE%26CPaperCCUSinTurkey_0.pdf |publisher=IICEC |date=June 2018 |access-date=7 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190107181030/https://iicec.sabanciuniv.edu/sites/iicec.sabanciuniv.edu/files/1806%20IICECE%26CPaperCCUSinTurkey_0.pdf |archive-date=7 January 2019 |url-status=live }}{{cite web |title=Prospects for coal and clean coal technologies in Turkey |url=https://www.usea.org/sites/default/files/072014_Prospects%20for%20coal%20and%20clean%20coal%20technologies%20in%20Turkey_ccc239.pdf |publisher=IEACCC |date=July 2014 |access-date=7 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190107181742/https://www.usea.org/sites/default/files/072014_Prospects%20for%20coal%20and%20clean%20coal%20technologies%20in%20Turkey_ccc239.pdf |archive-date=7 January 2019 |url-status=live }} Because there is so much faulting and folding, mining in the region is very difficult. Long-wall mining is necessary due to the tectonic structure of the seams.

Turkey is one of the countries which mines the most lignite.{{Cite web |title=Production of lignite coal by country, 2022 |url=https://knoema.com//atlas/topics/Energy/Coal/Production-of-lignite-coal |access-date=2023-01-20 |website=Knoema |language=en-US}} The most significant deposits of lignite were laid down in the geological Neogene period.{{cite journal |last1=Oskay |first1=R. G. |last2=Inaner |first2=H. |last3=Karayigit |first3=A. I. |last4=Christanis |first4=K. |title=Coal deposits of Turkey: properties and importance on energy demand |journal=Bulletin of the Geological Society of Greece |date=2013 |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=2111–2120|doi-access=free |doi=10.12681/bgsg.11106|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259563494}} Almost half of the country's lignite reserves are in the Afşin–Elbistan basin. Lignite coalfields include Elbistan, Kutahya Tavsanlı, Inez, Manisa, İnağzı-Bağlık and Gediz,{{cite news |title=Turkish government to transfer 203 million mt of coal reserves to private owners |url=https://www.spglobal.com/platts/en/market-insights/latest-news/coal/101218-turkish-government-to-transfer-203-million-mt-of-coal-reserves-to-private-owners |publisher=S & P Global |date=12 October 2018 |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016165428/https://www.spglobal.com/platts/en/market-insights/latest-news/coal/101218-turkish-government-to-transfer-203-million-mt-of-coal-reserves-to-private-owners |archive-date=16 October 2018 |url-status=live }} and 90% of lignite production is from surface mines. Locations of major individual lignite mines include Tunçbilek in Tavşanlı, Yatağan near the southern Aegean Sea, Yeniköy in Muğla and Seyitömer in Kütahya; and there is a gilsonite mine in Silopi. Turkish lignite has high carbon,{{refn|group=note|The net calorific value of Turkish lignite is lower than that of typical lignite,Turkstat report (2020), p. 50 varying by power station; its average is about 2,800|kcal/kg.{{cite web |title=Yerli̇ ve mi̇lli̇ enerji̇ poli̇ti̇kalari ekseni̇nde kömür |trans-title=Local and national energy policies revolving around coal|url=https://setav.org/assets/uploads/2019/01/A265.pdf |publisher=SETAV |access-date=13 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190214061430/https://setav.org/assets/uploads/2019/01/A265.pdf |archive-date=14 February 2019 |url-status=live }} The average carbon content of lignite in Turkey is higher than that of typical lignite, measured at 30.5 kg/GJ in 2018.}} sulphur, ash, moisture and volatile components.

Its calorific value is less than 12.5 MJ/kg – and that from Afsin Elbistan has less than 5 MJ/kg, which is a quarter of typical thermal coal.{{Cite web|title=Nuclear Power in Turkey |url=https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-t-z/turkey.aspx|access-date=12 June 2020|website=World Nuclear Association}} Opencast mining of lignite can destroy forest land, as although soil must be stored by law, it can degrade before reforestation.{{Cite journal |last1=Vardar |first1=Suat |last2=Demirel |first2=Burak |last3=Onay |first3=Turgut T. |date=2022-03-22 |title=Impacts of coal-fired power plants for energy generation on environment and future implications of energy policy for Turkey |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |volume=29 |issue=27 |pages=40302–40318 |language=en |doi=10.1007/s11356-022-19786-8 |issn=1614-7499 |pmc=8940263 |pmid=35318602|bibcode=2022ESPR...2940302V }} In 2023 a proposed rule allowing removal of olive trees was retracted.{{Cite web |title=Turkish Parliament Stops Coal Mining Operations in Olive Groves - Olive Oil Times |url=https://www.oliveoiltimes.com/briefs/turkish-parliament-stops-coal-mining-operations-in-olive-groves/115616 |access-date=2023-01-13 |website=www.oliveoiltimes.com}}

Exploration and research is done by the General Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration. In the 2010s coal mining technology from China was imported.{{sfnp|Global Business Reports|2018|p=35}} But according to energy analyst Haluk Direskeneli coal power plant technology which has been imported is unsuitable for Turkish coal, so refractory distortions are occurring, and control systems and other equipment is failing. He says that circulating fluidized bed (CFB) technology is unsuitable because Turkish lignite does not burn continuously in the CFB combustion chamber without supplementary liquid fuel. In Direskeneli's opinion "local coal enters the combustion chamber as ice in winter and as mud in summer", so the water content of domestic coal should be reduced by preheating.{{Cite web|url=https://www.eurasiareview.com/02122019-turkey-energy-and-infrastructure-forecast-2020-oped/|title=Turkey: Energy And Infrastructure Forecast 2020 – OpEd|last=Direskeneli|first=Haluk|date=2 December 2019|website=Eurasia Review|language=en-US|access-date=4 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191204173245/https://www.eurasiareview.com/02122019-turkey-energy-and-infrastructure-forecast-2020-oped/|archive-date=4 December 2019|url-status=live}}

{{As of|2018}}, environmental regulations for coal mines still lag behind international standards despite improvements.{{sfnp|Global Business Reports|2018|p=33}} {{As of|2019}} an expansion of coal washing capacity was planned together with research on coal pollution mitigation and lignite gasification.{{sfnp|Ersoy|2019|p=15}} According to the Eleventh Development Plan (2019-2023): "In order to reduce the import dependence and current accounts deficit in energy, exploration, generation and R & D activities will be increased for high potential domestic resources such as geothermal and shale gas, especially lignite."{{Cite report|publisher=Presidency of Strategy and Budget|date=2020|title=Eleventh Development Plan (2019-2023)|url=http://www.sbb.gov.tr/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Eleventh_Development_Plan-2019-2023.pdf|access-date=20 September 2020|archive-date=25 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925131542/http://www.sbb.gov.tr/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Eleventh_Development_Plan-2019-2023.pdf|url-status=dead}}

The Istanbul Policy Center estimates that every year in Turkey, the mining and burning of coal causes at least 2,800 premature deaths, 637,000 working days to be lost, and 3.6 billion euros in additional costs. Although there are some concerns about ground{{sfnp|Öztürk|Katisöz|Akça|2019|p=66}}{{refn|group=note|Fly ash, a byproduct of the coal refining process, is often sold to cement factories as a raw material. Concentrations of natural radionuclides vary depending on the power station and the product may be safe in building materials depending on the amount used.{{cite journal |last1=Ozden |first1=Banu |last2=Güler |first2=Erkan |last3=Vaasma |first3=Taavi |last4=Horváth |first4=Mária |last5=Kiisk |first5=Madis |last6=Kovács |first6=Tibor |title=Enrichment of naturally occurring radionuclides and trace elements in Yatagan and Yenikoy coal-fired thermal power plants, Turkey |journal=Journal of Environmental Radioactivity |date=August 2018 |volume=188 |pages=100–107 |doi=10.1016/j.jenvrad.2017.09.016 |pmid=28965987 |bibcode=2018JEnvR.188..100O }}}} and water{{Cite journal|last1=Uçar|first1=Ali|last2=Şensöğüt|first2=Cem|last3=Ediz|first3=İ Göktay|date=5 January 2019|title=Investıgatıon for Envıronmental Effects and Evaluatıon of Fıne Taılıngs from Tuncbılek Coal Processıng Plant/Turkey|url=http://econ-environ-geol.org/index.php/ojs/article/view/12|journal=International Journal of Economic and Environmental Geology|language=en|pages=28–34|issn=2223-957X|access-date=12 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200412093556/http://econ-environ-geol.org/index.php/ojs/article/view/12|archive-date=12 April 2020|url-status=live}} pollution, most coal-related deaths are caused by worsening air pollution in Turkey.

File:Karslı cocuklarin soma icn yaptiklati maket--Muhammetilbas-com 2014-05-29 23-32.JPG

After the deaths of over 300 people in the Soma mine disaster in 2014,{{Cite web|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/turkey/turkey-rights-violations-found-in-mine-disaster-case/1759720|title=Turkey: Rights violations found in mine disaster case|website=www.aa.com.tr|access-date=30 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200310223304/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/turkey/turkey-rights-violations-found-in-mine-disaster-case/1759720|archive-date=10 March 2020|url-status=live}} new health and safety regulations were introduced. {{As of|2018}}, most mining accidents happen in coal mines but the reasons for Turkey's poor mining safety are not entirely clear.{{sfnp|Global Business Reports|2018|p=14,15}} According to a 2022 study the small number of workers in trade unions and the widespread use of subcontractors contribute to poor working conditions.{{Rp|page=162}}

Most underground coal-mining deaths are caused by methane explosions and other gas-related accidents,{{Cite journal|last=Dursun|first=Arif Emre|date=2020-07-14|title=Statistical analysis of methane explosions in Turkey's underground coal mines and some recommendations for the prevention of these accidents: 2010–2017|journal=Natural Hazards|volume=104|issue=1 |pages=329–351|language=en|doi=10.1007/s11069-020-04170-x|bibcode=2020NatHa.104..329D |s2cid=220506873|issn=1573-0840}} as is suspected was the cause of the Bartın mine explosion which killed 41 people in 2022.{{Cite web |title=Mine in northern province closed after blast kills 41 - Türkiye News |url=https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/mine-in-northern-province-closed-after-blast-kills-41-177711 |access-date=2022-10-18 |website=Hürriyet Daily News |date=16 October 2022 |language=en}} The government has restricted access to workplace accident statistics, but coal mining is thought to be the most accident-prone sector of the economy. {{As of|2018|}} coal mining fatalities continue to occur in illegal mines.{{cite news |title=Two workers killed in illegal mine collapse in Turkey's Zonguldak |url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/two-workers-killed-in-illegal-mine-collapse-in-turkeys-zonguldak-134293 |agency=Hürriyet |date=8 July 2018 |access-date=31 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181231194036/http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/two-workers-killed-in-illegal-mine-collapse-in-turkeys-zonguldak-134293 |archive-date=31 December 2018 |url-status=live }} Coal miners suffer respiratory diseases such as black lung,{{Cite web|url=http://ghs.asyod.org/Konular/2019-2-19.pdf|title=Coal Worker's Pneumoconiosis|last=ERBOY|first=Fatma|publisher=Zonguldak Kara Elmas Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi, Göğüs Hastalıkları Ana Bilim Dalı, Zonguldak|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200127152227/http://ghs.asyod.org/Konular/2019-2-19.pdf|archive-date=27 January 2020}} chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, back pain,{{cite journal |title=Low back pain and lumbar angles in Turkish coal miners |journal=American Journal of Industrial Medicine |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=92–96 |doi=10.1002/ajim.20417 |pmid=17238134 |url=https://www.osti.gov/etdeweb/biblio/20885715 |year=2007 |last1=Sarikaya |first1=Selda |last2=Özdolap |first2=Şenay |last3=Gümüştasş |first3=Şenol |last4=Koç |first4=Ülkü |access-date=27 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181027185620/https://www.osti.gov/etdeweb/biblio/20885715 |archive-date=27 October 2018 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }} periodontal disease{{cite journal |last1=İnanç Cengiz |first1=Murat |last2=Zengin |first2=Büşra |last3=İçen |first3=Murat |last4=Köktürk |first4=Firüzan |title=Prevalence of periodontal disease among mine workers of Zonguldak, Kozlu District, Turkey: a cross-sectional study |journal=BMC Public Health |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=361 |date=2018 |doi=10.1186/s12889-018-5304-1 |pmid=29548308 |pmc=5857090 |doi-access=free }} and other illnesses; and increased risk from respiratory infections such as COVID-19.{{Cite web|url=https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2020/04/turkey-coronavirus-coal-mines-pollution-dirty-air-zonguldak.html|title=Coronavirus outbreak exposes health risks of coal rush|last=Ugurtas|first=Selin|date=17 April 2020|website=Al-Monitor|language=en|access-date=18 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200421042444/https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2020/04/turkey-coronavirus-coal-mines-pollution-dirty-air-zonguldak.html|archive-date=21 April 2020|url-status=live}}

According to Bianet newspaper some workers have been dismissed for joining the Independent Mine Workers' Union (Bağımsız Maden İş).{{Cite web |title=Union exposes dangerous conditions at mine owned by ruling party MP |url=https://bianet.org/haber/union-exposes-dangerous-conditions-at-mine-owned-by-ruling-party-mp-299241 |access-date=2025-02-07 |website=bianet.org |language=en}}

{{See also|Air pollution in Turkey|Coal_power_in_Turkey#Air_pollution}}

Coal contributes to air pollution in big cities.{{Cite web |last=Aydıntaşbaş |first=Asli |last2=Dennison |first2=Susi |date=2021-06-22 |title=New energies: How the European Green Deal can save the EU's relationship with Turkey – European Council on Foreign Relations |url=https://ecfr.eu/publication/new-energies-how-the-european-green-deal-can-save-the-eus-relationship-with-turkey/ |access-date=2021-06-22 |website=ECFR |language=en-GB}} The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) says that residential heating is emitting dangerous levels of fine particulates: so it recommends reducing particulate emissions by not using coal.{{sfnp|EfimovaMazurMigottoRambali|2019|p=20}} There is a pollutant release and transfer register, but as of September 2024 no years are publicly searchable because it is not yet technically complete, and it is not known what exemptions will be granted.(see FAQ).{{Cite web |title=Pollutant Release and Transfer Register |url=https://www.kstk.gov.tr/default.aspx?lang=en}} As of 2024 Turkey has not joined 2 international agreements to reduce SOx emissions.{{Cite web |last=Anne |date=2024-11-13 |title=Turkey's deadly coal consumption |url=https://www.coalaction.org.uk/2024/11/13/turkeys-deadly-coal-consumption/ |access-date=2025-02-07 |website=Coal Action Network}}

{{See also|Greenhouse gas emissions by Turkey#Coal|Coal_power_in_Turkey#Greenhouse_gas_emissions}}

The environmental impact of the coal industry is both local{{Cite web |title='Would you like coal or olive for breakfast?': Petition against new mining regulations |url=https://bianet.org/english/environment/258630-would-you-like-coal-or-olive-for-breakfast-petition-against-new-mining-regulations |website=Bianet}} and international.

Acid mine drainage from coal refuse varies considerably and in some areas remediation of the mine sites is needed.{{Cite web|last=Yucel|first=Deniz Sanliyuksel|date=February 2019|title=Characterization and comparison of mine wastes in Can Coal Basin, northwest Turkey: a case study|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331363398}}

Coal refuse may be processed and burnt.{{cite web | url=https://www.trthaber.com/haber/turkiye/13-milyon-ton-atik-slam-komuru-ekonomiye-kazandirilacak-757272.html | title=13 milyon ton atık şlam kömürü ekonomiye kazandırılacak | date=31 March 2023 }}

100 million tonnes(mt) of coal was burned in 2023. 46 mt of lignite and asphaltite was used to generate electricity by coal-fired power stations in Turkey, 6 mt by other industry, and 5 mt for heating buildings. 25 mt of hard coal was used to generate electricity, 6 mt in coke plants, 1 mt iron-steel, 4 mt other industry, and 3 mt for heating.

Lignite fired power stations did not become more productive between 2009 and 2018,{{Cite journal|last1=Kasap|first1=Yaşar|last2=Şensöğüt|first2=Cem|last3=Ören|first3=Özer|date=1 March 2020|title=Efficiency change of coal used for energy production in Turkey|journal=Resources Policy|language=en|volume=65|pages=101577|doi=10.1016/j.resourpol.2019.101577|issn=0301-4207|doi-access=|bibcode=2020RePol..6501577K }} but three-quarters by weight of coal burnt in Turkish power stations is lignite.{{Cite web|title=Ağustos ayında termik santrallerde 7 milyon 989 bin ton kömür yakıldı|url=https://yesilgazete.org/blog/2019/10/28/agustos-ayinda-termik-santrallerde-7-milyon-989-bin-ton-komur-yakildi/|website=Yeşil Gazete|date=28 October 2019 |trans-title=7 million 989 million tonnes of coal was burnt in power stations in August}} Demand and price of coal increased in 2022 due to the European energy crisis.{{Cite web |title=Rise in European demand for energy jolts Turkey's fading coal industry |url=http://www.middleeasteye.net/news/turkey-coal-industry-rise-europe-energy-demand-jolts |access-date=2022-12-31 |website=Middle East Eye |language=en}} In 2022 14% of household final energy was coal.{{Cite web |title=Natural gas dominates home energy use in Türkiye, survey finds - [İLKHA] Ilke News Agency |url=https://ilkha.com/english/economy/natural-gas-dominates-home-energy-use-in-turkiye-survey-finds-379317 |access-date=2024-02-25 |website=ilkha.com}}

{{Excerpt|Coal power in Turkey}}

Coal is used in making pig iron,{{Cite web|title=Analysis: US met coal may focus on spot buyers, steel output falls|url=https://www.hellenicshippingnews.com/analysis-us-met-coal-may-focus-on-spot-buyers-steel-output-falls/|access-date=2020-07-28|website=Hellenic Shipping News Worldwide}} companies such as Kardemir{{Cite web|date=2019-03-25|title=Kardemir Kömür Alımlarına İlişkin Çıkan Haberleri Yalanladı|url=https://www.brtv.com.tr/kardemir-komur-alimlarina-iiskin-cikan-haberleri-yalanladi/|access-date=2020-08-03|website=BRTV|language=tr}} and İsdemir{{Cite web|title=İsdemir - Corporate|url=https://www.isdemir.com.tr/corporate/|access-date=2020-08-03|website=www.isdemir.com.tr}} use coal, and Erdemir washes coal{{Cite web|title=Erdemir, Alacaağzı'nda kömür zenginleştirme tesisi kuracak - Zonguldak Haberler|url=http://www.pusulagazetesi.com.tr/erdemir-alacaagzinda-komur-zenginlestirme-tesisi-kuracak-145323-haberler.html|access-date=2020-08-03|website=pusulagazetesi.com.tr|language=tr}} and operates blast furnaces.{{Cite web|date=2017-03-22|title=EREĞLİ DEMİR VE ÇELİK FABRİKALARI T.A.Ş|url=http://celik.org.tr/en/eregli-demir-celik-fabrikalari-t-a-s-2/|access-date=2020-08-03|website=Turkish Steel Producers}}

{{See also|Electricity sector in Turkey#Economics and finance}}

File:Free coal delivered to a poor household in Turkey.jpeg in 2024]]

As a signatory of the Convention on Biological Diversity (Aichi Target 3), Turkey committed to phasing out environmentally harmful subsidies, including those to fossil fuels, by 2020.{{sfnp|DoukasGençsü|2019|p=2}} However, coal remained the most subsidized source of electricity in Turkey.{{cite journal |last1=Yildizhan |first1=Hasan |title=Incentive policies for coal plants in Turkey |journal=Thermal Science |date=2017 |volume=21 |issue=5 |pages=1917–1924 |doi=10.2298/TSCI160428004Y |doi-access=free }} Lignite-fired power stations receive multiple subsidies for construction{{cite web |title=Investment Guide > Investors' Guide > Incentives |url=http://www.invest.gov.tr/en-US/investmentguide/investorsguide/Pages/Incentives.aspx |website=Invest in Turkey |access-date=19 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181019205707/http://www.invest.gov.tr/en-US/investmentguide/investorsguide/Pages/Incentives.aspx |archive-date=19 October 2018 |url-status=live }}{{refn|group=note|Lignite is in group 4-b of Article 2 of Mining Law No. 3213{{Cite web |title=THE TURKISH MINING LAW NUMBERED 3213 (AMENDMENTS BROUGHT BY LAW NUMBERED 5177 ARE ENTERED TO THE TEXT) |url=http://eskiweb.madenmuh.itu.edu.tr/docs/librariesprovider106/default-document-library/turkey_mining_law.pdf}} thus lignite-fired power plants can receive region 5 subsidies regardless of their actual location in Turkey.}} and operation.[http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=FFS_TUR "Fossil Fuel Support – TUR"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180916205031/https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=FFS_TUR |date=16 September 2018 }}, OECD, accessed October 2018 Specific subsidy programs include value-added tax waivers, offsetting investment costs and tax reductions.{{cite web |title=A New Strategy for EU-Turkey Energy Cooperation |url=http://turkishpolicy.com/article/938/a-new-strategy-for-eu-turkey-energy-cooperation |publisher=Turkish Policy Quarterly |date=27 November 2018 |access-date=21 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181221230735/http://turkishpolicy.com/article/938/a-new-strategy-for-eu-turkey-energy-cooperation |archive-date=21 December 2018 |url-status=live }} There is a guaranteed purchase price per MWh.{{Cite web|title=Karbon Nötr Türkiye Yolunda İlk Adım Kömürden Çıkış 2030|url=https://wwftr.awsassets.panda.org/downloads/_komurden_ck_2030.pdf?11400/karbon-notr-Turkiye-yolunda-ilk-adm-komurden-cikis-2030|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211105185727/https://wwftr.awsassets.panda.org/downloads/_komurden_ck_2030.pdf?11400/karbon-notr-Turkiye-yolunda-ilk-adm-komurden-cikis-2030 |archive-date=5 November 2021 }}

The Turkey Wealth Fund continued supporting coal into the 2020s.{{Cite news |date=2020-02-17 |title=Turkey wealth fund chief rebuffs criticism of Erdogan's role |work=Financial Times |url=https://www.ft.com/content/ecffb6d6-4f2c-11ea-95a0-43d18ec715f5 |access-date=2023-01-17}} The price of electricity generated from domestic coal is adjusted according to the consumer price index, the producer price index and the dollar exchange rate, and paid by the state-owned electricity company to private-sector power plants.{{cite news|date=5 February 2019|title=Kömür yerli ama ödemesi dolarla|trans-title=The coal is local but payment is in dollars|work=Sözcü|url=https://www.sozcu.com.tr/2019/ekonomi/komur-yerli-ama-odemesi-dolarla-3393380/|url-status=live|access-date=13 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190214002908/https://www.sozcu.com.tr/2019/ekonomi/komur-yerli-ama-odemesi-dolarla-3393380/|archive-date=14 February 2019}} In 2024 the government allocated over 2 billion lira {{To USD round|2100000000|TR|year=2024}} to the Turkish Coal Operations Authority, which mines lignite.{{Cite web |title=Türkiye's mining sector receives 34% budget boost in 2024 to propel economic growth |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/energy/coal/turkiyes-mining-sector-receives-34-budget-boost-in-2024-to-propel-economic-growth/40273 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=www.aa.com.tr}}

{{See also|Coal power in Turkey#Coal industry}}

Between 2008 and 2018, the coal industry was partially privatized;{{cite web |title=Turkey's 21st Century Coal Rush |url=https://www.gbreports.com/article/turkeys-21st-century-coal-rush |publisher=Global Business Reports |access-date=17 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190517131907/https://www.gbreports.com/article/turkeys-21st-century-coal-rush |archive-date=17 May 2019 |url-status=live }} nevertheless state-owned companies mined over half of the total amount of Turkish coal in 2018.{{cite news |date=16 January 2019 |title=Turkey breaks local coal production record in 2018 |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/economy/turkey-breaks-local-coal-production-record-in-2018/1366302 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190203085042/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/economy/turkey-breaks-local-coal-production-record-in-2018/1366302 |archive-date=3 February 2019 |access-date=2 February 2019 |agency=Anadolu Agency}} Turkish Coal Operations Authority (TKİ) owns lignite mines, and Turkish Hard Coal Enterprises (TTK) owns hard coal mines.

Several companies have acquired mining rights for hard coal fields: Erdemir Madencilik, a subsidiary of Turkey's autonomous military pension program; Oyak; Tumas, a subsidiary of Bereket Holding, and energy company Emsa Enerji. In 2019 private companies paid over 20 million lira royalties to TTK.{{Cite web|title='Kara elmas'ı gün yüzüne çıkaran kömür firmaları TTK'ye de kazandırıyor|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/ekonomi/kara-elmasi-gun-yuzune-cikaran-komur-firmalari-ttkye-de-kazandiriyor/1821268|website=www.aa.com.tr|trans-title=Coal companies digging out black diamonds also benefit Turkish Hardcoal Enterprises|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505083119/https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/ekonomi/kara-elmasi-gun-yuzune-cikaran-komur-firmalari-ttkye-de-kazandiriyor/1821268|archive-date=5 May 2020|access-date=7 May 2020}} Lignite fields have been transferred to Imbat Madencilik (which is on the GCEL{{Cite web |title=GCEL Data – Global Coal Exit List |url=https://www.coalexit.org/data |access-date=2025-04-24 |website=www.coalexit.org |language=en}}), Fernas Holding, Demir Export and construction group Yapi Tek. Eren Holding holds the largest amount of coal-fired generation capacity, 2,790 megawatts,{{cite web |title=Energy |url=http://www.erenholding.com.tr/en/sectors/energy |publisher=Eren Holding |access-date=27 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181228175655/http://www.erenholding.com.tr/en/sectors/energy |archive-date=28 December 2018 |url-status=live }} at the ZETES power complex in Zonguldak. Several companies hold more than a gigawatt of coal power capacity: IC Içtaş Enerji, the state-owned EÜAŞ; Konya Şeker, a company owned by Anadolu Birlik Holding; ERG Elektrik; Diler Holding; Çelikler Holding and Ciner Holding.{{cite web |date=November 2018 |title=Powering down coal: Navigating the economic and financial risks in the last years of coal power |url=https://www.carbontracker.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/CTI_Powering_Down_Coal_Report_Nov_2018-1.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181223121215/https://www.carbontracker.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/CTI_Powering_Down_Coal_Report_Nov_2018-1.pdf |archive-date=23 December 2018 |access-date=23 December 2018 |publisher=Carbon Tracker Initiative}} Akçelik also mines opencast{{Cite web |title=İşletmelerimiz |url=https://www.akcelikmadencilik.com.tr/isletmelerimiz |access-date=2025-04-24 |website=www.akcelikmadencilik.com.tr |language=tr}} and is on the Global Coal Exit List.{{Cite web |title=GCEL Data – Global Coal Exit List |url=https://www.coalexit.org/data |access-date=2025-04-24 |website=www.coalexit.org |language=en}} However, mining licence information that is held by the government in the "e-maden" database is not released to the public.{{cite news |title="Madenleri olan" değil verimli işleyen kazanır! |url=https://www.yeniakit.com.tr/yazarlar/sedat-yilmaz/madenleri-olan-degil-verimli-isleyen-kazanir-27097.html |publisher=Yeni Akit |access-date=11 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190111041629/https://www.yeniakit.com.tr/yazarlar/sedat-yilmaz/madenleri-olan-degil-verimli-isleyen-kazanir-27097.html |archive-date=11 January 2019 |url-status=live }}

In the late 2010s, the government attempted to auction mine licenses to private companies provided that they would build nearby power plants, but the auctions attracted little interest{{Cite web|url=https://350.org/sweet-dreams-are-made-of-this-turkeys-coal-to-disagree/|title=Sweet dreams are made of this: Turkey's coal to disagree|website=350.org|date=9 July 2019 |language=en-US|access-date=20 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190720143626/https://350.org/sweet-dreams-are-made-of-this-turkeys-coal-to-disagree/|archive-date=20 July 2019|url-status=live}} as the currency weakened.{{Cite report|url=https://endcoal.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/BoomAndBust_2020_English.pdf|title=Boom and Bust 2020: Tracking the Global Coal Plant Pipeline|last1=Shearer|first1=Christine|last2=Myllyvirta|first2=Lauri|date=March 2020|publisher=Global Energy Monitor|url-status=usurped|last3=Yu|first3=Aiqun|last4=Aitken|first4=Greig|last5=Mathew-Shah|first5=Neha|last6=Dallos|first6=Gyorgy|last7=Nace|first7=Ted|access-date=27 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200327062155/https://endcoal.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/BoomAndBust_2020_English.pdf|archive-date=27 March 2020}} And although lignite is more polluting than most other types of coal, the government tried to persuade other coal-fired power stations to convert to lignite to reduce import costs.{{cite news |title=Economic Issues to Weigh on Turkish Market |url=https://www.spglobal.com/platts/en/market-insights/latest-news/coal/010319-outlook-2019-european-thermal-coal-market-looks-to-china-for-direction-in-year-ahead |publisher=S & P Global: Platts |date=3 January 2019 |access-date=6 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190106153609/https://www.spglobal.com/platts/en/market-insights/latest-news/coal/010319-outlook-2019-european-thermal-coal-market-looks-to-china-for-direction-in-year-ahead |archive-date=6 January 2019 |url-status=live }} The 2018 Turkish currency crisis and COVID-19 recession increased costs for mining companies and increased the difficulty of obtaining bank credits, threatening the coal industry.{{sfnp|Global Business Reports|2018|p=9}}{{Cite news|last=Gauthier-Villars|first=Caitlin Ostroff and David|date=6 May 2020|title=Pressure on Turkey's Economy Builds as Lira Nears Record Low|language=en-US|work=Wall Street Journal|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/pressure-on-turkeys-economy-builds-as-lira-heads-to-record-low-11588769981|access-date=8 May 2020|issn=0099-9660|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200507205841/https://www.wsj.com/articles/pressure-on-turkeys-economy-builds-as-lira-heads-to-record-low-11588769981|archive-date=7 May 2020|url-status=live}} Traders include Elgin Emtia,{{Cite web |title=Argus Coal 2025 Conference {{!}} Istanbul |url=https://www.argusmedia.com/en/events/conferences/coal-istanbul |access-date=2025-04-24 |website=www.argusmedia.com |language=en}} which together with other companies is on the Global Coal Exit List compiled by the NGO Urgewald.{{Cite web |title=GCEL Data – Global Coal Exit List |url=https://www.coalexit.org/data |access-date=2025-04-24 |website=www.coalexit.org |language=en}}

Turkish company Yılmaden has acquired coal mining rights in Colombia.{{sfnp|Global Business Reports|2018|p=58}} Chinese state owned enterprises and companies which invested in coal power projects{{sfnp|EfimovaMazurMigottoRambali|2019|p=36}} include Shanghai Electric Power, which is the main investor in Emba Hunutlu power station in Adana Province.{{Cite web|url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-09/23/c_138413218.htm|title=China's power plant project with direct investment in Turkey starts construction|website=www.xinhuanet.com|access-date=25 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190925164515/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-09/23/c_138413218.htm|archive-date=25 September 2019|url-status=dead}}

File:Coal Balance Turkey.svg

Imported coal generates about a quarter of the nation's electricity.{{Cite web|title=Türkiye'nin kömür aşkı bitmiyor|url=https://www.sozcu.com.tr/2020/ekonomi/turkiyenin-komur-aski-bitmiyor-5611118/|website=www.sozcu.com.tr|date=7 February 2020 |language=tr|trans-title=Turkey's love of coal never ends|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200207131713/https://www.sozcu.com.tr/2020/ekonomi/turkiyenin-komur-aski-bitmiyor-5611118/|archive-date=7 February 2020|access-date=5 March 2020}} 24 million tonnes of coal were imported in 2023.{{Cite web |title=Turkey becomes Europe's largest coal-fired electricity producer |website=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/turkey-becomes-europes-largest-coal-fired-electricity-producer-maguire-2024-05-21/}} 70% of thermal coal imports are from Russia,{{cite web | url=https://news.az/news/russia-top-energy-supplier-to-turkey-despite-western-sanctions | title=Russia top energy supplier to Turkey despite Western sanctions }} because the price is discounted.{{Cite web |title=Atlantic thermal coal market set for calmer year |url=https://www.hellenicshippingnews.com/atlantic-thermal-coal-market-set-for-calmer-year/ |access-date=2024-01-04 |website=Hellenic Shipping News |quote=coal-fired generation continues to be boosted by the availability of discounted Russian coal}} A customs union deal with the EU includes bilateral trade concessions on coal.{{cite news |title=Updating customs union with EU is priority: Turkish Finance Minister |url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/updating-customs-union-with-eu-is-priority-turkish-finance-minister-141557 |work=Hürriyet Daily News |date=28 February 2019 |access-date=28 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190228214042/http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/updating-customs-union-with-eu-is-priority-turkish-finance-minister-141557 |archive-date=28 February 2019 |url-status=live }}

About half of metallurgical coal imports are from Australia and most of the rest from the US, with small amounts from Russia and Colombia.{{Cite web |title=Turkey’s coking coal imports increase by 21.7 percent in 2024 |url=https://www.steelorbis.com/steel-news/latest-news/turkeyscokingcoalimportsincrease-by-217-percent-in-2024-1378903.htm |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=www.steelorbis.com |language=en}} The main ports for import of met coal are Eregli, Zonguldak and Iskenderun.{{Cite web|date=2020-07-30|title=US coal rail rates find pressure from low met coal prices, demand|url=https://www.spglobal.com/platts/en/market-insights/latest-news/coal/073020-us-coal-rail-rates-find-pressure-from-low-met-coal-prices-demand|access-date=2020-07-31|website=S&P Global Platts|language=en}} {{As of|2018}} if the import price of thermal coal is less than 70 US$/tonne (fob) the state charges the difference as import duty.{{Cite web|url=https://shura.org.tr/en/energy-pricing-and-non-market-flows-in-turkeys-energy-sector/|title=Energy pricing and non-market flows in Turkey's energy sector|website=SHURA Energy Transition Center|date=May 2019 }}{{Rp|31}} In 2020 coking coal cost around US$130/tonne.{{Cite web|url=https://www.argusmedia.com/en/news/2090040-atlantic-coking-coal-focus-turns-to-logistics|title=Atlantic coking coal: Focus turns to logistics|date=24 March 2020|website=www.argusmedia.com|language=en|access-date=30 March 2020}} Anthracite coal from Donbas, a region in Ukraine, is exported (allegedly illegally) to Turkey.{{Cite news |last1=Lebedev |first1=Filipp |last2=Stolyarov |first2=Gleb |date=2023-09-19 |title=Coal from Russian-annexed Ukraine sold in NATO member Turkey |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/markets/commodities/coal-russian-annexed-ukraine-sold-nato-member-turkey-data-sources-2023-09-19/ |access-date=2023-11-07}}{{Cite news|title=Dirty fuel: Ukrainian separatists sell pilfered coal to keep the war economy rolling|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/2020/06/12/dirty-fuel-ukrainian-separatists-sell-pilfered-coal-keep-war-economy-rolling/|access-date=12 June 2020|newspaper=Washington Post|language=en}} The anthracite is transported through the Russian ports of Azov and Taganrog to the Turkish city of Samsun.{{cite web |title=Russia's Hybrid Strategy in the Sea of Azov: Divide and Antagonize (Part Two) |url=https://jamestown.org/program/russias-hybrid-strategy-in-the-sea-of-azov-divide-and-antagonize-part-two/ |website=Eurasia Daily Monitor Volume: 16 Issue: 18 |publisher=Jamestown Foundation |access-date=13 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190213082517/https://jamestown.org/program/russias-hybrid-strategy-in-the-sea-of-azov-divide-and-antagonize-part-two/ |archive-date=13 February 2019 |url-status=live }} Some analysts say that coal which was formerly exported to the EU but is now sanctioned is instead being bought by Turkey,{{Cite web |title=Russia to shift to trading via Turkey if coal supplies to EU shunned, experts say |url=https://tass.com/economy/1436745 |access-date=2022-05-03 |website=tass.com}} and that as of end-2022 Turkey is the largest buyer of Russian coal.{{Cite news |last=Cohen |first=Patricia |date=2022-12-09 |title=Turkey Is Strengthening Its Energy Ties With Russia |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/09/business/turkey-erdogan-energy-russia.html |access-date=2022-12-14 |issn=0362-4331}}

According to a 2022 study the Presidency of Strategy and Budget and the Turkey Wealth Fund have the most influence on coal policy and investment decisions, but some say that the wealth fund lacks public scrutiny.{{Cite book |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003044543/political-economy-coal-michael-jakob-jan-steckel |title=The Political Economy of Coal: Obstacles to Clean Energy Transitions |year=2022 |editor-last=Jakob |editor-first=Michael |doi=10.4324/9781003044543 |isbn=9781003044543 |editor-last2=Steckel |editor-first2=Jan C. |last1=Jakob |first1=Michael |last2=Steckel |first2=Jan C. |publisher=Routledge |location=London }}{{Rp|page=157}} The study concluded that increasing energy security and thus national security by limiting imports was the main energy policy aim.{{Rp|page=159}} Increasing coal power was part of the 2022 national energy plan,{{Cite web |title=National Energy Plan |url=https://enerji.gov.tr/Media/Dizin/EIGM/tr/Raporlar/TUEP/T%C3%BCrkiye_National_Energy_Plan.pdf}}{{Rp|page=15}} but the private sector will not invest in it without substantial government support. According to Ümit Şahin, who teaches climate change at Sabancı University, Turkey is not facing up to the reality that most coal will have to be left in the ground and risks losing access to international climate finance if the country does not quickly schedule an exit from coal.{{sfnp|ŞahinTürkkan|2019}}

Many local communities strongly oppose coal power stations{{Cite book|last1=Turhan|first1=Ethemcan|url=https://www.oapen.org/download?type=document&docid=1005506|title=Transforming Socio-Natures in Turkey: Landscapes, State and Environmental Movements|last2=Özkaynak|first2=Begüm|last3=Aydın|first3=Cem İskender|year=2020|isbn=978-0-429-42969-9}} and mines,{{Cite web|title=Dereköy Yaylası'na maden ocağı girişimi köylüleri ayağa kaldırdı|url=https://yesilgazete.org/blog/2020/02/05/derekoy-yaylasina-maden-ocagi-girisimi-koyluleri-ayaga-kaldirdi/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200626203529/https://yesilgazete.org/blog/2020/02/05/derekoy-yaylasina-maden-ocagi-girisimi-koyluleri-ayaga-kaldirdi/|url-status=dead|archive-date=26 June 2020|date=5 February 2020|website=Yeşil Gazete – ekolojik, politik, katılımcı, şenlikli...|language=tr-TR|trans-title=Villagers stand up to Dereköy high pasture mine enterprise|access-date=2 April 2020}} sometimes taking legal action against them.{{Cite news|title=Hatay'daki Çevre Koruma Dernekleri 305 Maden Sahasının İptalini Talep Etti|newspaper=Körfez Gazetesi |url=https://www.korfezgazete.com/hataydaki-cevre-koruma-dernekleri-305-maden-sahasinin-iptalini-talep-etti/|date=19 March 2020 |language=tr|trans-title=Hatay environmental organisations apply to shutdown 305 mines|access-date=2 April 2020}} From the late 2000s, residents of Amasra strongly fought against the establishment of a coal-fired power station near the city; it was cancelled.{{cite web |title=Regional Briefings for the 2018 Coal Plant Developers List |url=https://coalexit.org/sites/default/files/inline-files/Regional%20Briefings%20CPDL_10-04-2018_final.pdf |work=Coalexit |date=2018 |access-date=21 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412013642/https://coalexit.org/sites/default/files/inline-files/Regional%20Briefings%20CPDL_10-04-2018_final.pdf |archive-date=12 April 2019 |url-status=live }} In Alpu district, locals of the region won a court battle in 2018 to prevent the building of a new coal mine; the 14th chamber of the Council of State ruled that the mine could only be built with an environmental report.{{cite news |title=Court says 'environment report necessary' for planned coal mine in western Turkey |url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/court-says-environment-report-necessary-for-planned-new-coal-mine-in-western-turkey-135665 |work=Demirören News Agency |date=10 August 2018 |access-date=26 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016164949/http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/court-says-environment-report-necessary-for-planned-new-coal-mine-in-western-turkey-135665 |archive-date=16 October 2018 |url-status=live }} Turkish activists have also taken their campaign to international conferences.{{cite news |title=Climate change: Governments don't act? We do! |url=https://www.dw.com/en/climate-change-governments-dont-act-we-do/a-46744981 |work=Deutsche Welle |date=14 December 2018 |access-date=18 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181219000851/https://www.dw.com/en/climate-change-governments-dont-act-we-do/a-46744981 |archive-date=19 December 2018 |url-status=live }} Nevertheless, in 2019 only 36 of the 600 members of parliament voted to reduce power plant emission limits.{{Cite web|title=Termik santralların gerçek bedeli ölüm|url=https://www.birgun.net/haber/termik-santrallarin-gercek-bedeli-olum-277431|website=birgun.net|language=tr|trans-title=The real cost of thermal power stations is death|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131110419/https://www.birgun.net/haber/termik-santrallarin-gercek-bedeli-olum-277431|archive-date=31 January 2020|access-date=31 January 2020}} In 2021 inhabitant of İkizköy village continue to protest and filed a lawsuit: they claim that a permit to cut down Akbelen Forest to expand a lignite mine should not have been granted without an environmental impact assessment.{{Cite news|date=9 September 2021|title=Akbelen Ormanı eylemcileri: 'Vicdanı olan hiç kimse bu ormanın kesilmesine onay vermez'|language=tr|trans-title=Akbelen Forest activists: 'No one with a conscience would permit this forest to be cut down'|work=BBC News Türkçe|url=https://www.bbc.com/turkce/haberler-turkiye-58507458|access-date=2021-09-10}} The company (part owned by Limak Holding) says that Akbelen was allocated to the coal mine when the Kemerköy and Yeniköy power plants were built, and that the General Directorate of Forestry defined it as an "industrial plantation area for 2019".{{Cite web |date=2021-08-13 |title=Kamuoyu Bi̇lgi̇lendi̇rme |trans-title=Public notice |url=https://www.ykenerji.com.tr/tr/haber/kamuoyu-bilgilendirme |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210909202001/https://www.ykenerji.com.tr/tr/haber/kamuoyu-bilgilendirme |archive-date=9 September 2021 |access-date= |website=www.ykenerji.com.tr |language=tr}}

The Green Party is calling for an end to coal burning, and all fossil fuel use to be phased out by 2050,{{Cite web|date=2020-09-21|title=Greens in Turkey Launch Green Party!|url=https://yesiller.org.tr/2020/09/21/greens-in-turkey-launch-green-party/|access-date=2020-09-22|website=Yeşiller Partisi|language=tr|archive-date=1 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201001232556/https://yesiller.org.tr/2020/09/21/greens-in-turkey-launch-green-party/|url-status=dead}} but has been barred from the 2023 general election.{{Cite web |last=Keyman |first=Fuat |date=2022-01-22 |title=Yeşiller Partisi niye engelleniyor ve Muhalefet ne yapmalı? |trans-title=Why is the Green Party blocked and what should the Opposition do? |url=https://www.politikyol.com/yesiller-partisi-niye-engelleniyor-ve-muhalefet-ne-yapmali/ |access-date=2022-01-27 |website=PolitikYol |language=tr}}{{Cite web |last=Siccardi |first=Francesco |title=Will Green Activism Save Turkey's Democracy? |url=https://carnegieeurope.eu/2022/06/30/will-green-activism-save-turkey-s-democracy-pub-87413 |access-date=2022-07-07 |website=Carnegie Europe |language=en |quote=the Ministry of Interior made an active decision not to approve the party's registration—a prerequisite for it to operate in Turkey}}{{Cite web |title=Türkiye 2022 Report |url=https://www.avrupa.info.tr/en/news/turkiye-2022-report-10910 |access-date=2023-01-13 |website=EU Delegation to Türkiye |language=en |archive-date=13 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230113174042/https://www.avrupa.info.tr/en/news/turkiye-2022-report-10910 |url-status=dead }}

The UN{{Cite web |title=UN Chief Calls for Immediate Global Action to Phase Out Coal |url=https://unfccc.int/news/un-chief-calls-for-immediate-global-action-to-phase-out-coal |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=unfccc.int}} and youth activists have called for a 2030 end date,{{Cite web |date=27 January 2022 |title=Petition by young people in Turkey: 'Prepare a coal exit action plan for a carbon-free future' |url=https://m.bianet.org/english/environment/256869-petition-by-young-people-in-turkey-prepare-a-coal-exit-action-plan-for-a-carbon-free-future |website=Bianet}} but {{As of|2023|lc=y}} there is no plan to reduce coal use.{{Cite web |date=2023-01-21 |title=Türkiye Ulusal Enerji Planı açıklandı: Güneş hedefi güçlü ama kömürden çıkış yok |url=https://www.bbc.com/turkce/articles/cmmzprr0j5po |access-date=2023-01-21 |website=BBC News Türkçe |language=tr}} The World Bank has proposed general objectives and estimated the cost, but has suggested government do far more detailed planning.{{Cite report |url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/37521 |title=Türkiye - Country Climate and Development Report |date=2022-06-13 |publisher=World Bank |language=en}}

A 2020 study of coal-fired residential heating in Turkey's 3rd largest city İzmir estimated the cost of replacing it versus the reduction in illness and premature deaths. Five old plants (Afşin-Elbistan A, Seyitömer, Tunçbilek, Kangal and Çatalağzı) were closed in 2020 because they did not meet new pollution limits{{Cite news|date=2 January 2020|title=Filtre taktırmayan ve baca gazı arıtma önlemi almayan 5 termik santral tamamen kapatıldı|language=en-GB|trans-title=Five thermal power stations which did not install filters or flue gas treatment shutdown completely|url=https://www.bbc.com/turkce/haberler-turkiye-50969252|url-status=live|access-date=2 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200112085934/https://www.bbc.com/turkce/haberler-turkiye-50969252|archive-date=12 January 2020}} but were all restarted later in the year.{{Cite web|url=http://m.bianet.org/english/environment/226781-six-coal-fired-plants-continue-to-emit-thick-smoke-after-end-of-suspension|title=Six coal-fired plants continue to emit thick smoke after end of suspension - english}} The country is the world's ninth-largest consumer of coal, similar to Poland.{{Cite report|last1=Sartor |first1=O.|title=Implementing Coal Transition - Insights from case studies of major coal-consuming economies|url=https://www.iddri.org/en/publications-and-events/report/implementing-coal-transition-insights-case-studies-major-coal|access-date=2021-02-08|website=IDDRI}} In contrast during the early 21st century German energy from coal fell from 6x that of Turkey to below Turkey.{{Cite web |date=2023-11-29 |title=Türkiye neden kömürden vazgeçmiyor, yenilenebilir enerji potansiyeli yeterli mi? |url=https://www.bbc.com/turkce/articles/c8783k2k5r1o |access-date=2023-11-29 |website=BBC News Türkçe |language=tr}} In terms of energy resources, Spain is more similar, having hydropower and abundant sunshine, and its transition away from coal could also be a model.{{cite news |title=Spain to close most coalmines in €250m transition deal |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/oct/26/spain-to-close-most-coal-mines-after-striking-250m-deal |work=The Guardian |date=26 October 2018 |access-date=27 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181027061514/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/oct/26/spain-to-close-most-coal-mines-after-striking-250m-deal |archive-date=27 October 2018 |url-status=live }} Turkish industry has experience converting coal to solar outside the country.{{Cite web|url=https://www.thefifthestate.com.au/energy-lead/energy/eastern-europe-shows-how-to-convert-coal-to-solar/|title=Eastern Europe shows how to convert coal to solar|date=3 March 2020|website=The Fifth Estate|language=en-AU|access-date=23 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200323180140/https://www.thefifthestate.com.au/energy-lead/energy/eastern-europe-shows-how-to-convert-coal-to-solar/|archive-date=23 March 2020|url-status=live}} Companies which get much of their revenue from coal (such as Elgin Emtia and İmbat with over 90%) are on the Urgewald Global Coal Exit List.{{Cite web |year=2023 |title=Explore the Data |url=https://www.coalexit.org/data |access-date= |website=coalexit.org}}

Historically some agricultural workers moved to coal with the expropriation of agricultural land for the coal industry.{{Rp|page=162}} Although only 0.3% of workers are coal miners it is very important for some small isolated communities: middle-aged miners in Soma are particularly vulnerable.{{Cite web |date=May 2024 |title=UNVEILING THE JUST TRANSITION: POLICY IMPLICATIONS AND DESCRIPTIVE DATA INSIGHTS FOR COAL MINERS IN TÜRKIYE |url=https://ipc.sabanciuniv.edu/Content/Images/CKeditorImages/20240516-11054259.pdf}} In 2019, the minimum wage for coal miners was twice the standard minimum wage.{{cite web |title=Changes to minimum wage, severance payments and administrative fines |date=13 February 2019 |url=https://www.internationallawoffice.com/Newsletters/Employment-Benefits/Turkey/Gn-Partners/Changes-to-minimum-wage-severance-payments-and-administrative-fines |publisher=Gün and Partners |access-date=22 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190213080534/https://www.internationallawoffice.com/Newsletters/Employment-Benefits/Turkey/Gn-Partners/Changes-to-minimum-wage-severance-payments-and-administrative-fines |archive-date=13 February 2019 |url-status=live }}

Due to the complex geology of the Zonguldak basin, hard coal production in Turkey is insignificant, heavily subsidised and labour-intensive.{{cite web |title=Turkey: country profile |date=November 2014 |url=https://euracoal.eu/info/country-profiles/turkey/ |publisher=Euracoal |access-date=27 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181027232015/https://euracoal.eu/info/country-profiles/turkey/ |archive-date=27 October 2018 |url-status=live }} However, Zonguldak Province is highly dependent on coal.{{cite book |last1=ERGEN |first1=Mustafa |title=A New Methodology Proposal for Urban Regeneration of Brownfield Areas; Case Study of Zonguldak City, Turkey|date=7 March 2013 |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/46912647.pdf |access-date=27 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181027190701/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/46912647.pdf |archive-date=27 October 2018 |url-status=live }} By 2021 the number of people working in hard coal mines in Zonguldak had dropped to 7,000: many people of working age had moved to Istanbul, and the population had decreased, leaving more pensioners than working people in the province.{{Cite web|title=Population of Turkey's Black Sea province of Zonguldak dwindles - Turkey News|url=https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/population-of-turkeys-black-sea-province-of-zonguldak-dwindles-163031|access-date=2021-03-21|website=Hürriyet Daily News|date=11 March 2021 |language=en}} Despite this, {{As of|2020||lc=y}}, Turkey had not implemented a just transition policy,{{Cite news|title=Madenciler, İçişleri Bakanı Soylu'nun 'çözüm sözü' sonrası 15 Ocak'a kadar eylemlerini durdurdu|language=tr|work=BBC News Türkçe|url=https://www.bbc.com/turkce/haberler-turkiye-54973947|access-date=2020-11-26}} although the government spoke in favor of it in 2015{{Cite web |date=May 2019 |title=Managing the Phase-out of Coal: A Comparison of Actions in G20 Countries |url=https://www.climate-transparency.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Managing-the-phase-out-of-coal-DIGITAL.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190524071757/https://www.climate-transparency.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Managing-the-phase-out-of-coal-DIGITAL.pdf |archive-date=24 May 2019 |access-date=24 May 2019 |website=Climate Transparency}} and it is supported by the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development{{Cite web|title=The EBRD's just transition initiative|url=https://www.ebrd.com/what-we-do/just-transition-initiative|website=European Bank for Reconstruction and Development}} and environmental organisations such as Greenpeace.{{Cite web|title=Zonguldak için adil dönüşüm|url=https://www.greenpeace.org/turkey/blog/zonguldak-icin-adil-donusum|access-date=2022-01-21|website=Greenpeace Akdeniz Türkiye|language=tr}}

{{Portal|Turkey|Global Warming}}

• {{annotated link|Environmental issues in Turkey}}
• {{annotated link|Glossary of coal mining terminology}}

{{Reflist|group="note"}}

{{notelist}}

{{Reflist|30em}}

{{refbegin}}

• {{cite report

|last1=Doukas

|first1=Alex

|last2=Gençsü

|first2=Ipek

|date=June 2019

|title=Turkey: G20 coal subsidies

|work=Overseas Development Institute

|url=https://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/resource-documents/12752.pdf

|access-date=26 June 2019

|archive-date=26 June 2019

|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190626152737/https://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/resource-documents/12752.pdf

|url-status=dead

}}

• {{cite report

|work=OECD

|title=OECD Environmental Performance Reviews: Turkey 2019

|last1=Efimova

|first1=Tatiana

|last2=Mazur

|first2=Eugene

|last3=Migotto

|first3=Mauro

|last4=Rambali

|first4=Mikaela

|last5=Samson

|first5=Rachel

|date=February 2019

|doi=10.1787/9789264309753-en

|series=OECD Environmental Performance Reviews

|isbn=9789264309760

}}

• {{cite report

|last = Ersoy

|first = Mücella

|year = 2019

|title = Turkish coal mining sector: Current State, Strategy for the Future

|url = http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/energy/images/CMM/CMM_CE/Turkey_2019/3._2019-_CBM_Workshop-M_Ersoy-100619.pdf

|publisher = Turkish Coal Operations Authority

}}

• {{cite report

|title=Turkey Mining

|year=2018

|publisher=Global Business Reports

|url=https://www.gbreports.com/files/pdf/_2018/Turkey_Mining_2018_-_Web_Version.pdf

| ref = {{SfnRef|Global Business Reports|2018}}

}}

• {{Cite conference

|title=Desertification, Soil Organic Carbon, Erosion against Fossil Fuel Plants: The Review of Struggle of Cross-Purposes in Turkey

|first1=Hikmet

|last1=Öztürk

|first2=Özlem

|last2=Katisöz

|first3=Erhan

|last3=Akça

|editor=Ayten Namli

|editor2=Oğuz Can Turgay

|editor3=Muhittin Onur Akça

|book-title=Proceedings 10th International Soil Congress

|year=2019

|url=http://www.toprak.org.tr/files/Proceeding-Soil-2019.pdf

|location=Ankara

}}

• {{Cite magazine

|last1=Şahin

|first1=Ümit

|last2=Türkkan

|first2=Seçil

|date=January 2019

|title=Turkey's Climate Policies Have Reached a Deadlock: It Takes Courage to Resolve It

|url=https://www.hyd.org.tr/attachments/article/511/saha2en.pdf

|magazine=saha

|volume=Special Issue 2

|pages=24–30

|issn=2149-7885

}}

{{Refend}}

• [https://enerji.gov.tr//Preview/en/a813df84-af82-4881-9afa-8c6a6229a0ed/1 Energy Ministry]
• [https://www.turkiye.gov.tr/migem-e-maden E-maden (government repository of mining information – in Turkish and access restricted)]
• [http://www.komurder.org/ Kömür Üreticileri Derneği (Turkish Coal Producers Association)]
• [https://www.shura.org.tr/eng/ SHURA Energy Transition Center] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200622101538/https://www.shura.org.tr/eng/ |date=22 June 2020 }}
• [https://seffaflik.epias.com.tr/transparency/index.xhtml Electricity markets, generation and consumption up to date statistics]
• [https://www.electricitymap.org/?page=country&solar=false&remote=true&wind=false&countryCode=TR Live carbon emissions from electricity generation]
• [https://www.gem.wiki/Category:Coal_mines_in_Turkey "Coal mines in Turkey"] category Global Energy Monitor
• [https://beyondfossilfuels.org/tag/turkey/?s=turkey&post_types=post,page,siteimage Beyond Fossil fuel articles], Beyond Coal
• [https://www.globalmethane.org/partners/partner.aspx?c=turkey Methane emissions – including from coal mines]
• [https://www.greenpeace.org/turkey/tag/komur/ Greenpeace – in Turkish]
• [https://euracoal.eu/info/country-profiles/turkey/ Turkey profile at Euracoal]
• [https://www.coalinturkey.com/ Coal in Turkey according to environmental group Ekosfer] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201009074654/https://www.coalinturkey.com/ |date=9 October 2020 }}

{{Asia topic|Coal in}}

{{Europe topic|Coal in}}

Category:Climate change in Turkey