coal power in Turkey

{{see also|Energy in Turkey#Policy and regulation}}

Energy strategy includes increasing the share of not just renewable energy in Turkey, but also other local energy resources to support the country's development and to reduce dependence on energy imports.{{Cite web|date=12 January 2022|title=Turkey's International Energy Strategy|url=https://www.mfa.gov.tr/turkeys-energy-strategy.en.mfa|url-status=live|website=Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Turkey)|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120919172702/http://www.mfa.gov.tr:80/turkeys-energy-strategy.en.mfa |archive-date=19 September 2012 }} {{As of|2022}} Turkey has not ratified the Gothenburg Protocol on emissions ceilings for sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.{{Cite web|title=United Nations Treaty Collection: Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution to Abate Acidification, Eutrophication and Ground-level Ozone|url=https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=IND&mtdsg_no=XXVII-1-h&chapter=27&clang=_en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417022659/https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=IND&mtdsg_no=XXVII-1-h&chapter=27&clang=_en |archive-date=17 April 2021 |access-date=12 January 2022|website=treaties.un.org}} Earlier in 2021 Turkey ratified the Paris Agreement to limit climate change, but {{As of|2021|October|lc=y}} policy was still to increase domestic coal share in the energy mix, and planned increases in coal power were forecast to increase {{CO2}} emissions.{{Cite web|date=October 2020|title=Overview of the Turkish Electricity Market|url=https://www.invest.gov.tr/en/library/publications/lists/investpublications/overview-of-turkish-electricity-market.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021092554/https://www.invest.gov.tr/en/library/publications/lists/investpublications/overview-of-turkish-electricity-market.pdf|archive-date=21 October 2021|access-date=21 October 2021|website=PricewaterhouseCoopers}}{{Rp|79, 87}} Greenhouse gas emissions are pledged to peak by 2038 at the latest.{{Cite news |last=Kucukgocmen |first=Ali |date=2022-11-15 |title=Turkey raises greenhouse gas emission reduction target for 2030 |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/cop/turkey-boosts-greenhouse-gas-emission-reduction-target-2030-2022-11-15/ |access-date=2023-04-06}}

File:Control room of Zetes-3 power station.jpg, one of many coal-fired power stations built in the 2010s|alt=People sitting at a row of desks facing both desktop screens and large wall screens]]

File:Electricity Turkey.svg

{{see also|List of active coal-fired power stations in Turkey|Electricity sector in Turkey}}

Coal-fired power stations generate approximately one third of the nation's electricity:{{Cite web|date=10 July 2021|title=Gas takes bigger share in Turkey's power as drought lowers hydro output|url=https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/gas-takes-bigger-share-in-turkeys-power-as-drought-lowers-hydro-output-166186|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210716150454/https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/gas-takes-bigger-share-in-turkeys-power-as-drought-lowers-hydro-output-166186|archive-date=16 July 2021|access-date=2021-07-16|website=Hürriyet Daily News|language=}} in 2020 made up of 62 TWh from imported coal and 44 TWh from local coal (almost all lignite).{{Cite web|date=2021|title=Kömür Sektör Raporu 2020|trans-title=Coal sector report 2020|url=https://www.tki.gov.tr/yayinlar|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220104181131/https://www.tki.gov.tr/yayinlar|archive-date=4 January 2022|access-date=4 January 2022|website=Turkish Coal Operations Authority}}{{refn|group=note|1=In 2022 coal-fired power stations gross generation was 113 terawatt hours (TWh), which was 36% of total gross generation.{{cite web |title=Coal |url=https://enerji.gov.tr/info-banknatural-resourcescoal |publisher=Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources |access-date=11 August 2023 }} The figures in List of active coal-fired power stations in Turkey are net generation.

}} {{As of|2025}} there are 55{{refn|group=note|1=See :tr:Türkiye'deki kömür yakıtlı enerji santralleri listesi or its underlying Wikidata for details. Except for 1 hard coal and 1 asphaltite power station, all domestic coal power stations are lignite-fired power stations.{{Rp|page=41}}}} licensed coal-fired power stations with a total capacity in December 2022 of 21.8111 gigawatts (GW).{{Cite web |title=Coal |url=https://enerji.gov.tr/english-info-bank-natural-resources-coal}} There is no unlicensed coal power.{{Cite web |title=EPDK {{!}} Enerji Piyasası Düzenleme Kurumu: 2021 Yılı Elektrik Piyasası Gelişim Raporu |url=https://www.epdk.gov.tr/Detay/Icerik/3-0-24/elektrikyillik-sektor-raporu |access-date=2022-06-07 |website=www.epdk.gov.tr}}{{Rp|page=10}} The average thermal efficiency of Turkey's coal-fired power stations is 36%.{{Cite web|title=Kömür ve Linyit Yakıtlı Termik Santraller|trans-title=Coal and lignite fuelled power stations|url=https://www.enerjiatlasi.com/komur/|url-status=live|access-date=2022-01-12|website=Enerji Atlası|language=tr-TR|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140405213557/http://www.enerjiatlasi.com:80/komur/ |archive-date=5 April 2014 }} Generation fell in 2021 due to the high cost of imported coal (over $70 /MWh).{{Cite web|title=Turkey Electricity Review 2022|url=https://ember-climate.org/project/turkey-electricity-review-2022/|access-date=2022-01-20|website=Ember|date=20 January 2022 |language=en-GB}} Emba Hunutlu was the last coal plant to be built and started up in 2022.{{Cite news |date=2022-07-27 |title=Turkey's new power plant exposes 'huge contradictions' of net zero pledge |work=Financial Times |url=https://www.ft.com/content/1aa8c98b-ff80-461b-bad6-b3232377f904 |access-date=2022-08-02}} Shanghai Electric Power said it would be China's largest ever direct investment in Turkey.{{cite news |date=9 July 2015 |title=SEP Turkey Hunutlu Coal-fired Power Project Ratified |publisher=Shanghai Electric Power |url=http://www.shanghaipower.com/power/nr/mn/201507/t20150731_24678.html |url-status=live |access-date=16 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210716223237/http://www.shanghaipower.com/power/nr/mn/201507/t20150731_24678.html |archive-date=16 July 2021}} However, according to the World Wide Fund for Nature, it could not make a profit if it was not subsidized.{{Cite web |date=13 January 2021 |title=Yenilenebilir Enerji Çağında Kömürün Fizibilitesi: Hunutlu Termik Santrali Örneği |trans-title=Feasibility of Coal in the age of Renewable Energy: The case of Hunutlu Thermal Power Station |url=https://www.wwf.org.tr/?10440/Yenilenebilir-Enerji-Caginda-Komurun-Fizibilitesi-Hunutlu-Termik--Santrali-Ornegi |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220112172740/https://www.wwf.org.tr/?10440/Yenilenebilir-Enerji-Caginda-Komurun-Fizibilitesi-Hunutlu-Termik--Santrali-Ornegi |archive-date=12 January 2022 |access-date=2022-01-12 |website=WWF Turkey |language=tr}} Afşin-Elbistan C and further new coal-fired power stations will probably not be constructed,{{Cite web |last=Direskeneli |first=Haluk |date=3 January 2020 |title=Enerji piyasalarında 2020 yılı öngörüleri |trans-title=Looking ahead to the 2020 energy market |url=https://www.enerjigunlugu.net/enerji-piyasalarinda-2020-yili-ongoruleri-31771yy.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130145541/https://www.enerjigunlugu.net/enerji-piyasalarinda-2020-yili-ongoruleri-31771yy.htm |archive-date=30 November 2020 |access-date=4 January 2020 |website=Enerji Günlüğü |language=tr}}{{Cite web |title=Turkey: Energy And Infrastructure Forecasts For 2022 – OpEd |date=29 November 2021 |url=https://www.eurasiareview.com/29112021-turkey-energy-and-infrastructure-forecasts-for-2022-oped/}} due to public opposition,{{Cite report |url=https://globalenergymonitor.org/report/boom-and-bust-coal-2023/ |title=Boom and Bust Coal 2023 |date=2023-04-05 |publisher=Global Energy Monitor}} court cases,{{Cite news |title=Kahramanmaraş'ta mahkeme Afşin C Termik Santrali için yürütmeyi durdurma kararı verdi, bundan sonra ne olacak? |language=tr |work=BBC News Türkçe |url=https://www.bbc.com/turkce/haberler-dunya-60748877 |access-date=2022-03-16}} and the risk of them becoming stranded assets.{{Cite news |last=Livsey |first=Alan |date=2020-02-04 |title=Lex in depth: the $900bn cost of 'stranded energy assets' |website=Financial Times |url=https://www.ft.com/content/95efca74-4299-11ea-a43a-c4b328d9061c |url-status=live |access-date=16 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210711001506/https://www.ft.com/content/95efca74-4299-11ea-a43a-c4b328d9061c |archive-date=11 July 2021}}{{Cite web|date=28 October 2021|title=2022'de temiz enerji ön plana çıkacak|trans-title=Clean energy will come to the fore in 2022|url=https://www.trthaber.com/haber/ekonomi/2022de-temiz-enerji-on-plana-cikacak-621219.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028141508/https://www.trthaber.com/haber/ekonomi/2022de-temiz-enerji-on-plana-cikacak-621219.html|archive-date=28 October 2021|access-date=2021-10-28|website=TRT Haber|language=tr}} Typical thermal efficiencies are 39%, 42% and 44% for subcritical, supercritical and ultra supercritical power stations.{{Cite web|date=2021-02-04|title=Health and Environment Alliance {{!}} Pollution from coal power costs Turkey as much as 27% of its total health expenditure – new report|url=https://www.env-health.org/pollution-from-coal-power-costs-turkey-as-much-as-27-of-its-total-health-expenditure-new-report/|access-date=2022-02-14|website=Health and Environment Alliance|language=en-GB}}

In 2022 the average age of a coal power station was 17 years,{{cite web | url=https://www.iea.org/reports/coal-in-net-zero-transitions | title=Coal in Net Zero Transitions – Analysis | date=15 November 2022 }}{{Rp|62}} as much of the operational fleet was built in the 21st century. There was oversupply of generating capacity and a drop in demand in 2020, and a quarter of power stations were estimated to be cashflow negative.{{Cite report|url=https://carbontracker.org/reports/political-decisions-economic-realities/|title=Political decisions, economic realities: The underlying operating cashflows of coal power during COVID-19|date=2020-04-08|publisher=Carbon Tracker|access-date=16 July 2021|archive-date=12 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200412001758/https://carbontracker.org/reports/political-decisions-economic-realities/|url-status=live}} Solar generation fits better with consumption, as annual peak electricity demand is on summer afternoons, due to air conditioning.{{Cite web|date=30 June 2021|title=Turkey breaks power consumption record on stifling hot day|url=https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-breaks-power-consumption-record-on-stifling-hot-day-165921|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220111085140/https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-breaks-power-consumption-record-on-stifling-hot-day-165921|archive-date=11 January 2022|access-date=2021-07-03|website=Hürriyet Daily News|language=en}}

Germany is closing lignite-fired stations under 150 MW.{{Cite web|date=2020-11-27|title=EU approves German scheme to compensate hard coal plants for early closure|url=https://www.energylivenews.com/2020/11/27/eu-approves-german-scheme-to-compensate-hard-coal-plants-for-early-closure/|access-date=2021-01-24|website=Energy Live News|language=en-US|archive-date=7 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210407131636/https://www.energylivenews.com/2020/11/27/eu-approves-german-scheme-to-compensate-hard-coal-plants-for-early-closure/|url-status=live}} Neighbouring Greece is closing down all its lignite-fueled power stations.{{Cite news|date=2020-02-17|title=Lignite phase-out a key aspect of national energy policy, Mitsotakis says|publisher=Kathimerini|url=http://www.ekathimerini.com/249652/article/ekathimerini/business/lignite-phase-out-a-key-aspect-of-national-energy-policy-mitsotakis-says|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200221141841/http://www.ekathimerini.com/249652/article/ekathimerini/business/lignite-phase-out-a-key-aspect-of-national-energy-policy-mitsotakis-says|archive-date=21 February 2020}}

Yunus Emre power station was completed in 2020,{{Rp|page=42}} but had only generated 700 hours of power to the grid by 2022.{{Cite web|title=Real-Time Generation|url=https://seffaflik.epias.com.tr/transparency/uretim/gerceklesen-uretim/gercek-zamanli-uretim.xhtml|url-status=live|access-date=2022-01-14|website=EXIST Transparency Platform|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160318221738/http://seffaflik.epias.com.tr:80/transparency/uretim/gerceklesen-uretim/gercek-zamanli-uretim.xhtml |archive-date=18 March 2016 }}{{Cite report |last1=Monitor |first1=Global Energy |last2=CREA |last3=E3G |last4=Club |first4=Sierra |last5=SFOC |last6=Network |first6=Kiko |last7=Europe |first7=C. a. N. |last8=LIFE |last9=BWGED |last10=BAPA |last11=Bangladesh |first11=Waterkeepers |date=2022-04-25 |title=Boom And Bust Coal 2022 |url=https://globalenergymonitor.org/report/boom-and-bust-coal-2022/ |language=en-US}} As coal in the local area is unsuitable for its boilers it became a stranded asset: it was bought by Yıldızlar Holding (Yıldızlar SSS Holding A.Ş. not to be confused with Yıldız Holding).{{Rp|page=30}} In May 2023 Vice President Fuat Oktay said that unit 1 would be restarted in June,{{Cite web |title=Bakan Dönmez Eskişehir Yunus Emre Termik Santrali'ni ziyaret etti |url=https://enerji.gov.tr/haber-detay?id=21157}} and by mid-August about 60 GWh had been sent to the grid.{{Cite web |title=Gerçek Zamanlı Üretim - Gerçekleşen Üretim - Üretim {{!}} EPİAŞ Şeffaflık Platformu |url=https://seffaflik.epias.com.tr/transparency/uretim/gerceklesen-uretim/gercek-zamanli-uretim.xhtml |access-date=2023-08-11 |website=seffaflik.epias.com.tr}}

With a few exceptions stations smaller than 200 MW provide both electricity and heat, often to factories, whereas almost all those larger than 200 MW just generate electricity. Companies owning large amounts of coal power include Eren, Çelikler, Aydem, İÇDAŞ, Anadolu Birlik (via Konya Sugar) and Diler.{{Cite report |url=https://www.pwc.com.tr/overview-of-the-turkish-electricity-market |title=Overview of the Turkish Electricity Market |last= |date=October 2021 |publisher=PricewaterhouseCoopers |access-date=28 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211128130626/https://www.pwc.com.tr/overview-of-the-turkish-electricity-market |archive-date=28 November 2021 |url-status=live}}{{Rp|page=31}}

Turkey plans to substantially increase the contribution of solar and wind power to its mix of generation. Cost-effective system operation with a high proportion of these intermittent generation sources requires system flexibility, where other sources of generation can be ramped up or down promptly in response to changes in intermittent generation. However, conventional coal-fired generation may not have the flexibility required to accommodate a large proportion of solar and wind power. Retrofitting to increase the ramp-up rate to reach full load in 1 hour, and lower minimum generation to half max may be possible for about 9 GW (just under half) of installed capacity.{{Cite journal|last1=Saygin|first1=D.|last2=Tör|first2=O. B.|last3=Cebeci|first3=M. E.|last4=Teimourzadeh|first4=S.|last5=Godron|first5=P.|date=2021-03-01|title=Increasing Turkey's power system flexibility for grid integration of 50% renewable energy share|journal=Energy Strategy Reviews|language=en|volume=34|pages=100625|doi=10.1016/j.esr.2021.100625|s2cid=233798310|issn=2211-467X|doi-access=free|bibcode=2021EneSR..3400625S }} Lignite-fired power stations are less able to ramp up and down.{{Rp|page=5}}

{{main|Coal in Turkey}}

Government policy supports continued generation from lignite (brown coal) because it is mined locally,{{Cite report|publisher=Presidency of Strategy and Budget|date=2020|title=Eleventh Development Plan (2019-2023)|url=http://www.sbb.gov.tr/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Eleventh_Development_Plan-2019-2023.pdf|access-date=18 July 2021|archive-date=25 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925131542/http://www.sbb.gov.tr/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Eleventh_Development_Plan-2019-2023.pdf|url-status=live}} whereas almost all hard coal (anthracite and bituminous coal) is imported.{{cite report|url=https://www.euas.gov.tr/tr-TR/yillik-raporlar|title=EUAS Yıllık Rapor 2020|publisher=EÜAŞ|trans-title=2020 Annual Report|date=|access-date=16 July 2021|archive-date=17 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210217115339/https://www.euas.gov.tr/tr-TR/yillik-raporlar|url-status=live}} In 2020, 51 million tonnes (83%) of lignite and 22 million tonnes (55%) of hard coal was burnt in power stations.{{Cite web|title=Solid Fuels, December 2020|url=https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=Solid-Fuels-December-2020-37443|url-status=live|access-date=2021-07-16|website=Turkstat|archive-date=16 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210716144451/https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=Solid-Fuels-December-2020-37443}}

In 2020 Anadolu Birlik Holding, Çelikler Holding, Ciner Holding, Diler Holding, Eren Holding, Aydem, IC İçtaş, Kolin and Odaş, were substantially involved in electricity generation from coal.{{Cite web |title=2020 KÜRESEL KÖMÜRDEN ÇIKIŞ LİSTESİ: Dünyada 935 şirket kömür yatırımını genişletmeyi hedefliyor |url=https://www.bianet.org/bianet/iklim-krizi/234307-dunyada-935-sirket-komur-yatirimini-genisletmeyi-hedefliyor |access-date=2020-11-18 |website=Bianet}}

File:Afsin-Elbistan Power Complex, Kahramanmaraş Turkey - Planet Labs satellite image.jpg to the right|alt=Satellite pic of very large rectangular pit with a dark base, and a much smaller power plant nearby ]]

Power stations burning lignite tend to be near local coalmines, such as Elbistan, because Turkish lignite's calorific value is less than 12.5 MJ/kg (and Afsin Elbistan lignite less than 5 MJ/kg, which is a quarter of typical thermal coal),{{Cite web|title=Nuclear Power in Turkey|url=https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-t-z/turkey.aspx|access-date=2020-06-12|publisher=World Nuclear Association|archive-date=30 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130172546/https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-t-z/turkey.aspx|url-status=live}} and about 90% has lower heat value under 3,000 kcal/kg,{{Cite web|title=Coal|url=https://enerji.gov.tr/info-banknatural-resourcescoal|url-status=live|website=Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources (Turkey)|access-date=21 July 2021|archive-date=12 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112164827/https://enerji.gov.tr/info-banknatural-resourcescoal}} so is not worth transporting. According to energy analyst Haluk Direskeneli because of the low quality of Turkish lignite large amounts of supplementary fuel oil is used in lignite fired power stations.{{Cite web|last=Direskeneli|first=Haluk|date=2021-10-06|title=Coal Plant Without Coal: Only In Turkey|url=https://www.eurasiareview.com/07102021-coal-plant-without-coal-only-in-turkey-oped/|access-date=2021-10-21|website=Eurasia Review|language=en-US|archive-date=19 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019190745/https://www.eurasiareview.com/07102021-coal-plant-without-coal-only-in-turkey-oped/|url-status=live}} In 2025 he said that because flue gas treatment systems consume 8 to 10% of the electricity generated they are often not used.{{Cite web |last=Direskeneli |first=Haluk |date=2025-04-30 |title=‘Clean Coal’: An Oxymoron In The Turkish Context – OpEd |url=https://www.eurasiareview.com/30042025-clean-coal-an-oxymoron-in-the-turkish-context-oped/ |access-date=2025-05-18 |website=Eurasia Review |language=en-US}} The emission factor is about 105 t/TJ.(cite 2023 NIR page 73 table 3.18){{Citation needed|date=December 2023}}

To minimize transport costs, power stations burning imported coal are usually located on the coast; with clusters in Çanakkale and Zonguldak provinces and around Iskenderun Bay.{{Cite news|last=Walker|first=Laurence|date=11 Feb 2020|title=Turkish coal imports set to rise in 2020 – analysts|website=www.montelnews.com|url=http://www.montelnews.com/en/story/turkish-coal-imports-set-to-rise-in-2020--analysts/1086380|url-status=live|access-date=2020-04-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009205640/https://www.montelnews.com/en/news/1086380/turkish-coal-imports-set-to-rise-in-2020--analysts|archive-date=9 October 2021}} Coal with up to 3% sulphur and minimum 5,400 kcal/kg can be imported, with capacity to burn about 25 million tons a year.{{Cite web|date=2021-10-21|title=Turkey softens coal import restrictions|url=https://www.argusmedia.com/en/news/2265933-turkey-softens-coal-import-restrictions|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028134039/https://www.argusmedia.com/en/news/2265933-turkey-softens-coal-import-restrictions|archive-date=28 October 2021|access-date=2021-10-28|website=Argus Media|language=en}} In 2023 over half of thermal coal imports were from Russia.{{Cite web |title=Turkey on track to become Europe's top coal burner in 2024 |website=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/markets/commodities/turkey-track-become-europes-top-coal-burner-2024-2024-01-30/}} According to thinktank Ember, {{As of|2021|lc=y}}, building new wind and solar power is cheaper than running existing coal power stations which depend on imported coal.{{Cite web|date=2021-09-27|title=Turkey: New wind and solar power now cheaper than running existing coal plants relying on imports|url=https://ember-climate.org/commentary/2021/09/28/turkey-coal-wind-solar-costs/|access-date=2021-09-29|website=Ember|language=en-GB|archive-date=29 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210929162349/https://ember-climate.org/commentary/2021/09/28/turkey-coal-wind-solar-costs/|url-status=live}}

File:Health effects of coal-fired power stations in Turkey 2019.svg

{{see also|Air pollution in Turkey#Flue gas emission limits}}

Air pollution is a significant environmental and public health problem in Turkey, and has been for decades.{{refn|group=note|1=Environmental impact assessments can be found by searching https://eced-duyuru.csb.gov.tr/eced-prod/duyurular.xhtml with Sektör=Enerji and Alt Sektör= Termik Santraller}} A 1996 court order to shut 3 polluting power stations was not enforced.{{Cite report|url=https://www.eufje.org/images/docConf/buc2016/CASE%20OF%20OKYAY%20AND%20OTHERS%20%20v.%20TURKEY.pdf|title=Case of Okyay and others v. Turkey|date=12 October 2005|publisher=Council of Europe|access-date=16 July 2021|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709154226/https://www.eufje.org/images/docConf/buc2016/CASE%20OF%20OKYAY%20AND%20OTHERS%20%20v.%20TURKEY.pdf|url-status=live}} Levels of air pollution have been recorded above the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines in 51 out of 81 provinces. As for long range air pollution, Turkey has not ratified the Gothenburg Protocol which covers PM 2.5 (fine particles),{{Cite web|title=United Nations Treaty Collection|url=https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=IND&mtdsg_no=XXVII-1-h&chapter=27&clang=_en|access-date=2021-03-31|website=treaties.un.org|archive-date=17 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417022659/https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=IND&mtdsg_no=XXVII-1-h&chapter=27&clang=_en|url-status=live}} and reporting under the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution has been criticized as incomplete.{{Cite web|date=March 2021|title=Inventory Review 2021 Review of emission data reported under the LRTAP Convention|url=https://www.ceip.at/fileadmin/inhalte/ceip/00_pdf_other/2021/inventoryreport_2021.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220112064342/https://www.ceip.at/fileadmin/inhalte/ceip/00_pdf_other/2021/inventoryreport_2021.pdf|archive-date=12 January 2022|access-date=7 January 2022|website=EMEP Centre on Emission Inventories and Projections}}{{Rp|page=10}}

New flue gas emission limits were introduced in January 2020,{{cite journal|date=20 December 2014|title=Sanayi̇ Kaynaklı Hava Ki̇rli̇li̇ği̇ni̇n Kontrolü Yönetmeli̇ği̇nde Deği̇şi̇kli̇k Yapılmasına Dai̇r Yönetmeli̇k|trans-title=Regulation Amending the Regulation on Control of Industrial Air Pollution|url=http://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2014/12/20141220-2.htm|url-status=live|journal=Official Gazette of the Republic of Turkey|issue=29211|page=Appx 1 page 15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227034715/http://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2014/12/20141220-2.htm|archive-date=27 February 2019|access-date=22 February 2019}}{{Cite web|date=2017|title=Emission standards: Turkey|url=https://www.iea-coal.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/Turkey-emissions-standard.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009205638/https://www.sustainable-carbon.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/Turkey-emissions-standard.pdf|archive-date=9 October 2021|access-date=16 July 2021|website=International Energy Agency}} resulting in five 20th century power stations being shut down that month because they did not meet the new limits.{{Cite news|date=2 January 2020|title=Turkey shuts power plants for not installing filters|publisher=Anadolu Agency|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/energy/coal/turkey-shuts-power-plants-for-not-installing-filters/27934|url-status=live|access-date=2 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200102173027/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/energy/coal/turkey-shuts-power-plants-for-not-installing-filters/27934|archive-date=2 January 2020}} They were all re-licensed after improvements in 2020, such as new flue gas filters,{{Cite news|date=22 May 2020|title=Close Unfiltered Thermal Plants in Turkey During Coronavirus Outbreak|work=Bianet|url=http://m.bianet.org/english/health/224652-close-unfiltered-thermal-plants-in-turkey-during-coronavirus-outbreak|access-date=16 July 2021|archive-date=9 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009205636/https://m.bianet.org/english/health/224652-close-unfiltered-thermal-plants-in-turkey-during-coronavirus-outbreak|url-status=live}}{{Cite news|date=17 June 2020|title=Coal-fired plants reopen: Engineers cast doubt on minister's statement that 'obligations fulfilled'|publisher=Bianet|url=https://bianet.org/5/101/225855-coal-fired-plants-reopen-engineers-cast-doubt-on-minister-s-statement-that-obligations-fulfilled|access-date=16 July 2021|archive-date=9 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009205636/https://bianet.org/5/101/225855-coal-fired-plants-reopen-engineers-cast-doubt-on-minister-s-statement-that-obligations-fulfilled|url-status=live}} but the effectiveness of the improvements is being questioned,{{sfnp|Aytaç|2020}}{{Cite web|last=Direskeneli|first=Haluk|date=2021-01-04|title=Turkey: Energy And Infrastructure Forecast 2021- OpEd|url=http://www.eurasiareview.com/04012021-turkey-energy-and-infrastructure-forecast-2021-oped/|access-date=2021-01-07|website=Eurasia Review|language=en-US|archive-date=18 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210718145930/https://www.eurasiareview.com/04012021-turkey-energy-and-infrastructure-forecast-2021-oped/|url-status=live}} as expenditure may not have been sufficient. There is not enough data regarding modern filters, due to many government ambient air monitoring points both being defective{{Cite news|date=2 July 2020|title=Six coal-fired plants continue to emit thick smoke after end of suspension|work=Bianet|quote=Orhan Aytaş from the Chamber of Mechanical Engineers said the plant has installed a dry cooling system, which was ineffective due to the high amount of sulphur in the smoke of Turkey's coals.|url=http://bianet.org/english/environment/226781-six-coal-fired-plants-continue-to-emit-thick-smoke-after-end-of-suspension|access-date=16 July 2021|archive-date=24 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224131736/https://bianet.org/english/environment/226781-six-coal-fired-plants-continue-to-emit-thick-smoke-after-end-of-suspension|url-status=live}} and not measuring fine particulate matter.{{Cite news|date=13 August 2020|title=Report: Air pollution becoming more lethal in Turkey while scientists struggle to access data|work=Bianet|url=http://bianet.org/english/environment/228962-report-air-pollution-becoming-more-lethal-in-turkey-while-scientists-struggle-to-access-data|access-date=16 July 2021|archive-date=9 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009205636/https://bianet.org/english/environment/228962-report-air-pollution-becoming-more-lethal-in-turkey-while-scientists-struggle-to-access-data|url-status=live}} Fine particulates (PM2.5), are the most dangerous pollutant but have no legal ambient limit.{{Cite web|last=Çetin|first=Yazar Arda|date=2020-09-01|title=Dark Report Reveals the Health Impacts of Air Pollution in Turkey|url=https://www.temizhavahakki.com/en/dark-report/|url-status=live|access-date=2022-01-07|website=Right to Clean Air Platform|language=tr-TR|quote=Afşin Elbistan Coal Fired Power Plant is estimated to have caused 17,000 premature deaths ........In Muğla, it is estimated that 45,000 premature deaths happened due to air pollution related to the 3 coal-fired thermal power plants since 1983.|archive-date=7 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220107081741/https://www.temizhavahakki.com/en/dark-report/}}{{Rp|page=50}}

The "Industry Related Air Pollution Control Regulation" says that flue-gas stacks must be at least 10m from the ground and 3m above the roof.{{Cite journal|last1=Okutan|first1=Hasancan|last2=Ekinci|first2=Ekrem|last3=Alp|first3=Kadir|date=2009|title=Update and revision of Turkish air quality regulation|url=http://acikerisim.isikun.edu.tr/xmlui/handle/11729/345|doi=10.1504/IJEP.2009.028696|issn=0957-4352|hdl=11729/345|hdl-access=free|journal=International Journal of Environment and Pollution|volume=39|issue=3/4|page=340|access-date=24 July 2021|archive-date=24 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210724064335/http://acikerisim.isikun.edu.tr/xmlui/handle/11729/345|url-status=live}} Larger power stations must measure local pollutants vented into the atmosphere from the smokestack and report them to the Environment Ministry but, unlike the EU, they are not required to publish the data. In 2022 academics called for better monitoring and stricter emission limits.{{Cite journal |last1=Bartan |first1=Ayfer |last2=Kucukali |first2=Serhat |last3=Ar |first3=Irfan |last4=Baris |first4=Kemal |date=2022-03-16 |title=An integrated environmental risk assessment framework for coal-fired power plants: A fuzzy logic approach |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/risa.13908 |journal=Risk Analysis |volume=43 |issue=3 |language=en |pages=530–547 |doi=10.1111/risa.13908 |pmid=35297076 |s2cid=247499010 |issn=0272-4332|url-access=subscription }}

Coal contributes to air pollution in big cities.{{Cite web |last=Dennison |first=Asli Aydıntaşbaş, Susi |date=2021-06-22 |title=New energies: How the European Green Deal can save the EU's relationship with Turkey – European Council on Foreign Relations |url=https://ecfr.eu/publication/new-energies-how-the-european-green-deal-can-save-the-eus-relationship-with-turkey/ |access-date=2021-06-22 |website=ECFR |language=en-GB}} Air pollution from some large coal-fired power stations is publicly visible in Sentinel satellite data.{{cite news |date=5 July 2018 |title=Polluters exposed by new eye in the sky satellite |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-44705268 |url-status=live |access-date=24 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181024152552/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-44705268 |archive-date=24 October 2018}}{{cite web |title=TROPOMI Level 2 data products |url=http://www.tropomi.eu/data-products/level-2-products |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181024152638/http://www.tropomi.eu/data-products/level-2-products |archive-date=24 October 2018 |access-date=24 October 2018 |publisher=KNMI R&D Satellite Observations}} The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) says that old coal-fired power stations are emitting dangerous levels of fine particulates: so it recommends reducing particulate emissions by retrofitting or closing old coal-fired power plants.{{sfnp|EfimovaMazurMigottoRambali|2019|p=20}} Although the Turkish government receives reports of measurements of air pollution from the smokestacks of individual coal-fired power stations, it does not publish the reports, unlike the EU.{{sfnp|EfimovaMazurMigottoRambali|2019|p=30}} There is a pollutant release and transfer register, but as of September 2024 no years are publicly searchable because it is not yet technically complete, and it is not known what exemptions will be granted.(see FAQ).{{Cite web |title=Pollutant Release and Transfer Register |url=https://www.kstk.gov.tr/default.aspx?lang=en}}

File:Yeniköy_Power_Plant_Milas_Muğla_Turkey.jpg in Milas, Muğla]]

Flue gas emission limits in milligrams per cubic metre (mg/Nm³) are:{{Cite web |title=Emission standards: Turkey |url=https://www.iea-coal.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/Turkey-emissions-standard.pdf |website=International Energy Agency |access-date=16 July 2021 |archive-date=9 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009205638/https://www.sustainable-carbon.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/Turkey-emissions-standard.pdf |url-status=dead }}{{cite journal |date=20 December 2014 |title=Sanayi̇ Kaynakli Hava Ki̇rli̇li̇ği̇ni̇n Kontrolü Yönetmeli̇ği̇nde Deği̇şi̇kli̇k Yapilmasina Dai̇r Yönetmeli̇k |trans-title=Official Gazette: Changes to industrial air pollution regulation |url=http://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2014/12/20141220-2.htm |url-status=live |journal=Resmî Gazete |issue=29211 |page=Appx 1 page 15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227034715/http://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2014/12/20141220-2.htm |archive-date=27 February 2019 |access-date=22 February 2019}}

The limits are laxer than the EU Industrial Emissions Directive and the SO₂ limit for large coal-fired power plants in other countries, such as India at 100 mg/m³, and China at 35 mg/m³.{{Cite web |title=Greenpeace analysis ranks global {{chem|SO|2}} air pollution hotspots |url=https://www.greenpeace.org/international/press-release/23819/global-so2-air-pollution-hotspots-ranked-by-greenpeace-analysis |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190901063929/https://www.greenpeace.org/international/press-release/23819/global-so2-air-pollution-hotspots-ranked-by-greenpeace-analysis/ |archive-date=1 September 2019 |access-date=1 September 2019 |website=Greenpeace International |language=en-US}}

{{main|Greenhouse gas emissions by Turkey}}

File:Ghg_pie_chart_Turkey.svg]]

File:Fossil_fuel_CO2_Turkey_line_graph.svg

Coal-fired power stations emit over 1 kg of carbon dioxide for every kilowatt hour generated,{{sfnp|Atilgan & Azapagic|2016|p=177}} over twice that of gas-fired power stations. Turkey's coal-fired power stations are the largest contributor to the country's greenhouse gas emissions.{{refn|group=note|UNFCCC category 1.A.1. Energy industries a. Public electricity and heat production:solid fuels. shows 116 megatonnes of {{CO2}}, which is larger than any other category.{{sfnp|Turkstat tables|2021|loc=table 1.A(a)s1 cell G26}}}} Production of public heat and electricity emitted 138 megatonnes of {{CO2}} equivalent ({{CO2}}e) in 2019,{{efn|1={{cite tech report

|work=Turkish Statistical Institute

|title=Turkish Greenhouse Gas Inventory 1990 – 2019 common reporting format (CRF) tables [TurkStat tables]

|date=April 2021

|url=https://unfccc.int/documents/271541

|format=TUR_2021_2019_13042021_230815.xlsx

|access-date=16 July 2021

|archive-date=14 April 2021

|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414121526/https://unfccc.int/documents/271541

|url-status=live

}}{{Rp|table 1s1 cell B10}}}} mainly through coal burning.

Because lignite quality varies greatly, to estimate the carbon dioxide emissions from a particular power station, the net calorific value of the lignite it burnt must be reported to the government. But this is not published,{{sfnp|Turkstat report|2021|page=49}} unlike some other countries.{{Cite web|title=Air Markets Program Data|url=https://ampd.epa.gov/ampd/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009205636/https://ampd.epa.gov/ampd/|archive-date=9 October 2021|access-date=16 July 2021|website=United States Environmental Protection Agency}} However public information from space-based measurements of carbon dioxide by Climate TRACE is expected to reveal individual large power stations in 2022,{{Cite news|title=Transcript: The Path Forward: Al Gore on Climate and the Economy|newspaper=Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/washington-post-live/2021/04/22/transcript-path-forward-al-gore-climate-economy/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-05-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210425235950/https://www.washingtonpost.com/washington-post-live/2021/04/22/transcript-path-forward-al-gore-climate-economy/|archive-date=25 April 2021|issn=0190-8286}} and smaller ones by GOSAT-GW in 2023{{Cite web|title=GOSAT-GW|url=https://space.oscar.wmo.int/satellites/view/gosat_gw|url-status=live|access-date=2022-01-13|website=World Meteorological Organization|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210614185353/https://space.oscar.wmo.int/satellites/view/gosat_gw |archive-date=14 June 2021 }} and possibly in 2025 by Sentinel-7.{{Cite news|last=Morgan|first=Sam|date=2019-12-05|title={{CO2}}-tracking satellites crucial for climate efforts, say space experts|publisher=EURACTIV|url=https://www.euractiv.com/section/outer-space/news/co2-tracking-satellites-crucial-for-climate-efforts-say-space-experts/|url-status=live|access-date=2020-03-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201072857/https://www.euractiv.com/section/outer-space/news/co2-tracking-satellites-crucial-for-climate-efforts-say-space-experts/|archive-date=1 February 2020}}{{Cite news|date=2020-07-31|title=European Sentinel satellites to map global {{CO2}} emissions|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-53613336|url-status=live|access-date=2020-11-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624004726/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-53613336|archive-date=24 June 2021}}

A 2020 study estimated that fitting carbon capture and storage to a power station burning Turkish lignite would increase the cost of its electricity by over 50%.{{Cite journal|last1=Coşkun|first1=Tuba|last2=Özkaymak|first2=Prof Dr Mehmet|last3=Okutan|first3=Hasancan|date=2020-12-31|title=Techno-Economic Feasibility Study of the Commercial-Scale Oxy-CFB Carbon Capture System in Turkey|url=https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/politeknik/674619|journal=Politeknik Dergisi|volume=24 |pages=45–56 |language=en|doi=10.2339/politeknik.674619|doi-access=free}} In 2021 Turkey targeted net zero carbon emissions by 2053.{{Cite web|last=Gundogmus|first=Yildiz Nevin|date=1 October 2021|title=Turkey to follow up climate deal ratification with action: Official|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/turkey/turkey-to-follow-up-climate-deal-ratification-with-action-official/2380717|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211003124106/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/turkey/turkey-to-follow-up-climate-deal-ratification-with-action-official/2380717|archive-date=3 October 2021|access-date=2021-10-03|website=Anadolu Agency}} After the Paris Agreement on limiting climate change was ratified in 2021 many environmental groups called for the government to set a target year for coal phase-out.{{Cite web|last=Erkul|first=Nuran|date=7 October 2021|title=Paris Agreement's ratification launches new climate policy era in Turkey|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/energy/energy-projects/paris-agreements-ratification-launches-new-climate-policy-era-in-turkey/33757|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211007150729/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/energy/energy-projects/paris-agreements-ratification-launches-new-climate-policy-era-in-turkey/33757|archive-date=7 October 2021|access-date=2021-10-09|website=Anadolu Agency}}

Coal combustion emitted over 150{{Spaces}}Mt of CO₂ in total in 2018,{{sfnp|Turkstat report|2020|p=57}} about a third of Turkey's greenhouse gas.{{efn|29% of the 521 Mt gross emissions in 2018 or 35% of the 426 Mt net emissions}} Emissions from individual power plants over 20 MW are measured.{{Cite web |title=ETS Detailed Information: Turkey |url=https://icapcarbonaction.com/en/?option=com_etsmap&task=export&format=pdf&layout=list&systems%5B%5D=66 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331112632/https://icapcarbonaction.com/en/?option=com_etsmap&task=export&format=pdf&layout=list&systems%5B%5D=66 |archive-date=31 March 2019 |website=International Carbon Action Partnership}} Life-cycle emissions of Turkish coal-fired power stations are over 1 kg CO₂eq per kilowatt-hour.{{sfnp|Atilgan & Azapagic|2016|p=177}}

{{As of|2019}} coal mine methane remains an environmental challenge,{{Cite web |title=Paving the way for safer and greener coal mine methane management in Turkey and Ukraine |url=http://www.unece.org/info/media/news/sustainable-energy/2019/paving-the-way-for-safer-and-greener-coal-mine-methane-management-in-turkey-and-ukraine/doc.html |access-date=8 February 2020 |website=www.unece.org}} because removing it from working underground mines is a safety requirement but if vented to the atmosphere it is a potent greenhouse gas.{{Cite web|title=Coal overview: Turkey|url=https://www.globalmethane.org/documents/toolsres_coal_overview_ch33_updated2020.pdf|date=2020|website=Global Methane Project}}

Because Turkey's lignite-fired power stations have to be very close to their mines to avoid excessive lignite transport costs,{{Cite web |date=11 September 2014 |title=Why is there no lignite market? |url=https://euracoal.eu/coal/why-is-there-no-lignite-market/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200511205641/https://euracoal.eu/coal/why-is-there-no-lignite-market/ |archive-date=11 May 2020 |access-date=18 May 2020 |website=Euracoal}} they are mostly inland (see map of active coal-fired power stations in Turkey). Coal power stations may require a large quantity of water for the circulating water plant{{Cite web |last=El-Khozondar |first=Balkess D. J. |year=2017 |title=Investigating the Use of Water for Electricity Generation at Turkish Power Plants |url=http://www.openaccess.hacettepe.edu.tr:8080/xmlui/bitstream/handle/11655/3541/10150183.pdf?sequence=4&isAllowed=y |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190831204655/http://www.openaccess.hacettepe.edu.tr:8080/xmlui/bitstream/handle/11655/3541/10150183.pdf?sequence=4&isAllowed=y |archive-date=31 August 2019 |access-date=18 May 2020 |publisher=Hacettepe University |page=84}} and coal washing if required. In Turkey, fresh water is used because of the locations of the plants. Between 600 and 3000 cubic metres of water is used per GWh generated,{{Cite book |last1=Özcan |first1=Zeynep |last2=Köksal |first2=Merih Aydınalp |last3=Alp |first3=Emre |title=Frontiers in Water-Energy-Nexus—Nature-Based Solutions, Advanced Technologies and Best Practices for Environmental Sustainability |chapter=Evaluation of Water–Energy Nexus in Sakarya River Basin, Turkey |date=2020 |editor-last=Naddeo |editor-first=Vincenzo |editor2-last=Balakrishnan |editor2-first=Malini |editor3-last=Choo |editor3-first=Kwang-Ho |series=Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation |language=en |location=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |pages=421–424 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-13068-8_105 |isbn=978-3-030-13068-8 |s2cid=204261568}} much more than solar and wind power.{{Cite web |title=The water-energy nexus at rivers can be resolved worldwide by 2050 as a consequence of the energy transition - News - LUT |url=https://www.lut.fi/web/en/news/-/asset_publisher/lGh4SAywhcPu/content/the-water-energy-nexus-at-rivers-can-be-resolved-worldwide-by-2050-as-a-consequence-of-the-energy-transition |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213122143/https://www.lut.fi/web/en/news/-/asset_publisher/lGh4SAywhcPu/content/the-water-energy-nexus-at-rivers-can-be-resolved-worldwide-by-2050-as-a-consequence-of-the-energy-transition |archive-date=13 February 2020 |access-date=18 May 2020 |website=www.lut.fi |language=en-GB}} This intensive use has led to shortages in nearby villages and farmlands.{{Cite web |date=13 April 2020 |title=Thermal power plants in Zonguldak and Muğla leave nearby villages without water in the middle of a pandemic |url=https://www.duvarenglish.com/health-2/coronavirus/2020/04/13/thermal-power-plants-in-zonguldak-and-mugla-leave-nearby-villages-without-water-in-the-middle-of-a-pandemic/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200419060257/https://www.duvarenglish.com/health-2/coronavirus/2020/04/13/thermal-power-plants-in-zonguldak-and-mugla-leave-nearby-villages-without-water-in-the-middle-of-a-pandemic/ |archive-date=19 April 2020 |access-date=5 May 2020 |website=www.duvarenglish.com}}

The mineral residue that remains from burning coal is known as coal ash, and contains toxic substances that may pose a health risk to workers in coal-fired power stations and people living or working near Turkey's large coal ash dams. A 2021 report from İklim Değişikliği Politika ve Araştırma Derneği (Climate Change Policy and Research Association) said that 2020s environmental law was being evaded by the repeated granting of less stringent 1 year temporary operating licenses, and said that coal ash storage permit criteria (inspections by universities) were unclear, so some power stations were not properly storing unhealthy coal ash . They said that some inspections may be insufficient and summarized inspection reports as:

Around the year 2000 government incentives were offered to build cogeneration power stations (such as autoproducers in factories but not connected to the grid),{{Cite journal|last1=Pamukcu|first1=C.|last2=Konak|first2=G.|year=2006|title=A Review of the Energy Situation in Turkey|journal=Energy Exploration & Exploitation|language=|volume=24|issue=4|pages=223–241|doi=10.1260/014459806779398811|issn=0144-5987|doi-access=free|bibcode=2006EExEx..24..223P }} much small cogeneration was built in industrial parks{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=An Energy Overview of the Republic of Turkey|url=http://www.geni.org/globalenergy/library/national_energy_grid/turkey/EnergyOverviewofTurkey.shtml|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210610092431/http://www.geni.org/globalenergy/library/national_energy_grid/turkey/EnergyOverviewofTurkey.shtml|archive-date=10 June 2021|access-date=2021-02-16|website=www.geni.org}}{{Cite web|last=Özkan|first=Cüneyt Taha|date=2019|title=Turkish Energy Transition and Current Challenges|url=https://www.jeanmonnet.org.tr/portals/0/scholars_database_thesis/Cu%CC%88neyt%20Taha%20O%CC%88zkan.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220112064343/https://www.jeanmonnet.org.tr/portals/0/scholars_database_thesis/Cu%CC%88neyt%20Taha%20O%CC%88zkan.pdf|archive-date=12 January 2022|access-date=11 January 2022|website=Jean Monnet University}} or in sugar factories.{{Cite web|last=Tamzok|first=Nejat|title=İthal kömür açmazı|trans-title=Imported coal deadlock|url=https://www.emo.org.tr/ekler/4e86f8a9dd94e31_ek.pdf?dergi=504|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210706004132/https://www.emo.org.tr/ekler/4e86f8a9dd94e31_ek.pdf?dergi=504|archive-date=6 July 2021|access-date=16 July 2021|website=Chamber of Electrical Engineers (Turkey)}}{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=2007|title=Kömür Çalişma Grubu Raporu|trans-title=Coal working group report|url=https://www.dunyaenerji.org.tr/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/komur_raporu_304.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210716123536/https://www.dunyaenerji.org.tr/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/komur_raporu_304.pdf|archive-date=16 July 2021|access-date=|website=World Energy Council}} About 20 of these small autoproducers were operating by 2021 but there is no list publicly available as they are not connected to the grid and no longer require licences.{{refn|group=note|Some former autoproducer licencees are listed in table 20 of the following cite from 2007, but it is not publicly known exactly which are still operating.}} Because of its low calorific value lignite-fired electricity costs more to generate than in other European countries (except for Greece).{{Cite web |title=Cost of lignite-fired power generation {{!}} Heinrich Böll Stiftung - Thessaloniki Office |url=https://gr.boell.org/en/2015/12/16/cost-lignite-fired-power-generation |access-date=2022-04-17 |website=Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung |language=en}}

The companies which built most recent stations: Cengiz, Kolin, Limak and Kalyon; are mainly in the construction rather than the energy sector; and some say they took on lignite-power at a loss to be politically favoured for other construction projects.{{Cite book |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003044543/political-economy-coal-michael-jakob-jan-steckel |title=The Political Economy of Coal: Obstacles to Clean Energy Transitions |year=2022 |publisher=Routledge |editor-last=Jakob |editor-first=Michael |doi=10.4324/9781003044543 |isbn=9781003044543 |editor-last2=Steckel |editor-first2=Jan C.}}{{Rp|page=160}}

In 2023 350.org estimated total coal power assets at 20 billion USD and said that all local insurance was underwritten internationally.{{Cite web |title=Exploring Turkey's Energy Landscape and Insurance Industry |url=https://350turkiye.org/files/2023/10/EN_PRINT_2-coal-and-coverage.pdf |pages=8–10}} A 2024 report from the Coal Producers Association gave examples of 13% interest rates,{{Cite web |title=ENERJİDEKİ KÖMÜRÜN YERİ VE YERLİ KÖMÜRE DAYALI TERMİK SANTRAL KURULMASI PROJESİ SÜREÇ VE MODEL ÖNERİSİ |url=https://www.komurder.org/uploads/Haber-Galerisi/2024/euas-ve-komurder-isbirligi/euas_ve_komurder_isbirligi.pdf |page=61}} although the central bank rate for lira was 45% to 50%.{{Cite news |last= |date=2024-03-21 |title=Turkish central bank stuns market by hiking interest rates to 50% |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/mar/21/turkish-central-bank-stuns-market-by-hiking-interest-rates-to-50 |access-date=2024-08-22 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}} This is because the Association assumes borrowing in dollars and getting a power purchase agreement in dollars.

In 2019 large lignite-burning stations were subsidized with capacity payments totalling over 1 billion lira (US${{To USD round|1000|TUR|2019|sf=2}} million, which was over half of total capacity payments), and in 2020 over 1.2 billion lira (US${{To USD round|1200|TUR|2020|sf=2}} million).{{Cite web|title=Kapasite Mekanizması Ödeme Listeleri|trans-title=Capacity mechanism payment list|url=https://www.teias.gov.tr/tr-TR/kapasite-mekanizmasi-odeme-listeleri|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009205641/https://www.teias.gov.tr/tr-TR/kapasite-mekanizmasi-odeme-listeleri|archive-date=9 October 2021|access-date=2021-03-28|website=Turkish Electricity Transmission Corporation}} In 2021 four power stations burning a mixture of lignite and imported coal also received capacity payments.{{Cite web|last=|date=2 October 2021|title=Elektrik santrallerine 187 milyon liralık kapasite mekanizması desteği|trans-title=187 million lira capacity mechanism support to power stations|url=https://www.hurriyet.com.tr/ekonomi/elektrik-santrallerine-187-milyon-liralik-kapasite-mekanizmasi-destegi-41908438|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211025161003/https://www.hurriyet.com.tr/ekonomi/elektrik-santrallerine-187-milyon-liralik-kapasite-mekanizmasi-destegi-41908438|archive-date=25 October 2021|access-date=2021-10-25|website=Hürriyet|language=tr}} This capacity mechanism has been criticised by some economists, as they say it encourages strategic capacity withholding, with a study of 2019 data showing that a 1% increase in the electricity price correlated with a 1-minute increase in length of power station generation failures.{{Cite journal|last1=Durmaz|first1=Tunç|last2=Acar|first2=Sevil|last3=Kizilkaya|first3=Simay|date=2021-10-04|title=Electricity Generation Failures and Capacity Remuneration Mechanism in Turkey|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=3936571|url-status=live|journal=SSRN|language=en|location=Rochester, NY|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3936571|ssrn=3936571|s2cid=240873974|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220112064347/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3936571|archive-date=12 January 2022|access-date=25 October 2021|url-access=subscription}} There is also a market clearing price cap of 2,000 lira(about US${{To USD round|2000|TUR|2021|sf=2}} in 2021)/MWh. These economists say that auctions of firm capacity (this is done in some other countries{{Cite web|last1=Watson|first1=Frank|last2=Edwardes-Evans|first2=Henry|date=2021-08-27|title=EC approves Belgium's electricity capacity market design|url=https://www.spglobal.com/platts/en/market-insights/latest-news/electric-power/082721-ec-approves-belgiums-electricity-capacity-market-design|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211025160614/https://www.spglobal.com/platts/en/market-insights/latest-news/electric-power/082721-ec-approves-belgiums-electricity-capacity-market-design|archive-date=25 October 2021|access-date=2021-10-25|website=S&P Global|language=en}}), with a financial penalty if not delivered, would be a better mechanism. {{As of|2022|11}} 23 coal-fired power stations are eligible for capacity mechanism payments.{{Cite web |date=2022-11-03 |title=2023'de 50 santral kapasite mekanizmasından yararlanacak |trans-title=TEİAŞ announces the 50 power plants to benefit from the capacity mechanism in 2023 |url=https://www.enerjigunlugu.net/teias-2023te-desteklenecek-santralleri-belirledi-51109h.htm |access-date=2022-12-09 |website=Enerji Günlüğü |language=tr}}

Some electricity from these stations is purchased by the state-owned electricity company at a guaranteed price of US$50–55/MWh until the end of 2027.{{sfnp|IEA|2021}}{{Rp|109}} Imported coal is taxed at US$70 per tonne minus the price of coal on the international market.{{Cite web|last=Senerdem|first=Erisa|date=26 August 2020|title=Coal imports help Turkish economy in 1H20|url=https://www.argusmedia.com/en/blog/2020/august/26/coal-imports-help-turkish-economy-in-1h20|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211025160703/https://www.argusmedia.com/en/blog/2020/august/26/coal-imports-help-turkish-economy-in-1h20|archive-date=25 October 2021|access-date=2021-10-25|website=Argus Media|language=en}} The EU Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism could push coal-power after gas in the merit order: in other words it could become more expensive.{{Cite web|last1=Göktuğ|first1=Göktuğ|last2=Taksim|first2=Muhammed Ali|last3=Yitgin|first3=Burak|date=2021|title=Effects of the European Green Deal on Turkey's Electricity Market|url=https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/1428017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220112064345/https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/1428017|archive-date=12 January 2022|access-date=11 January 2022|website=The Journal of Business, Economic and Management Research}}

Unlike new solar and wind power in Turkey's electricity market, these were not decided by reverse auction but fixed by the government, and energy demand management is not eligible.{{cite web |date=9 January 2019 |title=Elektri̇k Pi̇yasasi Kapasi̇te Mekani̇zmasi Yönetmeli̇ği̇nde Deği̇şi̇kli̇k Yapilmasina Dai̇r Yönetmeli̇k |trans-title=Changes to electricity market capacity mechanism regulations |url=http://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2019/01/20190109-11.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190112143721/http://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2019/01/20190109-11.htm |archive-date=12 January 2019 |access-date=12 January 2019 |publisher=Official Gazette}} Subsidy continues in 2020 and 13 coal fired power stations received January payments.{{Cite web |title=TEİAŞ Yayınladı: Kapasite Mekanizması 2020 Yılı Ocak Ayı Ödeme Listesi |trans-title=Turkish Electricity Transmission Corporation press release: January 2020 capacity mechanism payments list |url=https://www.enerjiekonomisi.com/teias-yayinladi-kapasite-mekanizmasi-2020-yili-ocak-ayi-odeme-listesi/11668/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200323165903/https://www.enerjiekonomisi.com/teias-yayinladi-kapasite-mekanizmasi-2020-yili-ocak-ayi-odeme-listesi/11668/ |archive-date=23 March 2020 |access-date=23 March 2020 |website=Enerji Ekonomisi |language=tr}} The Chamber of Engineers (:tr:Makina Mühendisleri Odası) has called for the capacity mechanism to be scrapped.{{Cite web |last= |first= |date= |title=MMO: Enerji yönetimi ve özel şirketler ellerini yurttaşların ceplerinden çekmelidir |trans-title=Chamber of Engineers: Energy management and private companies should get their hands out of citizens' pockets |url=https://www.birgun.net/haber/mmo-enerji-yonetimi-ve-ozel-sirketler-ellerini-yurttaslarin-ceplerinden-cekmelidir-332966 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210205015348/https://www.birgun.net/haber/mmo-enerji-yonetimi-ve-ozel-sirketler-ellerini-yurttaslarin-ceplerinden-cekmelidir-332966 |archive-date=5 February 2021 |access-date=2021-02-04 |website=birgun.net |language=Turkish}}

{{See also|Climate change litigation#Turkey}}

In 2019, the OECD said that energy and climate policies that are not aligned in future may prevent some assets from providing an economic return due to the transition to a low-carbon economy.{{sfnp|EfimovaMazurMigottoRambali|2019|p=39}} The average Turkish coal-fired power station is predicted to have higher long-run operating costs than renewables by 2030.{{cite web |title=Powering down coal: Navigating the economic and financial risks in the last years of coal power |url=https://www.carbontracker.org/reports/coal-portal/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181201005020/https://www.carbontracker.org/reports/coal-portal/ |archive-date=1 December 2018 |access-date=30 November 2018 |publisher=Carbon Tracker Initiative}} The insurance industry is slowly withdrawing from fossil fuels.{{Cite web |title=Fosil yakıtlar ve kömür sigorta portföyünden çıkıyor |url=http://www.patronlardunyasi.com/haber/Fosil-yakitlar-ve-komur-sigorta-portfoyunden-cikiyor/259886 |access-date=2022-01-21 |website=www.patronlardunyasi.com}}

In 2021 the World Bank said that a plan for a just transition away from coal is needed,{{Cite web|last=Erkuş|first=Sevil|date=15 November 2021|title=World Bank official praises Turkey's GDP growth|url=https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/world-bank-official-praises-turkeys-gdp-growth-169365|url-status=live|access-date=2022-01-20|website=Hürriyet Daily News|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115063013/http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/world-bank-official-praises-turkeys-gdp-growth-169365 |archive-date=15 November 2021 }} and environmentalists say it should be gone by 2030.{{Cite web |date=2023-09-06 |title=Environmental organizations from across Turkey called: We want a "fair phase-out" of coal by 2030 {{!}} STGM |url=https://www.stgm.org.tr/en/environmental-organizations-across-turkey-called-we-want-fair-phase-out-coal-2030 |access-date=2023-09-22 |website=www.stgm.org.tr |language=en}} The World Bank has proposed general objectives and estimated the cost, but has suggested government do far more detailed planning.{{Cite report |url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/37521 |title=Türkiye - Country Climate and Development Report |date=2022-06-13 |publisher=World Bank |language=en}} According to a 2021 study by several NGOs if coal power subsidies were completely abolished and a carbon price introduced at around US$40 (which is lower than the 2021 EU Allowance) then all coal power stations would close down before 2030.{{Cite web|date=November 2021|title=First Step in the Pathway to a Carbon Neutral Turkey: Coal Phase out 2030|url=https://sefia.org/en/publications/first-step-in-the-pathway-to-a-carbon-neutral-turkey-coal-phase-out-2030/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211107174720/https://sefia.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/Coal-Phaset-Out-2030.pdf|archive-date=7 November 2021|access-date=7 November 2021|website=Sustainable Economics and Finance Association|publisher=APLUS Energy for Europe Beyond Coal, Climate Action Network (CAN) Europe, Sustainable Economics and Finance Research Association (SEFiA), WWF-Turkey (World Wildlife Fund), Greenpeace Mediterranean, 350.org and Climate Change Policy and Research Association}} According to Carbon Tracker in 2021 $1b of investment on the Istanbul Stock Exchange was at risk of stranding, including $300 m for EÜAŞ.{{Cite web|date=November 2021|title=Taking Stock of Coal Risks|url=https://carbontracker.org/reports/taking-stock-of-coal-risks/|url-status=live|access-date=|website=Carbon Tracker|language=en-US|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211104000210/https://carbontracker.org/reports/taking-stock-of-coal-risks/ |archive-date=4 November 2021 }}{{Rp|page=12}} Turkey has $3.2 billion in loans for its energy transition.{{Cite web|date=2021-11-06|title=EU's looming carbon tax nudged Turkey toward Paris climate accord, envoy says|url=https://www.politico.eu/article/eu-carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism-turkey-paris-accord-climate-change/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211107183331/https://www.politico.eu/article/eu-carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism-turkey-paris-accord-climate-change/|archive-date=7 November 2021|access-date=2021-11-07|website=POLITICO|language=en-US}} Small modular reactors have been suggested to replace coal power.{{Cite web |date=2022-12-21 |title=Turkey in talks with US to buy small nuclear reactors, weaning itself off coal |url=https://english.alarabiya.net/News/world/2022/12/21/Turkey-in-talks-with-US-to-buy-small-nuclear-reactors-weaning-itself-off-coal |access-date=2023-01-13 |website=Al Arabiya English |language=en}} A 2023 study suggests the early 2030s and at the latest 2035 as a practical target for phase-out.{{Cite web |last1=Kat |first1=Bora |last2=Sahin |first2=Umit |last3=Teimourzadeh |first3=Saeed |last4=Tor |first4=Osman B. |last5=Voyvoda |first5=Ebru |last6=Yeldan |first6=A. Erinc |date=2023 |title=Coal Phase-out in the Turkish Power Sector towards Net-zero Emission Targets: An Integrated Assessment of Energy-Economy-Environment Modeling |url=http://www.gtap.agecon.purdue.edu/resources/res_display.asp?RecordID=6884 |access-date=2024-02-25 |website=Presented during the 26th Annual Conference on Global Economic Analysis (Bordeaux, France) |language=English}} A 2024 study says that, although some plants would shutdown due to technological or economic obsolescence, a complete phase out by 2035 would require additional capital expenditure on electricity storage: however the study did not consider demand response or electricity trading with the EU.{{Cite web |title=How Realistic Are Coal Phase-Out Timeline Targets for Turkey? |url=https://mdpi-res.com/d_attachment/sustainability/sustainability-16-01649/article_deploy/sustainability-16-01649.pdf}}

Some energy analysts say old plants should be shut down.{{Cite web |last=Direskeneli |first=Haluk |date=2023-03-19 |title=Sustainable Energy In Turkey – OpEd |url=https://www.eurasiareview.com/20032023-sustainable-energy-in-turkey-oped/ |access-date=2023-03-21 |website=Eurasia Review |language=en-US}} Three coal-fired power plants, which are in Muğla Province, Yatağan, Yeniköy and Kemerköy, are becoming outdated. However, if the plants and associated lignite mines were shut down, about 5000 workers would need funding for early retirement or retraining.{{cite web |title=The Real Costs of Coal: Muğla |url=http://costsofcoal.caneurope.org/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190126001032/http://costsofcoal.caneurope.org/ |archive-date=26 January 2019 |access-date=25 January 2019 |publisher=Climate Action Network Europe}} There would also be health{{Cite web |last=Ugurtas |first=Selin |date=17 April 2020 |title=Coronavirus outbreak exposes health risks of coal rush |url=https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2020/04/turkey-coronavirus-coal-mines-pollution-dirty-air-zonguldak.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200421131525/https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2020/04/turkey-coronavirus-coal-mines-pollution-dirty-air-zonguldak.html |archive-date=21 April 2020 |access-date=19 May 2020 |website=Al-Monitor |language=en}} and environmental benefits,{{Cite web |date=13 April 2020 |title=Beyaz Çamaşır Asılamayan Şehir (ler) |trans-title=Cities where washing cannot be hung out to dry |url=https://www.sivilsayfalar.org/2020/04/13/beyaz-camasir-asilamayan-sehir-ler/ |access-date=19 May 2020 |website=Sivil Sayfalar |language=tr}} but these are difficult to quantify as very little data is publicly available in Turkey on the local pollution by the plants and mines.{{Cite web |last=Hattam |first=Jennifer |date=17 September 2019 |title=Turkey: Censorship fogging up pollution researchers' work |url=https://www.dw.com/en/turkey-censorship-fogging-up-pollution-researchers-work/a-50455457 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200412175325/https://www.dw.com/en/turkey-censorship-fogging-up-pollution-researchers-work/a-50455457 |archive-date=12 April 2020 |access-date=19 May 2020 |website=DW.COM |publisher=Deutsche Welle |language=en-GB}}{{sfnp|European Commission|2019|p=93|ps=: "There are still complaints about the application of the rule of law in court decisions on environmental issues and about public participation and the right to environmental information."}} Away from Zonguldak mining and the coal-fired power plant employ most working people in Soma district.{{Cite web |title=Soma Termik Santrali'nde emisyon oranlarını Bakanlığa anlık bildiren sistem kuruldu |url=https://www.sabah.com.tr/manisa/2020/06/03/soma-termik-santralinde-emisyon-oranlarini-bakanliga-anlik-bildiren-sistem-kuruldu |access-date=2020-06-24 |website=Sabah |language=tr}} According to Dr. Coşku Çelik "coal investments in the countryside have been regarded as an employment opportunity by the rural population".{{Cite web |date=2020-09-20 |title=Extractivism, State and Socio-Environmental Struggles: Turkey and Ecuador |url=https://themedialine.org/mideast-streets/extractivism-state-and-socio-environmental-struggles-turkey-and-ecuador/ |access-date=2020-09-20 |website=The Media Line |language=en-US}}

According to SwitchCoal a 20 billion dollar investment in converting 10 plants to solar, wind and batteries would make an extra 13 billion dollars profit over 30 years.{{Cite web |title=Coal power plants in Türkiye {{!}} SwitchCoal |url=https://www.switchcoal.org/en/countries/turkiye |access-date=2024-07-16 |website=www.switchcoal.org |language=en}} They assumed no carbon pricing and estimated lignite opex at 1 UScent per kWh.{{Cite web |title=Press |url=https://www.switchcoal.org/resources |access-date=2024-07-16 |website=www.switchcoal.org |language=en}}{{Rp|page=24}} They say this would save 35 megatonnes of emissions a year by installing 15GWp of solar, 8 of wind and 0.7 GW battery.{{Rp|page=33}}

In 2024 thinktank Ember wrote that: “Four of the 38 OECD countries saw coal generation in 2023 fall by less than 30% from its peak: Japan, South Korea, Colombia and Mexico. Only one OECD country – Türkiye – has not yet passed the peak of coal power, setting a new record for coal generation in 2023.

Türkiye set a new coal generation record in 2023, overtaking Poland to become the second largest coal generator in Europe after Germany, with coal accounting for 37% of its electricity supply (118 TWh). However, coal is not booming in Türkiye: it was only 5% higher in 2023 than five years before in 2018. At that time, Türkiye was planning the world’s third-largest increase in coal power plants, but these have since been cancelled, avoiding a major increase in coal. Unlocking Türkiye’s untapped solar potential can help meet growing demand and replace coal power.”{{Cite report |last=Jones |first=Dave |date=1 October 2024 |title=Coal generation in OECD countries falls below half of its peak |url=https://ember-climate.org/insights/research/coal-generation-in-oecd-countries-falls-below-half-of-its-peak/#supporting-material |access-date= |publisher=Ember |language=en-US}}{{Rp|page=9}}

{{reflist|group=note}}

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|lang = tr

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• [https://turkiyedekomur.org/en/ Coal in Turkey by Ekosfer]
• {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20191025161315/https://endcoal.org/tracker/ Map of coal power stations]}} by Global Energy Monitor
• [https://beyond-coal.eu/data/ Database of European coal stations including Turkey] by Beyond Coal
• [https://graphcommons.com/graphs/5d293d74-f1bd-46fe-b673-a597fcd0b21d?show=info Graph of thermal power station construction funding in Turkey]
• [https://openinframap.org/stats/area/Turkey/plants?source=coal List from Openstreetmap]
• [https://bloombergcoalcountdown.com/countries/TR Coal countdown] by Bloomberg

{{Asia topic|Coal power in}}

Category:Coal in Turkey

Category:Electric power in Turkey