Congolese rumba

File:Likembe.JPG-based band Konono Nº1 playing the likembe, a traditional thumb piano.]]

The Congolese rumba is characterized by a slow-to-moderate tempo and syncopated arrangement of drums and percussion, typically following a Time signature.{{Cite web |title=African Music Library: Congolese Rumba Music Genre History and Style Description |url=https://africanmusiclibrary.org/genre/Congolese%20Rumba |access-date=18 July 2024 |website=Africanmusiclibrary.org}} The genre's instrumentation has evolved over time. Initially, local tunes were concocted employing instruments such as the likembe, a bottle struck with a metal rod, and a small, skin-covered frame drum called patenge.{{Cite book |last=Martin |first=Phyllis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N65pbr2hC4wC |title=Leisure and Society in Colonial Brazzaville |date=8 August 2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-52446-9 |location=Cambridge, England, United Kingdom |page=131}} However, in the 1920s, maringa bands supplanted the likembe with accordions and acoustic guitars. By the 1950s, bands expanded significantly. For instance, Manuel d'Oliveira and Les San Salvador (1952) utilized three guitars, a clarinet, and a scraper, while Antoine Wendo Kolosoy (1956) included three guitars, bass, maracas, and claves.{{Cite web |last=Wheeler |first=Jesse Samba |date=March 2005 |title=Rumba Lingala as Colonial Resistance by Jesse Samba Wheeler |url=https://www.imageandnarrative.be/inarchive/worldmusica/jessesambawheeler.htm |access-date=20 July 2024 |website=Imageandnarrative.be}} By the mid-to-late 1950s, the instrumentation diversified further with "orchestres", or big bands, becoming the standard and incorporating upright basses, trumpets, saxophones, and more elaborate percussion setups. The contemporary Congolese rumba instrumental makeup primarily includes guitars, mandolins, banjos, drums, saxophones, clarinets, trumpets, maracas, pianos, shakers, double bells (ekonga), likembe, accordion, and racketts.

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In the late 1940s and 1950s, Congolese rumba guitars were typically tuned to a "Hawaiian" open tuning (D-G-D-G-B-D), with musicians employing a capo to alter keys, producing a buzzing effect highly esteemed in the genre. The lead guitar in Congolese rumba is responsible for playing intricate, high-pitched melodies. The rhythm guitar lays down the basic cyclic pattern of the composition, while the mi-solo guitar occupies an intermediary role. The name mi-solo translates to "half-solo", signifying its transitional function, wherein the mi-solo guitar mediates between the high-pitched lead guitar and the low-pitched rhythm guitar. The bass guitar plays a crucial role, emphasizing the clavé beat and providing the harmonic framework, typically following a I–IV–V–I progression.

The musical structure involves the use of vocal harmonies, typically arranged in thirds, with occasional octaves or fifths employed for special effects. The music often features three types of call-and-response: between singer and chorus, singer and instrument, and between different instrumental sections. This interplay, combined with a mix of homophony and polyrhythm, creates a rich, textured sound. Melodic interest usually centers on a single part, supported by subordinate accompaniment, while the rhythmic texture is dense and varied across instruments. Horns often punctuate rather than carry the melodic line, except when "used antiphonally with the lead singer or chorus". Improvisation in Congolese rumba is generally motif-based, involving variations on themes, often utilizing intervals like thirds and sixths. Performances are typically delivered in French, Lingala, Swahili, Spanish, Kikongo, and Tshiluba.{{Cite book |last1=X. |first1=Norbert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zOtjDwAAQBAJ&dq=congolese+rumba+sung+in+Lingala&pg=PA157 |title=Bamonimambo (The Witnesses): Rediscovering DR Congo and British Isles Common History |last2=Mbu-Mputu |first2=Deo |last3=Kasereka |first3=Katya |publisher=South Peoples Projects (SOPPRO) |isbn=978-1-4477-5791-7 |page=157}} The vocal delivery encompasses a wide range of expressive modalities, such as vibrato, falsetto, and melismatic ornamentations. A paradigmatic Congolese rumba song usually begins with a slow section featuring vocals, followed by an instrumental interlude called the sébène, characterized by rapid guitar articulations and an accelerated tempo.{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=msDEtGjmtQ0C |title=Guitar Atlas: Guitar Styles from Around the World |date=2008 |publisher=Alfred Music Publishing |isbn=978-0-7390-5563-2 |location=Van Nuys, Los Angeles, California, United States |page=17}}{{Cite book |last= |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dn4CijpnieMC&dq=congolese+seben&pg=PA203 |title=African Drama and Performance |date=October 2004 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-21701-1 |editor-last=Conteh-Morgan |editor-first=John |location=Bloomington, Indiana, United States |editor-last2=Olaniyan |editor-first2=Tejumola}}{{Cite book |last=White |first=Bob W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AuN2CnGwsnQC |title=Rumba Rules: The Politics of Dance Music in Mobutu's Zaire |date=27 June 2008 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0-8223-4112-3 |location=Durham, North Carolina, United States |pages=59–61}} During the sébène, musicians showcase their skills, and dancers experiment with new steps. Musicians and atalaku often shout slogans to augment the lively, interactive atmosphere.

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A proposed etymology for the term "rumba" is that it derives from the Kikongo word nkumba, meaning "belly button", denoting the native dance practiced within the former Kingdom of Congo, encompassing parts of the present-day Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, and Angola.{{Cite book |last=Daniel |first=Yvonne L. P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JOlGAQAAMAAJ&q=rumba%20comes%20from%20nkumba |title=Ethnography of Rumba: Dance and Social Change in Contemporary Cuba · Volume 1 |publisher=University of California, Berkeley |year=1989 |location=Berkeley, California, United States |pages=88}}{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kbc7AQAAIAAJ&q=rumba%20comes%20from%20nkumba |title=The Rough Guide to World Music: Africa & Middle East |publisher=Rough Guides |year=2006 |editor-last=Clark |editor-first=Duncan A. |location=London, United Kingdom |pages=75 |isbn=9781843535515 |editor-last2=Lusk |editor-first2=Jon |editor-last3=Ellingham |editor-first3=Mark |editor-last4=Broughton |editor-first4=Simon}}{{Cite book |last=Malu |first=Muriel D. M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=91CnDwAAQBAJ |title=Congo Brazzaville |publisher=Éditions Karthala |year=2019 |isbn=9782811125943 |location=Paris, France |pages=242 |language=fr}} Its rhythmic foundation draws from Bantu traditions, notably the Palo Kongo religion, which traces back to the Kongo people who were unceremoniously transported to Cuba by Spanish settlers in the 16th century.{{Cite book |last=Jelly-Schapiro |first=Joshua |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fRycCwAAQBAJ&dq=rumba+from+yuka+and+Kongo+people&pg=PT151 |title=Island People: The Caribbean and the World |date=22 November 2016 |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group |isbn=9780385349772 |location=New York City, New York State, United States}}{{Cite book |last1=Green |first1=Thomas A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FaTfuuIlmqcC |title=Martial Arts of the World: An Encyclopedia of History and Innovation [2 Volumes] |last2=Svinth |first2=Joseph R. |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |date=11 June 2010 |pages=44|isbn=9781598842432 }}{{Cite book |last=Ochoa |first=Todd Ramón |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A3ZLvBuyDHEC |title=Society of the Dead: Quita Manaquita and Palo Praise in Cuba |publisher=University of California |year=2010 |isbn=9780520256835 |location=Oakland, California, United States |page=79}}{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zGC_ZNOrKDwC |title=Droppin' Science: Critical Essays on Rap Music and Hip Hop Culture |publisher=Temple University Press |year=1996 |isbn=9781566393621 |editor-last=Perkins |editor-first=William Eric |location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States |pages=214–215}}

Miguel Ángel Barnet Lanza's treatise On Congo Cults of Bantu Origin in Cuba explains that the majority of enslaved Africans brought to Cuba were initially of Bantu lineage, although later, the Yoruba from Nigeria became dominant.{{Cite journal |last=Lanza |first=Miguel Á. B. |date=September 1997 |title=On Congo Cults of Bantu Origin in Cuba |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/039219219704517912?journalCode=dioa |journal=Diogenes|volume=45 |issue=179|pages=141–164 |doi=10.1177/039219219704517912 |s2cid=143537762 |url-access=subscription }} The musical traditions, dance forms, and spiritual practices were covertly preserved across generations within regions characterized by significant populations of enslaved Africans.{{Cite web |last=Silusawa |first=Lwanga Kakule |date=1 October 2022 |title=DR Congo. Dancing to the Rumba Rhythm. |url=https://www.southworld.net/dr-congo-dancing-to-the-rumba-rhythm/ |access-date=10 July 2023 |website=www.southworld.net}} Musical instruments like the conga, makuta, catá, yambu, claves, and güiro were used to craft a musical dialogue that engaged in call and response with ancestral spirits and the deceased.{{Cite book |last=Pietrobruno |first=Sheenagh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lJkkAQAAIAAJ&q=rumba%20enslaved%20kongo%20people |title=Salsa and Its Transnational Moves |date=29 August 2023 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=9780739110539 |location=Lanham, Maryland, United States |page=35}} Notable figures like Arsenio Rodríguez blended traditional Bakongo sounds with Cuban son.

{{Multiple image

| image1 = Les musiciens de rumba congolaise Antoine Mundanda et son groupe.jpg

| caption1 = Congolese rumba musician Antoine Mundanda and his group, Groupe De Likembés Géants, performing with the likembe in the 1950s-1960s

| image2 = Un groupe de rumba congolais à Léopoldville.jpg

| caption2 = A Congolese rumba group performing in Léopoldville

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According to Phyllis Martin's Leisure and Society in Colonial Brazzaville, the popular partnered dance music in the former French Congo and Belgian Congo, which now constitute the Republic of the Congo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, respectively, was known as maringa.{{Cite book |last=Martin |first=Phyllis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N65pbr2hC4wC |title=Leisure and Society in Colonial Brazzaville |date=8 August 2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-52446-9 |location=Cambridge, United Kingdom |pages=131–152}} Maringa was a Bakongo dance similar to West African highlife and historically practiced within the former Kingdom of Loango, covering areas in the present-day Republic of the Congo, southern Gabon, and Cabinda Province of Angola. The dance involved a small skin-covered frame drum called patenge for counter-rhythms, a bottle functioning as a triangle, and an accordion known as likembe, which possessed seven to nine steel reeds. The distinctive movements of maringa dancers involved a rhythmic hip sway that shifted body weight alternately from one leg to the other, reminiscent of the Afro-Cuban rumba dance, which later eclipsed older dances and musical forms. The penchant for partnered dance traversed the Congo region by 1930. Ethnomusicology professor Kazadi wa Mukuna of Kent State University explains that many recording studio proprietors at the time sought to reinterpret the term maringa by infusing it with the new "rumba" rhythm while retaining its original name.{{Cite web |last=Mukuna |first=Kazadi wa |date=7 December 2014 |title=A brief history of popular music in DRC |url=https://www.musicinafrica.net/magazine/brief-history-popular-music-drc |access-date=25 August 2023 |website=Music in Africa}} Martin also observes that White society in Brazzaville, much like elsewhere, developed an interest in Latin American dance music, particularly the rumba, after it had been featured and made respectable at the 1932 Chicago World Fair.{{Cite book |last=Martin |first=Phyllis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N65pbr2hC4wC |title=Leisure and Society in Colonial Brazzaville |date=8 August 2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-52446-9 |location=Cambridge, England, United Kingdom |page=136}} However, both the White elite and African aristocracy predominantly embraced the tango and the biguine—a dance reminiscent of the Brazilian samba but originating from Martinique, alongside other transatlantic dances.

In 1934, Jean Réal, a French entertainment director from Martinique, coined the term "Congo Rumba" when he founded an ensemble by that name in Brazzaville in 1938.{{Cite journal |last=wa Mukuna |first=Kazadi |date=1992 |title=The Genesis of Urban Music in Zaïre |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/30249807 |journal=African Music |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=72–84 |doi=10.21504/amj.v7i2.1945 |jstor=30249807 |issn=0065-4019|url-access=subscription }}{{Cite web |last=Diop |first=Jeannot Ne Nzau |date=14 May 2005 |title=Congo-Kinshasa : Evolution de la musique congolaise moderne de 1930 à 1950 |trans-title=Congo-Kinshasa: Evolution of modern Congolese music from 1930 to 1950 |url=https://fr.allafrica.com/stories/200505160526.html |access-date=24 May 2025 |website=Le Potentiel |language=fr |publication-place=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo}} Clément Ossinondé, a Congolese musicologist specializing in Congolese music, notes that among the Congolese musicians affiliated with Congo Rumba, Gabriel Kakou and Georges Mozebo were prominent figures instrumental in popularizing the genre and mentoring emerging local musicians.{{Cite web |last=Ossinondé |first=Clément |date=2 March 2020 |title=Voyage Musical : l'aller et retour de la rumba |trans-title=Musical Journey: the back and forth of the rumba |url=https://www.congopage.com/Voyage-musical-l-aller-et-retour-de-la-rumba |access-date=28 October 2023 |website=Congopage.com |language=fr-FR}}{{Cite book |last=Ossinondé |first=Clément |url=https://www.librairiecharlemagne.com/livre/6787987-histoire-de-la-musique-congolaise-52-ans-de-la--clement-ossinonde-ed-ices |title=52 ans de musique congolaise : Au Congo-Kinshasa République démocratique du Congo (RDC) – 1960–2012 |language=fr}}{{Cite web |last=Ngoma |first=Marie Alfred |date=26 July 2021 |title=Musique : Clément Ossinondé en séjour à Brazzaville |trans-title=Music: Clément Ossinondé in Brazzaville |url=https://www.adiac-congo.com/content/musique-clement-ossinonde-en-sejour-brazzaville-129054 |access-date=28 October 2023 |website=www.adiac-congo.com |language=fr}}

File:Nico Kasanda Nico et L'African Fiesta Sukisa.jpg leading the African Fiesta Sukisa orchestra]]

The substantial influx of students from Central Africa at the Ecole Exécutive de Brazzaville and the construction of the Congo–Ocean Railway, which enticed a significant migrant workforce from Central and West Africa between 1930 and 1934, catalyzed the evolution of Congolese rumba in Brazzaville. Emmanuel Okamba, a Congolese musicologist, posits that these West African laborers introduced the highlife rhythm, played on a large drum, which delineated the tempo of the emerging musical genre. He further explains that Zacharie Elenga (popularly known as Jhimmy Zakari), introduced a rhythm inspired by a Cuban sound, dominated by highlife and polka. Some musicologists assert that these immigrant laborers played a seminal role in pioneering the instrumental component of Congolese rumba known as sebene, albeit this contention is often debated, with other musicologists accrediting Antoine Kasongo's Odéon Kinois Orchestra, Antoine Wendo Kolosoy, Henri Bowane, and Félix Manuaku Waku instead.{{Cite web |last=Ossinondé |first=Clément |date=27 September 2019 |title=Congo-Brazzaville – Guy Léon Fylla : Le souvenir d'une grande légende de la musique congolaise 4 ans après sa disparition |trans-title=Congo-Brazzaville – Guy Léon Fylla: The memory of a great legend of Congolese music 4 years after his disappearance |url=https://www.congopage.com/Congo-Brazzaville-Guy-Leon-Fylla-Le-souvenir-d-une-grande-legende-de-la-musique-congolaise-4-ans |access-date=26 April 2024 |website=Congopage |language=fr}}{{Cite web |last=Ossinondé |first=Clément |date=7 September 2019 |title=Les deux premiers grands orchestres de cuivres de Brazzaville et de Kinshasa en 1940 |trans-title=The first two major brass orchestras of Brazzaville and Kinshasa in 1940 |url=https://zenga-mambu.com/2019/09/07/les-deux-premiers-grands-orchestres-de-cuivres-de-brazzaville-et-de-kinshasa-en-1940/ |access-date=26 April 2024 |website=Zenga-mambu.com |language=fr-FR}}{{Cite book |last=Stewart |first=Gary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7VmcEAAAQBAJ&dq=Congolese+sebene&pg=PT50 |title=Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos |date=5 May 2020 |publisher=Verso Books |isbn=978-1-78960-911-0}}{{Cite web |last=Mafina |first=Frédéric |date=2 July 2021 |title=Les immortelles chansons d'Afrique : "Obi" de Felix Manuaku waku |trans-title=The immortal songs of Africa: "Obi" by Felix Manuaku waku |url=https://www.adiac-congo.com/content/les-immortelles-chansons-dafrique-obi-de-felix-manuaku-waku-128337 |access-date=26 April 2024 |website=www.adiac-congo.com |language=fr |publication-place=Brazzaville, Republic of the Congo}}{{Cite web |last=M'Buy |first=Saint Hervé |date=2 February 2016 |title=Père fondateur du "Sébène", Pépé Felly Manuaku : "les médailles marquent la reconnaissance d'une carrière" |trans-title=Founding father of "Sébène", Pépé Felly Manuaku: "the medals mark the recognition of a career" |url=https://www.mediacongo.net/article-actualite-15428_pere_fondateur_du_sebene_pepe_felly_manuaku_les_medailles_marquent_la_reconnaissance_d_une_carriere.html |access-date=26 April 2024 |website=www.mediacongo.net |language=fr |publication-place=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo}} According to British musicologist Gary Stewart's Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos, some scholars even trace sebene's origins further back to transitional genres in Brazzaville, such as the kebo. Stewart expounds that the segment where most dancing transpired was designated as the sebene. One Lingala dictionary defines sebene as dance, although the precise moment of its linguistic integration remains ambiguous.

File:May Plau, saxophonist of the oldest traditional congolese rumba music group during a rehearsal In Kinshasa.jpg]]

The vocal ensemble Bonne Espérance emerged in 1935, conceived by the organist Albert Loboko, known as "Nyoka", a Congolese footballer born in Mossaka and a schoolmate of Paul Kamba.{{Cite web |last=Ossinondé |first=Clément |date=18 March 2020 |title=Paul Kamba nous a quitté le 19 Mars 1950 – Il y a 70 ans |trans-title=Paul Kamba left us on March 19, 1950 – 70 years ago |url=https://www.congopage.com/paul-kamba-nous-a-quitte-le-19-mars-1950-il-y-a-70-ans |access-date=7 September 2024 |website=Congopage |language=fr}}{{Cite web |last=Ossinondé |first=Clément |date=23 July 2019 |title=Congo-Brazzaville – Albert Loboko, Inspirateur et précurseur des notions de la rumba en 1932 – Congo Rumba |trans-title=Congo-Brazzaville – Albert Loboko, inspirer and precursor of the notions of rumba in 1932 – Congo Rumba |url=https://www.congopage.com/Congo-Brazzaville-Albert-Loboko-Inspirateur-et-precurseur-des-notions-de-la-rumba-en-1932-Congo |access-date=27 September 2024 |website=Congopage |language=fr}} Accompanied by musicians Raymond Nguema, Joseph Botokoua, and Bernardin Yoka, Bonne Espérance performed their music at venues such as Chez Mamadou Moro and the Cercle Culturel Catholique de Poto-Poto in Brazzaville. After his return from Mindouli, where he served as an accountant at Congo–Ocean Railway, Kamba introduced a "new musical language" incorporating string and keyboard instruments. In early 1937, the musical ensemble Mannequin was established in Bacongo, under the leadership of François Bamanabio, who, alongside Massamba Lébel, later founded the Jazz Bohème orchestra. However, Réal's arrangements and inclusion of contemporary instruments to local musicians later that year conferred substantial advantages on Brazzaville's native artists, including Alphonse Samba, Michel Kouka, Georges Nganga, Côme Batoukama (guitar), Vital Kinzonzi (accordion), Emmanuel Dadet (saxophone, guitar, and more), and Albert Loboko (banjo, piano, guitar).{{Cite web |last=Ossinondé |first=Clément |date=24 July 2019 |title=Albert Loboko, inspirateur et précurseur des notions de la rumba en 1932 – Congo rumba |trans-title=Albert Loboko one of the very first precursors of the Congolese Rumba in 1935 |url=https://www.dac-presse.com/albert-loboko-inspirateur-et-precurseur-des-notions-de-la-rumba-en-1932-congo-rumba/ |access-date=28 October 2023 |website=Dac-presse.com |language=fr}} Four brass bands subsequently emerged in Brazzaville, including the Fanfare Militaire, the Fanfare de la Milice, the Fanfare Catholique, and the Fanfare Municipale.{{Cite web |last=Ossinondé |first=Clément |date=7 September 2019 |title=Les deux premiers grands orchestres de cuivres de Brazzaville et de Kinshasa en 1940 – Zenga-Mambu |trans-title=The first two major brass orchestras of Brazzaville and Kinshasa in 1940 |url=http://zenga-mambu.com/2019/09/07/les-deux-premiers-grands-orchestres-de-cuivres-de-brazzaville-et-de-kinshasa-en-1940/ |access-date=2 November 2023 |website=Zenga-mambu.com |language=fr-FR}}

Dadet and Antoine Kasongo pioneered the contemporary rendition of Congolese folk music by incorporating new influences into their songs. Dadet, proficient on the saxophone, clarinet, and guitar, devised a musical style characterized by "free polyphony", inspired by jazz soloists. His ensemble, Melo-Congo, garnered acclaim among the White elite, performing a diverse repertoire ranging from classic waltzes and foxtrots to contemporary rumba, biguines, and tangos. The ensemble bolstered the prominence of local artists such as Pierre Mara, Georges Ondaye, Jean-Marie Okoko, Philippe Ngaba, Pierre Kanza, Casimir Bounda, Jean Dongou, Augustin Thony, André Tsimba, Pierre Loemba, Barète Mody, Pascal Kakou, Félix Maleka, and Botokoua. Melo-Congo enjoyed tremendous success, performing in Poto-Poto at the dance bar PICKUP, then at dance halls like Chez Faignond, Macumba, Beauté Brazza, Chez Ngambali, Mon Pays, and Léopoldville.{{Cite web |last=Ossinondé |first=Clément |date=1 September 2019 |title=Les deux premiers grands orchestres de cuivres de Brazzaville et de Kinshasa en 1940 : Le Melo Congo d'Emmanuel Damongo Dadet (Brazzaville) et (...) |trans-title=The first two major brass bands of Brazzaville and Kinshasa in 1940: Le Melo Congo of Emmanuel Damongo Dadet (Brazzaville) and L'Odéon Kinois of Antoine Kasongo (Kinshasa) |url=https://www.congopage.com/Les-deux-premiers-grands-orchestres-de-cuivres-de-Brazzaville-et-de-Kinshasa-en-1940-Le-Melo-Congo |access-date=7 September 2024 |website=Congopage |language=fr}}

As music thrived in Brazzaville, accordionist Camille Feruzi, originally from Kisangani, relocated to Léopoldville at the age of 15, where he established one of the city's notable professional maringa ensembles—a quartet featuring a piano, acoustic guitar, saxophone, and Feruzi's preferred instrument, the accordion.{{Cite web |last=Seck |first=Nago |date=3 July 2007 |title=Camille Feruzi |url=https://www.afrisson.com/camille-feruzi-7547/ |access-date=21 April 2024 |website=Afrisson |language=fr-FR}}{{Cite book |last=Shepherd |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xjLaAAAAMAAJ&q=Congolese%20rumba%20Camille%20Feruzi |title=Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World: Africa and the Middle East |date=2003 |publisher=Continuum |isbn=978-0-8264-6321-0 |page=27}}

{{Further information|G.V. Series}}

File:Bar de rumba congolaise à Léopoldville de 1955 à 1965.jpg

The music of early son cubano bands enjoyed substantial popularity domestically and abroad, which boosted the initiation of the G.V. Series by EMI on the label His Master's Voice in 1933.{{Cite journal |last=White |first=Bob W. |date=1 January 2002 |title=Congolese Rumba and Other Cosmopolitanisms |url=https://journals.openedition.org/etudesafricaines/161?lang=en |journal=Cahiers d'études africaines |volume=42 |issue=168 |pages=663–686 |doi=10.4000/etudesafricaines.161 |issn=0008-0055}} The G.V. series, intended for export—particularly to Africa—presumably catered to diverse audiences over time as it evolved. The global recording industry reached sub-Saharan Africa relatively late, with a handful of novelty recordings (primarily African "spirituals") from the Gold Coast, Nigeria, and South Africa preceding the First World War. By the late 1920s, international labels such as Gramophone Company, Odeon Records, and Pathé Records began competing for markets across the continent. However, economic adversity, the limited size of local markets, and the war effort constrained the development of local commercial recording until the 1940s. Records from the G.V. series were thus instrumental in the budding African recording industry, becoming some of the most widely circulated records of the 1930s. Most records listened to in Léopoldville were manufactured in Europe and imported to the Belgian Congo via Matadi, the principal port of entry. During this period, it was customary for African sailors to procure records during their travels abroad, either as gifts or for sale to friends or acquaintances. Such transactions often occurred through itinerant vendors at or near the port upon the arrival of overseas vessels. Following the advent of radio technology in the region, demand for pre-recorded music surged, prompting local merchants to recognize records as a lucrative enterprise. A Belgian radio enthusiast and entrepreneur named Hourdebise, who inaugurated the first commercial radio station in the Belgian Congo in 1939, regularly broadcast records from the G.V. series. He also allocated air time to local artists and was credited with discovering the singer-songwriter Antoine Wendo Kolosoy. Hourdebise's Radio Congoliya featured local and international news in four African languages—Tshiluba, Kikongo, Swahili, and Lingala—and was the first to install loudspeakers for direct broadcasting in the African quarters of the city. Radio Congoliya's popularity spurred local merchants' interest in record sales, with major retailers in the capital, such as SEDEC Montre and Olivant, beginning to import records alongside more costly items like phonographs and radios.

In August 1941, Paul Kamba formed the Victoria Brazza ensemble in Poto-Poto, accompanied by Henri Pali Baudoin, Jacques Elenga Eboma, Jean Oddet Ekwaka, François Likundu, Moïse Dinga, Philippe Moukouami, Paul Monguele, François Lokwa, Paul Wonga, Joseph Bakalé, and Auguste Boukaka.{{Cite web |last=Okamba |first=Emmanuel |date=30 March 2022 |title=La "Rumba", un humanisme musical en partage |url=https://hal.science/hal-03540376v3/document |access-date=18 December 2023 |publisher=HAL |page=8 |language=fr |publication-place=Lyon, France}} The ensemble's rhythm section incorporated the maringa rhythm and traditional instruments, including a bass drum, a patengé, bells (reminiscent of maracas affixed to hunting dogs), double bells known as ekonga, a likembe, and modern instruments such as an accordion, a guitar, a mandolin, a banjo, and a rackett. This fusion of modern programmable sounds and the intuitive resonance of maringa with non-programmable traditional instruments emerged as a defining characteristic of the "modern Congolese rumba".

File:Jesse 02 gr.jpg (Lingala, Kiswahili, Kikongo, and Tshiluba). The images celebrate the fifth anniversary of Radio Congo Belge pour les Indigènes' (RCBI) African Program, showing the station's record library, a wall of listener photos and letters, and studio scenes, including Pauline Lisanga, RCBI's first female voice and a singer of emerging Congolese music, reading requests live.]]

In the early 1940s, the music of Cuban son groups, such as Sexteto Habanero, Trio Matamoros, and Los Guaracheros de Oriente, was played on Radio Congo Belge in Léopoldville, quickly gaining nationwide popularity.The Encyclopedia of Africa v. 1. 2010 p. 407.{{cite book |last1=Storm Roberts |first1=John |url=https://archive.org/details/latintingeimpact0000robe |title=The Latin Tinge: The Impact of Latin American Music on the United States |date=1999 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-976148-7 |edition=2nd |location=New York, NY |pages=[https://archive.org/details/latintingeimpact0000robe/page/217 217]–218 |url-access=registration}} Congolese musicians began to transpose aspects of Cuban son, including piano sounds, drum patterns, and trumpet phrasing, to electric guitars and saxophones.{{Cite web |last=Chicago Tribune |date=2 June 1993 |title=American listeners are discovering Soukous |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/1993/06/02/american-listeners-are-discovering-soukous/ |access-date=11 June 2024 |website=Chicago Tribune |publication-place=Chicago, Illinois, United States}} They occasionally performed in phonetic Spanish or French. Gradually, however, they infused the music with local rhythms and melodies, progressively bestowing it with local nuances. Although maringa dance music bore no significant relation to Cuban rumba, it became known as "Congolese rumba" due to the frequent mislabeling of imported records by Sexteto Habanero and Trio Matamoros as "rumba".{{Cite web |last=Greenstreet |first=Morgan |date=7 December 2018 |title=Seben Heaven: The Roots of Soukous |url=https://daily.redbullmusicacademy.com/2018/12/the-roots-of-soukous |access-date=11 June 2024 |website=daily.redbullmusicacademy.com}} Various artists and groups emerged on the Congolese music scene, with Paul Kamba, Zacharie Elenga, and Antoine Wendo Kolosoy credited as pioneers.{{Cite web |title=Wendo Kolosoyi |url=http://www.aliaagency.com/artists/artist.php?id=10 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090101091525/http://aliaagency.com/artists/artist.php?id=10 |archive-date=1 January 2009 |access-date=16 December 2015}} Elenga revolutionized the Congolese rumba rhythm by introducing guitar solos and instituting a musical training that included a rhythm guitar, a lead guitar, a double bass, a saxophone, and percussion instruments.{{Cite web |last=Okamba |first=Emmanuel |date=30 March 2022 |title=La "Rumba", un humanisme musical en partage |url=https://hal.science/hal-03540376v3/document |access-date=18 December 2023 |publisher=HAL |page=9 |language=fr |publication-place=Lyon, France}}

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On 1 January 1949, the colonial authorities inaugurated Radio Congo Belge pour Africains (RCBA), positioning it as a substitute for traditional modes of communication, such as the tam-tam. Governor General Eugène Jungers symbolically likened the new medium to a modernized tribal drum, referring to it as the "tam-tam of the Bula matari"—a Kikongo term meaning "breaker of rocks" that evoked colonial brutality and referred to any agent of the Belgian Congo.{{Cite journal |last=Grabli |first=Charlotte |date=14 March 2019 |title=La ville des auditeurs : radio, rumba congolaise et droit à la ville dans la cité indigène de Léopoldville (1949–1960) |trans-title=The city of listeners: radio, Congolese rumba and the right to the city in the indigenous city of Léopoldville (1949–1960) |url=https://journals.openedition.org/etudesafricaines/25229 |journal=Cahiers d'Études Africaines |language=fr |issue=233 |pages=9–45 |doi=10.4000/etudesafricaines.25229 |issn=0008-0055}} This rhetoric situated radio within the colonial narrative of conquest and transformation, as the medium was used to reinforce Belgian authority and reframe indigenous communication practices. To maximize its reach and create an impression of inclusivity, RCBA employed Congolese announcers to broadcast daily in four major local languages: Lingala, Kiswahili, Tshiluba, and Kikongo. Educational content was delivered in French and Lingala for members of the Force Publique, while a separate program in French targeted the évolués—a term referring to Western-educated Congolese. These linguistic choices supported the Belgian colonial vision of a multicultural but segmented national identity, often referred to as a "cultural mosaic". Broadcasts typically opened with a musical segment known as the uélé—a musical march adapted from indigenous rhythms and named after the Uele River region in the Oriental Province—performed by the Force Publique. This served to construct a supra-ethnic identity while reinforcing colonial ethnic categorizations through references to the "five great races"—Bangala, Bakongo, Baluba, Baswahili, and Banyarwanda—as designated by RCBA's director, Karel Theunissen. These classifications loosely aligned with major linguistic and regional divisions within the Congo and drew from earlier precolonial political geographies. Despite the colonial framework, Congolese announcers and musicians began to develop their own forms of expression within the medium. One prominent figure was Pauline Lisanga, who joined RCBA in 1949 as its first female presenter. A member of the Bapoto community, Lisanga gained fame for her work in broadcasting and became one of the earliest female performers of Congolese rumba.

File:Le groupe de rumba congolaise African Jazz dans les années 1960.jpg

By the 1950s, radio sets and communal listening stations had become widespread in the cité indigène (native quarters), weaving RCBA into the cultural and musical daily life of urban residents. While initially introduced as a colonial instrument, radio broadcasting gradually became shaped by the preferences of its listeners. RCBA, later renamed Émissions Africaines, distinguished itself from other colonial radio services—such as the Union of South Africa's South African Broadcasting Corporation, which delayed broadcasting Black popular music until the early 1960s—by actively promoting local music from the outset. Rising audience interest sparked a transition from European content to locally produced music. As early as 1951, Congolese records began to surpass European ones in popularity. Their success propelled local musicians into a competitive arena dominated by foreign genres like cha-cha-chá, calypso, and Caribbean or Latin American mambos, causing significant disruption among Black artists in Léopoldville. Popularity polls and request logs from 1954 demonstrated the growing dominance of Congolese rumba music: 90% of the 30,000 music requests received were for Congolese rumba songs. Of the 5,000 most-requested titles, all were Congolese in origin, with six of the top selections performed by artists from Léopoldville. The most sought-after track was "Mabele ya Paul" by Antoine Mundanda, which received 863 requests. Mundanda's use of the traditional likembe distinguished his sound from the then-prevalent electric guitar-driven rumba. The influence of Congolese rumba quickly extended beyond the borders of the Belgian Congo. Artists were broadcast across the region, reaching audiences in Rwanda, Angola, and as far as West and East Africa. Cities like Lagos received these broadcasts via Radio Brazzaville, which aired four hours of programming daily in the late 1950s. Congolese rumba resonated widely due to its fusion of traditional Congolese rhythms and Cuban musical influences, positioning it as a "neo-African sound" with broad pan-African appeal. This stood in contrast to more localized West African styles such as highlife or jùjú, which remained regionally confined. The international popularity of Congolese rumba was further bolstered by bands such as African Jazz. The band's Cuban-inspired compositions facilitated a musical dialogue between Havana and Léopoldville, extending the genre's reach to audiences as far away as Puerto Rico.

{{Further information|Sébène}}

The Odéon Kinois Orchestra, led by Antoine Kasongo, played a pivotal role in the development of modern Congolese rumba at the end of the 1940s, particularly in pioneering the sébène instrumental section, which was performed by guitarist Zacharie Elenga during his brief stint in the group before joining Opika.{{Cite web |last=Tsambu |first=Leon |title=Section 1.-1930–1950 : de l'agbaya à l'ère de la musique populaire moderne pionnière |trans-title=Section 1.-1930–1950: from agbaya to the era of pioneering modern popular music |url=http://bokundoli.org/doc/section-1-1930-1950-de-lagbaya-a-lere-de-la-musique-populaire-moderne-pionniere/ |access-date=12 March 2024 |website=Bokundoli |language=fr}}{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oclRAQAAMAAJ&q=Antoine%20Kasongo%20rumba |title=Afrique contemporaine: Issues 165–168 |date=1993 |publisher=Documentation française |location=Paris, France |page=16 |language=fr}}

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With the support of white-owned labels like Olympia and Ngoma, Antoine Kasongo and his ensemble, supported by the vocal contributions of Ninin Jeanne and Mpia Caroline, released a series of songs, including "Libala Liboso Se Sukali", "Baloba Balemba", "Naboyaki Kobina", "Se Na Mboka", "Sebene", and "Nzungu Ya Sika". Their success coincided with the rapid urbanization of Léopoldville, where dancing bars became hubs of social activity and provided a platform for musicians to showcase their talent and connect with audiences.

Apart from their musical contributions, the Odéon Kinois Orchestra played a significant role in challenging entrenched societal norms concerning gender and race. Women's associations like L'Harmonie Kinoise and L'Odéon Kinois, sponsored by bars and music labels, provided platforms for women to express themselves freely and assert their autonomy in a male-dominated society. Led by trailblazers like Victorine Ndjoli Elongo, these associations empowered women to challenge traditional roles and expectations, paving the way for greater gender equality and social change.

While the Odéon Kinois Orchestra is credited with pioneering sébène, guitarist Henri Bowane gained prominence for popularizing the style during the 1950s. He performed a duet with Antoine Wendo Kolosoy in their hit "Marie-Louise" in 1948. He also accompanied the singer Marie Kitoto on "Ya Biso Sé Malembé" and "Yokolo". Sébène burgeoned in popularity during the ensuing decade, with Franco Luambo emerging as a leading practitioner.

File:Jean Bosco Mwenda wa Bayeke au Congo belge.jpg in Katanga, Belgian Congo, in 1952|left|170x170px]]

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According to Gary Stewart, commercial recording of local artists in Léopoldville commenced with the Belgian entrepreneur Fernand Janssens, who arrived in the Belgian Congo post-World War II with recording equipment, intending to produce records to be mastered and pressed by his Belgium-based enterprise SOBEDI.{{Cite book |last=Stewart |first=Gary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gKEHO1z413EC&q=Belgium%20and%20the%20Congo%20once%20again%20unimpeded,%20a%20Belgian%20entrepreneur%20named%20Fernand%20Janssens%20had%20come%20to%20L%C3%A9opoldville%20with%20a%20portable,%20direct-to-disc%20recording%20machine. |title=Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos |date=17 November 2003 |publisher=Verso |isbn=978-1-85984-368-0 |pages=24–33}} A considerable number of recordings was issued under Janssens' Olympia label (and its local Congolese subsidiaries Kongo Bina and Lomeka), and by 1948, the Olympia African catalog encompassed over 200 titles, featuring military bands, missionary choirs, and an array of records for learning Lingala. Janssens also recorded some of the most influential first-generation musicians in Léopoldville, including Wendo's Victoria Kin, Orchestre Odéon Kinois, and Camille Feruzi, which facilitated the emergence of local and foreign-owned record companies pivotal to the genre's development. The Greek entrepreneur Nico Jeronimidis converted a small storage structure behind his shop into a studio, soundproofing its interior. He procured a professional direct-to-disc recording machine and microphones from the United States. Jeronimidis named his studio Ngoma, the Kikongo term for "drum". Initially, the studio endeavored to record traditional music, but the logistical and financial burdens of transporting and compensating large troupes proved prohibitive, and the new recording technology was ill-suited to traditional music's extensive performances. Traditional bands, accustomed to prolonged play without interruption, faced constraints as the recorder's cutter head reached the disc's center within three minutes. Smaller, contemporary groups, whose compositions were more adaptable to the medium's limitations, proved more suitable. The three-minute format necessitated tighter structural discipline, aligning with the "European-style, workaday world of the city".

File:Simon Kibangu.jpg was a Congolese religious leader and prophet who founded the Kimbanguist Church, one of the most influential African-initiated churches.]]

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Shortly after Ngoma's inauguration in 1948, Jeronimidis encountered Henri Bowane, who introduced Wendo to the studio and recorded several songs. Musicians under contract reportedly received a monthly stipend for exclusive services, plus three to four hundred Belgian francs per recorded composition. Wendo's chart-topping hit "Marie-Louise", co-written with guitarist Henri Bowane and produced by Ngoma, achieved significant success, selling over two million copies. A few months after its debut, a pervasive rumor circulated across the Belgian Congo, positing that Wendo's "angel voice" possessed the mystical ability to summon the apparition of a "missing beauty".{{Cite news |date=3 September 2004 |title=Wendo Kolosoy, le "pur" de la rumba congolaise |trans-title=Wendo Kolosoy, the "pure" of Congolese rumba |url=https://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/2004/09/03/wendo-kolosoy-le-pur-de-la-rumba-congolaise_377775_1819218.html |access-date=18 April 2024 |work=Le Monde.fr |language=fr |publication-place=Paris, France}} This sudden surge of fame sparked concern among colonial authorities, who were grappling with the resurgence of Kimbanguism, a mystical independence movement spearheaded by Simon Kimbangu. The latter, of the same Bakongo ethnic group as the singer, had proclaimed the "négritude of God", which earned him imprisonment but also garnered immense national recognition. Jeronimidis and Wendo embarked on an extensive tour across the country, traveling in a blue Ngoma van, fitted with roof-mounted speakers—a sight immortalized on the cover of the compact disc Ngoma: The Early Years, 1948–1960 (Popular African Music).{{Cite web |last=Morgan |first=Andy |date=2020 |title=Sebene Heaven: The bittersweet paradox of Congolese music |url=https://worldmusicmethod.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/Sebene-Heaven-Andy-Morgan-PDF.pdf |access-date=17 August 2024 |publisher=World Music Method Ltd |pages=14–18 |publication-place=London, England, United Kingdom}} This established Léopoldville as a hub of Congolese rumba "musical leadership", buoyed by the advent of the recording industry and studios operated by priests and production units affiliated with Greek traders, alongside new 45rpm pressing technology, which allowed musicians to extend recordings. Paul Kamba and his Victoria Brazza traversed the Congo River to make their debut record at Ngoma. Jeronimidis also signed Camille Feruzi and several singer-guitarists, including Manoka De Saio, Adou Elenga, Léon Bukasa, Manuel d'Oliveira, and Georges Edouard, who formed the ensemble San Salvador. The Ngoma studio thrived as wartime memories receded and the late 1940s heralded a promising new decade. Brazzaville's populace nearly doubled from approximately 45,000 in 1940 to around 84,000 by 1950, while Léopoldville's population surged from 50,000 to over 200,000 in the same period. The twin capitals, invigorated by new immigrants with employment and disposable income, bristled with opportunities for the entertainment industry.

File:Un club de rumba congolaise à Léopoldville de 1955 à 1965.jpg (sitting, center) at a bar in Léopoldville]]

A Belgian guitarist named Bill Alexandre, who had honed his craft in the jazz clubs of Brussels during the Nazi occupation and performed alongside luminaries such as Django Reinhardt, eventually settled in Léopoldville and established CEFA (Compagnie d'Énregistrements Folkloriques Africains).{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0tz5YpijuksC |title=Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World, Volume 1: Media, Industry, Society |date=30 January 2003 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-0-8264-6321-0 |editor-last=Shepherd |editor-first=John |location=London, England, United Kingdom |pages=699–700}}{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5QU5AQAAIAAJ&q=Bill+Alexandre+CEFA |title=The Beat, Volume 20 |date=2001 |publisher=Beat Magazine |location=Melbourne, Australia |page=24}} Alexandre is credited with introducing the electric guitar to the Belgian Congo. Local musicians were enthralled by his gleaming Gibson guitar and his use of a plectrum. Alexandre would tour Léopoldville with his musicians in a van equipped with loudspeakers broadcasting CEFA releases.

File:Joseph Kabasele promotional photo.jpg for Opika in the early 1950s]]

Opika, which means "hold steady", or "stand firm" in Lingala, was another pioneering record label in the Belgian Congo.{{Cite web |date=27 April 2008 |title=Cameroon: Bassa |url=https://excavatedshellac.com/category/cameroon-bassa/#:~:text=The%20label%20Opika%20was%20based%20in%20the%20Belgian%20Congo,%20and%20is%20equally%20as,just%20as |access-date=17 August 2024 |website=Excavated Shellac}} It played a critical role in recording and promoting Congolese rumba as well as music from other countries such as Cameroon and Ghana. The label was founded in 1949 by two Jewish entrepreneurs, Gabriel Moussa Benatar and Joseph Benatar, originally from the island of Rhodes in Greece. Initially established under the name Éditions Musicales, the label was first called Kina, a term meaning "dancing" in Kikongo. This early name, however, became the subject of a legal dispute.{{Cite web |last=Ossinondé |first=Clément |title=L'épopée des éditions musicales congolaises "Kina" et "Opika" des Frères Moussa Benatar (1949–1955) |trans-title=The epic of the Congolese musical editions "Kina" and "Opika" by the Moussa Benatar Brothers (1949–1955) |url=https://www.pagesafrik.com/lepopee-des-editions-musicales-congolaises-kina-et-opika-des-freres-moussa-benatar-1949-1955/ |access-date=21 April 2025 |website=Pagesafrik.com |language=fr-FR}} Ngoma claimed prior ownership of the term "Kina" (as in "Kina Ngoma", meaning "playing the tam-tam" in Kikongo) dating back to its founding in 1948. Following a court ruling in favor of Ngoma, the Benatar brothers rebranded their label as Opika in 1950. The new name was suggested by Camille Yambi, a close associate of the founders. The label assembled a roster of musicians under the collective name Bana Opika, who collaborated across group lines to produce recordings. Its first major recording featured singer Paul Mwanga, accordionist Crispin Loleka, and guitarist Michel Buta. One of Opika's early successes was Mwanga's "I Yaya Naboyi Monoko Ya Mobka", a song that would later be recognized as a Congolese music classic. Among Opika's most prominent artists was guitarist Zacharie Elenga, who formed a duo with singer Mwanga. Together, they recorded hit songs like "Henriette" and "Ondruwe", which had widespread commercial success in the Congo and across the broader region. British journalist and researcher Andy Morgan described Elenga's music as "wild and combustible", noting that he "became a youth hero, a musical revolutionary who helped to define a blueprint for Congolese rumba that still applies". Opika was also the first label to sign Joseph Athanase Tshamala Kabasele, popularly known as Le Grand Kallé, who would go on to form the band African Jazz.{{Cite book |last=Stewart |first=Gary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zlwQXNlD6icC |title=Breakout: Profiles in African Rhythm |date=June 1992 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-77406-0 |location=Chicago, Illinois, United States |page=29}}{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RMgVnGfDo7EC |title=Leisure in Urban Africa |date=2003 |publisher=Africa World Press |isbn=978-1-59221-062-6 |editor-last=Veney |editor-first=Cassandra Rachel |location=Trenton, New Jersey, United States |page=163 |editor-last2=Zeleza |editor-first2=Paul Tiyambe}} In 1955, Opika ceased operations. Its studio equipment was acquired by Greek publisher Dino Antonopoulos, who founded Éditions Esengo. Between 1957 and 1960, Esengo became the new hub for Congolese popular music, producing major orchestras such as Rock-a-Mambo, African Jazz, and Conga Jazz, which carried forward the momentum initiated by Opika.

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By the early 1950s, local artists associated with eclectic Congolese labels owned by White settlers, such as Ngoma, Opika, and CEFA, began producing a similar style of Congolese rumba reminiscent of the hit "Marie-Louise". This style, often characterized by a slower tempo and minimal distinctions between orchestras, included works like Antoine Moundanda's "Paul Kamba Atiki Biso" (1950) and "Mabele Ya Paulo" (1953), released under Ngoma.{{Cite web |last=Okamba |first=Emmanuel |date=30 March 2022 |title=La "Rumba", un humanisme musical en partage |url=https://hal.science/hal-03540376v3/document |access-date=18 December 2023 |publisher=HAL |page=11 |language=fr |trans-title="Rumba", a shared musical humanism |publication-place=Lyon, France}} Meanwhile, Ngoma-produced Adou Elenga's "Tout Le Monde Samedi Soir", an adaptation of a West African coastal hit, showcased a fusion of palm-wine guitar techniques from Liberia and Sierra Leone, with the two-finger guitar style prevalent in Shaba (now Katanga) and Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia).{{Cite book |last=Wheeler |first=Jesse Samba Samuel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jJoMAQAAMAAJ&q=Adou%20Elenga%20%22Tout%20Le%20Monde%20Samedi%20Soir%22 |title=Made in Congo: Rumba Lingala and the Revolution in Nationhood |date=1999 |publisher=University of Wisconsin–Madison |location=Madison, Wisconsin, United States |pages=48}} Ngoma also released Moundanda's 1953 smash hit "Mwana Aboyi Mama", a lament infused with likembe, guitar, flute, clarinet, and bass, which achieved unprecedented success, becoming the first Congolese rumba song to be awarded the Osborn Award by the Journal of the African Music Society in Union of South Africa for Best Recording of African Music.{{Cite journal |last=Tracey |first=Hugh |date=1 December 1954 |title=Osborn Awards for the best recordings of African music for the year 1953 |url=https://journal.ru.ac.za/index.php/africanmusic/article/view/231 |journal=African Music: Journal of the International Library of African Music |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=70 |doi=10.21504/amj.v1i1.231 |issn=2524-2741|url-access=subscription }}{{Cite web |last=Kiese |first=Mboka |date=1 December 2004 |title=Bientôt un livre sur le griot Antoine Moundanda |trans-title=Soon a book on the griot Antoine Moundanda |url=https://www.congopage.com/Bientot-un-livre-sur-le-griot |access-date=28 September 2024 |website=Congopage |language=fr}} During the 1950s, amid rising anti-colonial sentiment in the Belgian Congo, Congolese rumba began to intersect with political activism.{{Cite web |last=Servant |first=Jean-Christophe |date=17 November 2023 |title="Ata Ndele", la rumba prophétique du Congolais Adou Elenga |trans-title="Ata Ndele", the prophetic rumba of the Congolese Adou Elenga |url=https://afriquexxi.info/Ata-Ndele-la-rumba-prophetique-du-Congolais-Adou-Elenga |access-date=27 February 2025 |website=Afrique XXI |language=fr}} The cité indigène referred to the racially segregated districts of Léopoldville, designated for the Congolese population. Situated to the south of the European residential, industrial, and commercial quarters, these districts fell under the authority of the Ville de Léopoldville, formerly known as the Urban District.{{Cite web |last=Grabli |first=Charlotte |date=14 March 2019 |title=The city of listeners: radio, Congolese rumba and the right to the city in the indigenous city of Léopoldville (1949–1960) |url=https://journals.openedition.org/etudesafricaines/pdf/25229 |access-date=12 April 2025 |website=Cahiers d'Études Africaines |page=10 |language=fr |issn=1777-5353}} Unlike the centres extra-coutumiers, which had autonomous budgets, the cités were administratively limited. The city's population underwent significant growth during this period, expanding from approximately 31,380 in 1930 to 110,280 in 1946 and reaching an estimated 300,000 by the late 1950s. Adou Elenga's 1954 "Mokili Ekobaluka"—colloquially recognized as "Ata Ndele" and produced by Ngoma—emerged as a revolutionary anthem. The song's lyrics, particularly the refrain "Ata ndele mokili ekobaluka, ata ndele mondele akosukwama" (Lingala for "sooner or later the world will change, sooner or later the whites will be kicked out"), were perceived as a direct challenge to colonial rule.{{Cite book |last=Tchebwa |first=Manda |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d6oWtI-cx70C&pg=PA67 |title=Terre de la chanson : La musique zaïroise hier et aujourd'hui |date=9 August 1996 |publisher=De Boeck Supérieur |isbn=978-2-8011-1128-4 |pages=67 |language=fr |trans-title=Land of Song: Zairian Music Yesterday and Today}}{{Cite book |last1=Grosz-Ngate |first1=Maria |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_YGpAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA76 |title=Gendered Encounters: Challenging Cultural Boundaries and Social Hierarchies in Africa |last2=Kokole |first2=Omari |date=21 January 2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-67058-9 |pages=76}} As a result, Elenga faced imprisonment, but his song contributed to the growing discourse on independence and the genre's role in shaping public sentiment.

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That same year, the Papadimitriou brothers from Macedonia, Basile and Athanase, founded the Loningisa label and studio.{{Cite book |last=Stewart |first=Gary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gKEHO1z413EC |title=Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos |date=17 November 2003 |publisher=Verso Books |isbn=978-1-85984-368-0 |pages=31–33}} Both brothers were fluent in Lingala and enjoyed widespread popularity among the Congolese populace. Basile, known for singing in the shop where he sold pagnes, was married to Marie Kitoko, a Congolese singer. One of Loningisa's early protégés was a "young, handsome, sharply dressed street kid" named François Luambo Luanzo Makiadi, better known as Franco Luambo. During the mid-1950s, Kinshasa's nightlife began to flourish, with numerous bars and performance venues providing platforms for musical experimentation. Loningisa's session musicians, collectively referred to as Bana Loningisa ("children of Loningisa"), performed regularly at the OK Bar, a venue named after its proprietor, Oscar Kashama. In early 1956, the Bana Loningisa rebranded themselves as OK Jazz in homage to their new employer and in recognition of their affinity for Americana, particularly Western music. Under Luambo's leadership, OK Jazz evolved into a musical academy of sorts, a finishing school for talent that counted among its alumni many of the great names in Congolese music: Verckys Kiamuangana Mateta, Youlou Mabiala, Sam Mangwana, Dizzy Mandjeku, Josky Kiambukuta, Ntesa Dalienst, Djo Mpoyi, and many others.

File:Le groupe influent de rumba congolaise OK Jazz en 1960, Liberaal Archief.jpg nightlife in 1960, where Congolese and white patrons dance together to the rhythms of Congolese rumba in a local bar.]]

These record labels also provided the Belgian Congo a substantial platform for the proliferation and cultivation of homegrown bands, such as African Jazz, OK Jazz, Conga Jazz, Beguen Band, Jazz Mango, Jazz Venus, Dynamic Jazz, Affeinta Jazz, Mysterieux Jazz, Orchestre Novelty, Rumbanella Bande, Vedette Jazz, La Palma, Negrita Jazz, and Negro Band.{{Cite web |last=Ilunga |first=Planet |date=1 September 2023 |title=New Release: The Soul of Congo – Treasures of the Ngoma label |url=https://planetilunga.com/2023/09/01/new-release-the-soul-of-congo-treasures-of-the-ngoma-label/ |access-date=16 April 2025 |website=Planet Ilunga}} Although the band names frequently included the word "jazz", Martin notes that "the essential musical inspiration came from African and Latin American roots". The name was used because young men were bedazzled by the American soldiers, especially African Americans, who were based at a military camp in Léopoldville during the Second World War. Scholars such as Isaac A. Kamola of Trinity College and Shiera S. el-Malik of DePaul University suggest that these Congolese "jazz" ensembles exhibited minimal musical affinity with American jazz, interpreting the appropriation as "identification with another culturally vibrant yet politically under-represented population" and that it symbolized a form of modernity that deviated from Eurocentric norms.{{Cite book |last1=el-Malik |first1=Shiera S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3eLaDwAAQBAJ |title=Politics of African Anticolonial Archive |last2=Kamola |first2=Isaac A. |date=3 March 2017 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-78348-791-2 |location=Lanham, Maryland, United States |pages=112–113}} This hybridity and foreign essence ensured that Congolese rumba did not align exclusively with "any particular tradition, region, or grouping" and allowed "Congolese rumba a broad and shared appeal".

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The abrogation of all exclusivity contracts—a significant triumph—paved the way for Congolese entrepreneurs to establish their own record companies.{{Cite web |last=Ossinondé |first=Clément |date=13 January 2020 |title=La genèse de la production musicale, des droits d'auteur, du syndicat d'artistes-musiciens à Léopoldville (Kinshasa) de 1947 à 2019 |trans-title=The genesis of musical production, copyright, and the union of artists-musicians in Léopoldville (Kinshasa) from 1947 to 2019 |url=https://www.congopage.com/La-genese-de-la-production-musicale-des-droits-d-auteur-du-syndicat-d-artistes-musiciens-a |access-date=4 September 2024 |website=Congopage |language=fr}} Le Grand Kallé became the first Congolese musician to establish his own music label, under the name Surboum African Jazz, with financial backing from Léopoldville-based Congolese distribution and publishing company ECODIS (Edition Congolaise du Disque), the Congo-Decca group (a subsidiary of Decca West Africa Limited, owned by Decca Records), and the Belgian record company FONIOR, based in Brussels. The label's inauguration took place in Brussels during Le Grand Kallé's participation in the Belgo-Congolese Round Table Conference on Congolese independence. Le Grand Kallé capitalized on his stay in Brussels to record several pieces with the accompaniment of Cameroonian musician Manu Dibango. The advent of Surboum African Jazz enabled Le Grand Kallé to produce several other orchestras, including OK Jazz in 1961. During his trip to Brussels on behalf of Surboum African Jazz, OK Jazz recorded a series of hits for Le Grand Kallé: "Amida Muziki Ya OK", "Nabanzi Zozo", "Maria De Mi Vida", "Motema Ya Fafa", and others. The revenue generated from the sale of these records allowed OK Jazz to acquire brand-new musical equipment. Consequently, numerous music publishing houses, managed either by musicians or private individuals, proliferated in the early 1960s, including Epanza Makita, Editions Populaires, Eve, La Musette, ISA, Vita, Londende, Macquis, Parions, Mamaky, Boboto, Super Contact, and many more.

{{Further information|TPOK Jazz|Le Grand Kallé et l'African Jazz|Zaïko Langa Langa}}

{{See also|Wenge Musica}}

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By the mid-1950s, a schism emerged between musicians receptive to foreign influences and those rooted in traditional Congolese rumba. This divergence led to the formation of two schools of modern Congolese rumba: the African Jazz School and the OK Jazz School.{{Cite web |last=Lema |first=Jean Claude Engbondu |date=15 October 2020 |title=Les deux écoles de la Rumba Congolaise |trans-title=The two schools of Congolese Rumba |url=https://www.universrumbacongolaise.com/chroniques/les-deux-ecoles-de-la-rumba-congolaise/ |access-date=9 December 2023 |website=Universrumbacongolaise.com |language=fr-FR}} In 1957, these schools made significant advancements to the genre, with OK Jazz embracing a style known as odemba, characterized by a fast tempo and influenced by the rhythm from the Mongo folklore of Mbandaka, along the Congo River. Meanwhile, the African Jazz School introduced "rumba-rock", which had a faster tempo, with jazz and Afro-Cuban "accents in the arrangements".{{Cite book |last=Tenaille |first=Frank |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5fMZ8La_PSYC |title=Music is the Weapon of the Future: Fifty Years of African Popular Music |publisher=Chicago Review Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-55652-450-9 |location=Brooklyn, New York |page=62}}{{Cite book |last=Mbu-Mputu |first=Norbert X. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mfWiDwAAQBAJ |title=L'autre Lumumba. Peuple du Congo : Histoire, résistances, assassinats et victoires sur le front de la Guerre froide |isbn=978-0-244-77422-6 |location=Morrisville, North Carolina, United States |page=22 |language=fr}}{{Cite book |last=Seck |first=Nago |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oAvK3oOxtlkC |title=Musiciens africains des années 80 |date=1 January 1985 |publisher=Éditions L'Harmattan |isbn=978-2-296-37410-2 |location=Paris, France |page=20 |language=fr}} African Jazz also introduced tumba drums and electronic instruments. Classics like "Afrika Mokili Mobimba" made them one of Africa's most prominent bands, with its "loopy-riffing guitars, peculiar drum and bass grooves that lock in while twisting the beat, and horn parts that tell little melodic stories of their own."{{Cite web |last=Network |first=World Music |title=Tabu Ley Rochereau Receives Award |url=https://worldmusic.net/blogs/news/tabu-ley-rochereau-receives-award |access-date=10 July 2023 |website=World Music Network}}{{Cite book |last= |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sicEAAAAMBAJ&dq=Africa+Mokili+Mobimba&pg=PA64 |title=JazzTimes |date=April 1996 |publisher=JazzTimes, Inc. |location=Braintree, Massachusetts, United States |page=64}}

File:Docteur Nico.jpg in the 1960s]]

During this period, guitarist Faugus Izeidi of African Fiesta Le Peuple, formerly of the African Jazz School, pioneered the mi-solo guitar, filling a role between the lead and rhythm guitars.{{Cite web |date=29 March 2024 |title=Faugus Izeidi : "j'ai créé la guitare mi-solo dans la musique congolaise et le rythme Soum Djoum de l'Afriza International de Tabu Ley" |url=https://www.radiookapi.net/2024/03/29/emissions/le-grand-temoin/faugus-izeidi-jai-cree-la-guitare-mi-solo-dans-la-musique |access-date=27 May 2024 |website=Radio Okapi |language=fr}}{{Cite web |last=Messager |date=25 April 2018 |title=Faugus Izeidi parle de son apport dans la musique congolaise |url=http://www.mbokamosika.com/2018/04/faugus-izeidi-parle-de-son-apport-dans-la-musique-congolaise.html |access-date=27 May 2024 |website=MBOKAMOSIKA |language=fr}}{{Cite book |last=Izeidi |first=Faugus |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0HG2MQEACAAJ |title=Les coulisses de la musique congolaise : de l'African Jazz à l'Afrisa |date=2012 |publisher=Makitec/Paari |isbn=978-2-84220-061-9 |language=fr}} Franco Luambo characterized his mi-solo style with arpeggio patterns and fingerpicking techniques.{{Cite web |date=15 October 2023 |title=Franco Luambo |url=https://au.rollingstone.com/music/music-lists/-51028/franco-luambo-51209/ |access-date=27 May 2024 |website=Rolling Stone Australia}} American music journalist Morgan Greenstreet noted that former African Jazz School member Docteur Nico became a groundbreaking guitarist in Congolese music history with his fiesta style, drawing on traditional Baluba melodies and rhythms from his home village of Mikalayi.{{Cite web |last=Greenstreet |first=Morgan |date=7 December 2018 |title=Seben Heaven: The Roots of Soukous |url=https://daily.redbullmusicacademy.com/2018/12/the-roots-of-soukous |access-date=11 June 2024 |website=Daily.redbullmusicacademy.com}} Meanwhile, Franco Luambo and the OK Jazz School transformed the sebene into the central element of Congolese music, as opposed to merely a departure between choruses, with Franco's odemba style being "rougher, more repetitive and rooted in rhythms that moved the hips of dancers at Kinshasa's hottest clubs".

In 1969, a collective of students, spearheaded by Papa Wemba, Jossart N'Yoka Longo, and Félix Manuaku Waku, emerged as Zaïko Langa Langa, introducing a third school of Congolese rumba, characterized by an unconventional structure, abrupt movements, and elements described as "jerky and complex in [their] basic contributions".{{Cite web |last=Lavaine |first=Bertrand |date=30 September 2020 |title=Zaïko Langa Langa, une histoire congolaise |trans-title=Zaïko Langa Langa, a Congolese story |url=https://musique.rfi.fr/rumba-congolaise/20200930-zaiko-langa-langa-une-histoire-congolaise |access-date=27 May 2024 |website=RFI Musique |language=fr |publication-place=Paris, France}}{{Cite web |last=Kayumba |first=Arthur |date=26 December 2023 |title=Zaïko Langa Langa : 54 ans d'une légende musicale de la jeunesse kinoise |trans-title=Zaïko Langa Langa: 54 years of a musical legend of Kinshasa youth |url=https://acp.cd/culture/zaiko-langa-langa-54-ans-dune-legende-musicale-de-la-jeunesse-kinoise-par-arthur-kayumba/ |access-date=27 May 2024 |website=ACP |language=fr-FR}}{{cite news |last1=Ray |first1=Rita |title=What made Papa Wemba so influential? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-36131322 |access-date=20 July 2021}} The group was most influential in the 1970s, popularizing distinctive features such as variations in drum tempo, snare drum usage, sebène, and an entertainment ensemble comprising atalaku, a unified choir, a soloist, and soukous "shocked" dance, characterized by intricate body movements.{{Cite book |last=Ossinondé |first=Clément |url=https://www.librairiecharlemagne.com/livre/6787987-histoire-de-la-musique-congolaise-52-ans-de-la--clement-ossinonde-ed-ices |title=52 ans de musique congolaise : Au Congo-Kinshasa République démocratique du Congo (RDC) – 1960–2012 |language=fr}}

The band Wenge Musica emerged as the fourth school in the late 1980s and 1990s, with their rapid hip movements and body swaying, occasionally accompanied by abrupt gestures.{{Cite web |last=Ngaira |first=Amos |date=25 June 2022 |title=Mega concert tunes up as Wenge Musica regroups |url=https://nation.africa/kenya/life-and-style/weekend/mega-concert-as-wenge-musica-regroups-3859502 |access-date=20 July 2024 |website=Daily Nation |publication-place=Nairobi, Kenya}}{{Cite book |last=White |first=Bob W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AuN2CnGwsnQC |title=Rumba Rules: The Politics of Dance Music in Mobutu's Zaire |date=27 June 2008 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0-8223-4112-3 |location=Durham, North Carolina, United States |pages=50–51}}{{Cite web |last=Ngaira |first=Amos |date=4 December 2001 |title=Kenya: New Wenge Splinter Band Turns on the Song |url=https://allafrica.com/stories/200112030658.html |access-date=20 July 2024 |website=Daily Nation |publication-place=Nairobi, Kenya}}{{Cite web |last=Makumeno |first=Emery |date=1 July 2022 |title=Musique : qu'est-ce que le clan Wenge, pionnier de la danse Ndombolo ? |trans-title=What is the Wenge clan, pioneers of Ndombolo dance? |url=https://www.bbc.com/afrique/articles/c84xqw9ppk1o |access-date=13 January 2024 |website=BBC News Afrique |language=fr}} Playing mainly soukous and Congolese rumba, they were instrumental in pioneering ndombolo dance music and dominated the scene until 1997, when the band split into two factions: Wenge Musica Maison Mère, led by Werrason, and Wenge BCBG, by JB Mpiana.{{Cite web |last=Ngaira |first=Amos |date=21 May 2022 |title=Wenge Musica band set for reunion show in Kinshasa |url=https://nation.africa/kenya/life-and-style/weekend/wenge-musica-band-set-for-reunion-show-in-kinshasa-3822512 |access-date=20 July 2024 |website=Daily Nation |publication-place=Nairobi, Kenya}}{{Cite web |date=14 April 2022 |title=25-Year Wenge Musica Face-Off Appears to End |url=https://afropop.org/articles/25-year-face-off-appears-to-end |access-date=20 July 2024 |website=Afropop Worldwide |publication-place=Brooklyn, New York City, New York State, United States}} Over the years, the ensemble spun off several musicians, including Héritier Watanabe, Fabregas Le Métis Noir, Robinio Mundibu, Ferré Gola, Tutu Callugi, Alain Mpela, Adolphe Dominguez, Marie Paul Kambulu, and Ricoco Bulambemba.{{Cite web |last=Waruguru |first=Grace |date=22 February 2022 |title=Top 10 greatest Congolese music bands that you need to know |url=https://www.tuko.co.ke/facts-lifehacks/music-singers/443362-top-10-greatest-congolese-music-bands-know/ |access-date=20 July 2024 |website=Tuko.co.ke |publication-place=Nairobi, Kenya}}{{Cite web |last=Tijani |first=Achraf |date=12 April 2022 |title=DRC: Congolese music fans rejoice as Werrason and JB Mpiana finally reconcile |url=https://www.theafricareport.com/193958/drc-congolese-music-fans-rejoice-as-werrason-and-jb-mpiana-finally-reconcile/ |access-date=20 July 2024 |website=Theafricareport.com |publication-place=Paris, France}}

{{Further information|Soukous|Zaïko Langa Langa}}

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| source = Bertrand Dicale, a French musicologist, journalist, and writer, reviewing "Indépendance Cha Cha"{{cite news |title= La Rumba congolaise, la musique de l'indépendance (et de la SAPE) |url= https://www.radiofrance.fr/francemusique/musiques-du-monde/la-rumba-congolaise-la-musique-des-independantistes-et-des-sapeurs-5041956 |access-date=12 April 2025 |work= Radio France |date= 13 January 2022 |language = fr}}

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In the late years of colonial rule, many musicians sought to express their dissenting messages and daily tribulations through various forms of art, such as plastic arts, street theatre productions, literary compositions, and music.{{Cite web |last=Nascimento |first=Evelyn Rosa do |date=25 June 2021 |title="O Dipandatcha-tchaTozui e": história e conexões culturais através da rumba congolesa (1940–1965) |trans-title="O Dipandatcha-tchaTozui e": history and cultural connections through the Congolese rumba (1940–1965) |url=https://www.maxwell.vrac.puc-rio.br/55241/55241.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220517110002id_/https://www.maxwell.vrac.puc-rio.br/55241/55241.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-date=17 May 2022 |access-date=21 April 2024 |publisher=Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro |page=11 |language=pt |publication-place=Rio de Janeiro}} Lyrical content in Congolese rumba became more socially and politically charged. During the 1960 Round Table Conference in Brussels, which addressed the future independence of the Belgian Congo, Congolese nationalist leader Thomas Kanza facilitated the participation of Congolese musicians in diplomatic and social gatherings.{{Cite web |last=Brouns |first=Arthur |date=13 February 2020 |title=Le label belge qui ressuscite la rumba congolaise des années 1950 à 1970 |trans-title=The Belgian label that revives Congolese rumba from the 1950s to the 1970s |url=https://www.vice.com/fr/article/label-belge-la-rumba-congolaise-des-annees-1950-a-1970-planet-ilunga/ |access-date=13 April 2025 |website=Vice |language=fr}} On 27 January 1960, Le Grand Kallé and his band, African Jazz, became the first Congolese musical act and rumba band to tour Brussels.{{Cite web |last=Ossinondé |first=Clément |date=5 October 2009 |title=Le souvenir de Luambo Makiadi Franco et l'Ok Jazz |trans-title=The memory of Luambo Makiadi Franco and Ok Jazz |url=https://www.congopage.com/le-souvenir-de-luambo-makiadi-franco-et-l-ok-jazz |access-date=22 August 2024 |website=Congopage |language=fr}} That day, they performed their Congolese rumba-infused song "Indépendance Cha Cha" at the Hotel Plaza in Brussels to celebrate the officialization of the Congo's independence from Belgian rule, which was granted on 30 June 1960.{{Cite book |last=Dumitrescu |first=Irina |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EgSVEAAAQBAJ&dq=congolese+rumba+Ind%C3%A9pendance+Cha+Cha&pg=PA206 |title=Rumba Under Fire: The Arts of Survival from West Point to Delhi |date=2016 |publisher=Punctum Books |isbn=978-0-692-65583-2 |location=Santa Barbara, California, United States. |page=206}}{{Cite book |last=Dibango |first=Manu |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9tvf93QiNpQC |title=Three Kilos of Coffee: An Autobiography |date=3 October 1994 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-14490-0 |location=Chicago, Illinois, United States |pages=23–33}} Sung in Lingala, it became a celebratory song of independence in various parts of French-speaking Africa and was played at events, festivities, and gatherings, especially when Congolese artists were present, due to its popularity among subsequent generations.{{Cite web |last=Guinard |first=Clémence |date=13 January 2022 |title=La Rumba congolaise, la musique de l'indépendance (et de la SAPE) |trans-title=Congolese Rumba, the music of independence (and of the SAPE) |url=https://www.radiofrance.fr/francemusique/musiques-du-monde/la-rumba-congolaise-la-musique-des-independantistes-et-des-sapeurs-5041956 |access-date=13 April 2025 |website=Radio France |language=fr |publication-place=Paris, France}} According to Belgian researcher Matthias De Groof, "Indépendance Cha Cha" still stands today as a "symbol of the Congolese independence and Congolese rumba music".{{Cite book |last=Groof |first=Matthias De |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V-XJDwAAQBAJ&dq=congolese+rumba+Ind%C3%A9pendance+Cha+Cha&pg=PA302 |title=Lumumba in the Arts |date=2020 |publisher=Leuven University Press |isbn=978-94-6270-174-8 |location=Leuven, Flemish Brabant, Belgium |page=302}} Notably, the song was included in the "100 Greatest African Songs of All Time" by the Kenyan weekly magazine Daily Nation in 2021.{{Cite web |last=Seaman |first=Jacobs Odongo |date=22 June 2021 |title=100 greatest African songs of all time |url=https://nation.africa/kenya/life-and-style/art-books/100-greatest-african-songs-of-all-time-3446092 |access-date=29 July 2024 |website=Daily Nation |publication-place=Nairobi, Kenya}} Around this time, OK Jazz released "Kingotolo Mbuta Ngani Mbote" in 1961 under Surboum African Jazz. In the song, Franco offered a critical portrayal of Belgian colonial administrators, accusing them of exploiting the Congolese population.

File:Identite-ManuDibango-1964-Sacem.png in 1964. His experiences in the Congo-Léopoldville during its independence greatly impacted his musical development.]]

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| image1 = L'orchestre de rumba congolaise Beguen Band en tournée en Côte d'Ivoire en septembre 1960.jpg

| caption1 = The Beguen Band during their tour in Ivory Coast, September 1960. Left to right: Flamy, Maproko, Depiano, Tchade, and Magnol, captured during a live broadcast at Radio Côte d'Ivoire studios.

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Concurrently, Manu Dibango's exposure to Congolese rumba during the transition to independence helped shape his early career. At the Brussels club Les Anges Noirs, which was popular among Congolese politicians and intellectuals during the Round Table Conferences, Dibango made the acquaintance of Le Grand Kallé and subsequently joined African Jazz.{{Cite book |last=Stewart |first=Gary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gKEHO1z413EC |title=Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos |date=17 November 2003 |publisher=Verso Books |isbn=978-1-85984-368-0 |pages=122–123}} Their collaborations yielded several successful recordings, including Dibango's participation in the "Indépendance Cha Cha" sessions in Léopoldville. Before returning to Cameroon in 1963, Dibango operated two nightclubs—the Afro-Négro and Tam-Tam—where he played various instruments including the piano, vibraphone, and saxophone. His performances, blending jazz with Congolese rumba, featured collaborations with local artists such as Brazzos, Faugus Izeidi, Franc Lassan, and Belgian drummer Charles Hénault. Dibango's 1962 recording "Twist à Léo", performed with local musicians under the name African Soul, introduced the international twist dance craze to Congolese audiences.

File:Félix Manuaku Waku and Papa Wemba, Tam Tam, 1970.jpg and Félix Manuaku Waku performing in Kinshasa in 1970]]

By the latter half of 1960, Congolese rumba was an established genre in most of Central Africa, and it would also impact the music of South, West and East Africa.{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v8WF7lN5JdoC |title=Cultures and Globalization: Cultural Expression, Creativity and Innovation |date=21 January 2010 |publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=9780857026576 |editor-last=Anheier |editor-first=Helmut K. |location=Thousand Oaks, California |page=119 |editor-last2=Isar |editor-first2=Yudhishthir R.}}{{Cite book |last=Knights |first=Vanessa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_IAWDAAAQBAJ |title=Music, National Identity and the Politics of Location: Between the Global and the Local |date=29 April 2016 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9781317091608 |location=Thames, Oxfordshire United Kingdom |page=45}}{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XEeTAgAAQBAJ |title=The Garland Handbook of African Music |date=2 April 2010 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9781135900014 |editor-last=Stone |editor-first=Ruth M. |location=Thames, Oxfordshire United Kingdom |pages=132–133}}{{Cite web |last=Salter |first=Thomas |date=January 2007 |title=Rumba from Congo to Cape Town |url=https://era.ed.ac.uk/handle/1842/2670 |access-date=7 May 2024 |publisher=University of Edinburgh |pages=1–30 |publication-place=Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom}} Certain artists who had performed in Franco Luambo and Grand Kalle's bands went on to establish their own ensembles, such as Tabu Ley Rochereau and Nico Kasanda, who formed African Fiesta in 1963.{{Cite book |last=Millward |first=Stephen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DQXR244YSBEC |title=Changing Times: Music and Politics in 1964 |date=1 December 2012 |publisher=Troubador Publishing Ltd |isbn=978-1-78088-344-1 |location=Leicestershire, England |page=231}} Kasanda's faction, including Charles Déchaud Mwamba, went on to create a new ensemble called African Fiesta Sukisa.{{Cite book |last=Stewart |first=Gary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zlwQXNlD6icC&dq=Nico+Kasanda+African+Fiesta&pg=PA24 |title=Breakout: Profiles in African Rhythm |date=June 1992 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-77406-0 |location=Chicago, Illinois, United States |pages=22–25}}{{Cite web |last=Smith |first=C.C. |date=5 July 2018 |title=Afropop Worldwide {{!}} Best of the Beat on Afropop: Leo Sarkisian and Mwamba Dechaud |url=https://afropop.org/articles/best-of-the-beat-on-afropop-leo-sarkisian-zairean-guitar-legend-mwamba-dechaud |access-date=28 October 2023 |website=Afropop Worldwide}} Paradoxically, despite these schisms, many musicians continued to release records that dominated discos, bars, and clubs across Africa. In April 1966, Les Bantous de la Capitale and Ok Jazz became the first Congolese rumba bands to perform at the inaugural World Festival of Negro Arts in Dakar, Senegal.{{Cite web |last=Ossinondé |first=Clément |date=9 May 2020 |title=Bref aperçu de la musique congolaise en 12 chapitres |trans-title=Brief overview of Congolese music in 12 chapters |url=https://www.congopage.com/Bref-apercu-de-la-musique-congolaise-en-12-chapitres |access-date=6 June 2024 |website=Congopage |language=fr}} By 1967, African Fiesta Sukisa had assembled a powerhouse of vocalists and instrumentalists, but what set them apart were the three guitarists—Nico, his brother Dechaud, and De La France—who had become a defining characteristic of Congolese rumba.{{Cite book |last=Stewart |first=Gary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7VmcEAAAQBAJ&dq=By+the+end+of+1967+Nico+had+assembled+perhaps+the+strongest+lineup+of+his+career.&pg=PT197 |title=Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos |date=5 May 2020 |publisher=Verso Books |isbn=978-1-78960-911-0 |location=Brooklyn, New York, New York, United States}} Les Bantous featured Gerry Gérard, Samba Mascott, and Mpassy Mermans, while Franco Luambo collaborated with Simaro Lutumba and Brazzos as well as several of its successors. Rochereau enlisted Jean Paul "Guvano" Vangu, Faugus Izeidi, and Johnny Bokasa in his Fiesta, and Dewayon worked with Ray Braynck and Henri Bowole in Cobantou. This practice gave rise to the term "mi-solo", to designate the third guitar, which played between the solo (lead) guitar and the (rhythm) accompaniment.{{Cite book |last=Stewart |first=Gary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7VmcEAAAQBAJ&dq=Fans+called+Nico+'dieu+de+la+guitare'+(god+of+the+guitar),+Dechaud+the+guitarist&pg=PT198 |title=Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos |date=5 May 2020 |publisher=Verso Books |isbn=978-1-78960-911-0 |location=Brooklyn, New York, New York, United States}} Subsequently, Rochereau and Roger Izeidi departed from the band to establish African Fiesta National. Others, such as Mujos and Depuissant, left to join different musical collectives; they were later joined by Papa Wemba and Sam Mangwana.Roberts, John Storm. Afro-Cuban Comes Home: The Birth and Growth of Congo Music. Original Music cassette tape (1986) In July–August 1969, Les Bantous de la Capitale and the Bamboula Orchestra were among the musicians participating in the Premier Festival Culturel Panafricain d'Alger, a celebration of African identity and culture to facilitate interaction between liberation movements and promoting the newly independent Algeria as a continental leader.{{Cite journal |last=Kimmel |first=Anna Jayne |date=2021 |title=On Remembering Le premier festival culturel panafricain d'Alger 1969: An Assembled Interview |journal=Lateral |volume=10 |issue=1 |doi=10.25158/L10.1.6 |issn=2469-4053|doi-access=free }}

File:Nico Kasanda à Kinshasa, probablement dans les années 1970.jpg

While Congolese rumba exerted influence on bands such as African Jazz and OK Jazz, a band from Brazzaville, Orchestre Sinza Kotoko, sought to attenuate this influence and embrace a faster-paced soukous style, starting in 1966.{{Cite book |last=Stewart |first=Gary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gKEHO1z413EC |title=Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos |date=5 May 2020 |publisher=Verso Books |isbn=978-1-78960-911-0 |pages=135–137}}{{Cite web |date=3 November 2018 |title=Sinza "Kotoko" le plus grand orchestre du "Soukous" des années 70 |trans-title=Sinza "Kotoko" the greatest orchestra of the "Soukous" of the 70s |url=https://www.dac-presse.com/sinza-kotoko-le-plus-grand-orchestre-du-soukous-des-annees-70-dac-e-news/ |access-date=18 December 2024 |website=DAC-presse.com |language=fr-FR}} This emergent style was based on traditional festive Congolese rhythms, as the group often performed at weddings and malaki (communal cultural festivities).{{Cite web |last=Ossinondé |first=Clément |date=28 May 2012 |title=Il était une fois, un grand orchestre:Sinza "Kotoko" |trans-title=Once upon a time, there was a great orchestra: Sinza "Kotoko" |url=https://www.mbokamosika.com/article-il-etait-une-fois-un-grand-orchestre-sinza-kotoko-105943188.html |access-date=18 December 2024 |website=Mbokamosika |language=fr}} This new variant of Congolese rumba, with its percussive bass mimicking percussion, was notable for its emphasis on sebène, designed to get listeners dancing. Unlike rumba songs, which contained a story sung before the sebène, soukous songs omitted the story in favor of the dance. Meanwhile, rumba bands like Zaïko Langa Langa introduced distinct elements into the genre, including variances in percussive tempo, utilization of snare drums, a new sebène guitar technique, and a performance ensemble comprising atalaku, a harmonized choir, and a soloist.{{Cite book |last=Ossinondé |first=Clément |url=https://www.librairiecharlemagne.com/livre/6787987-histoire-de-la-musique-congolaise-52-ans-de-la--clement-ossinonde-ed-ices |title=52 ans de musique congolaise : Au Congo-Kinshasa République démocratique du Congo (RDC) – 1960–2012 |language=fr}} Soukous achieved international prominence as numerous musicians moved abroad during the late 1970s due to the economic downturn in Zaire.{{Cite web |date=15 August 2018 |title=The mixed legacy of DRC musician Franco |url=https://newafricanmagazine.com/17337/ |access-date=26 August 2023 |website=New African Magazine}} Other Zairean artists, such as Tabu Ley Rochereau, M'bilia Bel, Kanda Bongo Man, Pépé Kallé, Syran Mbenza, Franklin Boukaka, Bozi Boziana, Evoloko Jocker, Rigo Star, Josky Kiambukuta, Diblo Dibala, Jolie Detta, Dindo Yogo, Gaby Lita Bembo, and Koffi Olomide garnered substantial followings in the United States, Europe, and across Africa.

{{Further information|Cavacha}}File:Rochereau performing at Paris Olympia.jpg performing at the Paris Olympia in 1970]]

During the 1970s, a considerable contingent of prominent Zairean musicians moved to Paris due to economic hardship and the country's underdeveloped music industry.{{Cite book |last=Winders |first=J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iqoYDAAAQBAJ |title=Paris Africain: Rhythms of the African Diaspora |date=5 June 2007 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan US |isbn=978-0-230-60207-6 |pages=14–15}}{{Cite web |last=Raquin-Ngasho |first=Emilie |date=23 December 2004 |title=Pouvoir et représentations à Kinshasa : les musiciens congolais, nouvelles élites d'une jeunesse urbaine en crise |trans-title=Power and representations in Kinshasa: Congolese musicians, new elites of urban youth in crisis |url=https://africultures.com/pouvoir-et-representations-a-kinshasa-les-musiciens-congolais-nouvelles-elites-dune-jeunesse-urbaine-en-crise-3631/?utm_source=newsletter&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=540 |access-date=13 March 2024 |website=Africultures |language=fr-FR |publication-place=Paris, France}} The oppressive reign of the autocratic dictator Mobutu Sese Seko instilled weariness among artists toward the constraints of Kinshasa's public sphere, compelling them to seek alternative audiences.{{Cite book |last1=Falola |first1=Toyin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UOTNEAAAQBAJ&dq=Congolese+rumba+paris+1980s&pg=PT419 |title=Africa [3 Volumes]: An Encyclopedia of Culture and Society [3 Volumes] |last2=Jean-Jacques |first2=Daniel |date=14 December 2015 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=979-8-216-04273-0 |location=London, England, United Kingdom}}{{Cite book |last1=Appiah |first1=Anthony |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A0XNvklcqbwC |title=Encyclopedia of Africa: Volume 1 |last2=Gates (Jr.) |first2=Henry Louis |date=2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-533770-9 |location=Oxford, England, United Kingdom |page=312}}{{Cite book |last=Davies |first=Carole Boyce |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ETPEAAAQBAJ&dq=Mobutu+soukous+in+the+1970s&pg=PA849 |title=Encyclopedia of the African Diaspora: Origins, Experiences, and Culture [3 volumes] |date=29 July 2008 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-705-0 |editor-last=Davies |editor-first=Carole Boyce |location=Santa Barbara, California, United States |page=849}} In December 1970, Tabu Ley Rochereau became the first Congolese rumba artist and the first African artist to headline one of Paris's major concert venues, the Olympia. Despite concerns about how the French audience would receive their music, the concert was a success and significantly boosted Rochereau's international career. The performance spurred the venue to book other Zairean musicians, including Abeti Masikini, on 19 February 1973, which significantly elevated her status back in Zaire.{{Cite book |last=Agbu |first=Osita |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3QBXEAAAQBAJ&dq=abeti+masikini+Olympia&pg=PA200 |title=Children and Youth in the Labour Process in Africa |date=15 October 2009 |publisher=CODESRIA |isbn=978-2-86978-390-4 |location=Dakar, Senegal |page=200}}{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BnYbAQAAIAAJ&q=abeti%20masikini%20Olympia |title=Jeune Afrique, Issues 1761-1773 |date=1994 |publisher=Jeune Afrique Media Group |location=Paris, France |page=47 |language=fr}} Consequently, Congolese rumba and its offshoot soukous garnered acclaim across the Western world and the Caribbean during this epoch. Notably, Joséphine M'boualé, alias Joséphine Bijou, emerged as the first Congolese rumba female guitarist to perform in Havana in early 1974, followed by the orchestra Les Bantous de la Capitale in 1974, 1975, and 1978.{{Cite web |last=Okamba |first=Emmanuel |date=30 March 2022 |title=La "Rumba", un humanisme musical en partage |trans-title="Rumba", a shared musical humanism |url=https://hal.science/hal-03540376v3/document |access-date=2 June 2024 |website=Hal.science |publisher=HAL |page=6 |language=fr |publication-place=Lyon, France}}

The three-day Zaire 74 music festival emphasized the significance of internationalism in music in Africa and beyond. It featured American artists like James Brown, B. B. King, Bill Withers, and the Spinners, as well as international ones like Celia Cruz, Miriam Makeba, and Zairian musicians like Tabu Ley Rochereau, Abeti Masikini, Franco Luambo & OK Jazz, and Zaïko Langa Langa.{{Cite book |last=Sawadogo |first=Boukary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4MBqEAAAQBAJ&dq=abeti+masikini+1974&pg=PA37 |title=Africans in Harlem: An Untold New York Story |date=7 June 2022 |publisher=Fordham Univ Press |isbn=978-0-8232-9915-7 |location=New York City, New York State, United States |page=37}}{{Cite web |title=Afropop Worldwide {{!}} Zaire 74: The African Artists |url=https://afropop.org/articles/zaire-74-the-african-artists |access-date=18 November 2023 |website=Afropop Worldwide}} Alongside acts of cultural diplomacy like Sister Sledge teaching young African girls how to dance the bump, Americans and other Westerners witnessed and celebrated the musical performances and genres of Congolese and other African artists that thrilled local populations.

File:Congolese band Zaïko Langa Langa in 1971.jpg performance in 1971. From left to right: Beaudoin Mitsho, Meridjo Belobi (behind), Enoch Zamuangana (behind), Teddy Sukami, Papa Wemba, Damien Ndebo (behind), Evoloko Jocker, Félix Manuaku Waku|204x204px]]

File:Gaby Lita Bembo jouant du piano à la fin des années 1970.jpg

By the late 1970s, a wave of Zairean musicians began to make their way to Paris. Some went for short recording stays, while others made it a permanent base. Péla Nsimba, a guitarist and singer who had garnered acclaim in Zaire during the late 1960s and early 1970s with his ensemble Thu Zahina, arrived in 1977.{{Cite book |last=Stewart |first=Gary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7VmcEAAAQBAJ&dq=P%C3%A9la+Nsimba+paris&pg=PT339 |title=Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos |date=5 May 2020 |publisher=Verso Books |isbn=978-1-78960-911-0}} The emergence of specialized record stores catering to African music burgeoned in the mid-1970s, exemplified by Afric Music in Montparnasse.{{Cite book |last=Pines |first=Paul |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dUw_CgAAQBAJ&dq=African+Music+in+Montparnasse&pg=PT19 |title=My Brother's Madness: A Memoir |date=1 October 2007 |publisher=Northwestern University Press |isbn=978-0-8101-3299-3 |location=Evanston, Illinois, United States}}{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iUSGDAAAQBAJ&dq=African+Music+in+Montparnasse&pg=PA73 |title=Musical Migrations: Transnationalism and Cultural Hybridity in Latin/o America, Volume I |date=3 January 2003 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan US |isbn=978-0-230-10744-1 |editor-last=Jàquez |editor-first=C. |page=73|editor-last2=Aparicio |editor-first2=F.}} In 1976, Eddy Gustave, a jazz musician from Martinique, opened a record shop near Père Lachaise Cemetery, where he sold Caribbean and African music. In 1978, Gustave moved into production and began inviting musicians from Zaire to come to Paris to record.{{Cite book |last=Stewart |first=Gary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7VmcEAAAQBAJ&dq=Eddy+Gustave+african+music&pg=PT377 |title=Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos |date=5 May 2020 |publisher=Verso Books |isbn=978-1-78960-911-0}}{{Cite web |last=Mapolin |first=Harry |date=25 November 2018 |title=Le musicien Eddy Gustave se confie aux Mornaliens |trans-title=Musician Eddy Gustave confides in Mornaliens |url=https://www.guadeloupe.franceantilles.fr/actualite/culture/le-musicien-eddy-gustave-se-confie-aux-mornaliens-418581.php |access-date=13 March 2024 |website=guadeloupe.franceantilles.fr |language=fr-FR}}

Meanwhile, in Africa, Zaïko Langa Langa became "the leader of a new generation of orchestras". The band's drummer, Meridjo Belobi, gained popularity and is credited for inventing a dance craze named cavacha, rooted in the Congolese traditional rhythm.{{Cite web |last=Ngaira |first=Amos |date=29 August 2020 |title=Curtain falls on Zaiko Langa Langa ex-drummer Meridjo Belobi |url=https://nation.africa/kenya/life-and-style/culture/curtain-falls-on-zaiko-langa-langa-ex-drummer-meridjo-belobi-1927970 |access-date=13 March 2024 |website=Nation.africa/kenya |publication-place=Nairobi, Kenya}}

{{Further information|Kwassa kwassa}}

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| footer = The Loketo group, established by Aurlus Mabélé and Diblo Dibala, emerged as a prominent soukous band during the 1980s and 1990s.

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With increasing sociopolitical upheaval in Zaire in the 1980s, numerous musicians sought refuge in Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, and Colombia, and a significant number migrated to Paris, Brussels, and London.{{Cite book |last=Davies |first=Carole Boyce |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ETPEAAAQBAJ&dq=soukous+in+London&pg=PA849 |title=Encyclopedia of the African Diaspora [3 volumes]: Origins, Experiences, and Culture |date=29 July 2008 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |isbn=978-1-85109-705-0 |location=New York City, New York State, United States |page=849}}{{Cite book |last=Trillo |first=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B6dEW14KykIC |title=The Rough Guide to Kenya |publisher=Rough Guides |year=2016 |isbn=9781848369733 |location=London, United Kingdom |page=598}}{{Cite book |last=Stewart |first=Gary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7VmcEAAAQBAJ |title=Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos |date=5 May 2020 |publisher=Verso Books |isbn=978-1-78960-911-0 |location=Brooklyn, New York City, New York State}}{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UvtHAox4T5EC |title=Let Spirit Speak!: Cultural Journeys Through the African Diaspora |date=June 2012 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=9781438442174 |editor-last=Valdés |editor-first=Vanessa K. |location=Albany, New York City, New York State |pages=40–41}}{{Cite news |last=Hodgkinson |first=Will |date=8 July 2010 |title=How African music made it big in Colombia |url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2010/jul/08/columbia-african-music-palenque |access-date=23 August 2023 |work=The Guardian |issn=0261-3077}} However, throughout this period, Franco Luambo's music became an integral component of Mobutu's political propaganda.{{Cite web |last=Mulera |first=Muniini K. |date=27 October 2020 |title=Franco, Mobutu and the folly of power |url=https://www.monitor.co.ug/uganda/oped/columnists/muniini-k-mulera/franco-mobutu-and-the-folly-of-power-2723034# |access-date=17 August 2024 |website=Daily Monitor |publication-place=Kampala, Uganda}}{{Cite web |last=Seaman |first=Jacobs Odongo |date=13 October 2022 |title=Franco: Another 33 years later and rumba legend remains an enigma |url=https://www.monitor.co.ug/uganda/lifestyle/entertainment/franco-another-33-years-later-and-rumba-legend-remains-an-enigma-3984174 |access-date=17 August 2024 |website=Daily Monitor |publication-place=Kampala, Uganda}}{{Cite web |last=Morgan |first=Andy |date=2020 |title=Sebene Heaven: The bittersweet paradox of Congolese music |url=https://worldmusicmethod.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/Sebene-Heaven-Andy-Morgan-PDF.pdf |access-date=17 August 2024 |publisher=World Music Method Ltd |pages=22–23 |publication-place=London, England, United Kingdom}}{{Cite web |last=Grice |first=Carter |date=1 November 2011 |title=Happy are those who sing and dance: Mobutu, Franco, and the struggle for Zairian identity |url=https://libres.uncg.edu/ir/wcu/f/Grice2011.pdf |access-date=17 August 2024 |publisher=UNCG University Libraries |publication-place=Greensboro, North Carolina, United States}} Luambo composed a Congolese rumba breakout song titled "Candidat Na Biso Mobutu" ("our candidate Mobutu") in support of Mobutu's contrived presidential re-election campaign (where Mobutu was the sole candidate) in 1984. The song exhorted Zairean citizens to "Shout loud like thunder/For the Marshal's candidacy/Mobutu Sese Seko", while warning the central committee to "beware of sorcerers"—a euphemism for those opposing the dictator.{{Cite web |date=25 February 2019 |title="Our candidate is Mobutu": Propaganda in "Candidat na biso Mobutu" (1984) – Innovative Research Methods |url=https://innovativeresearchmethods.org/our-candidate-is-mobutu-propaganda-in-candidat-na-biso-mobutu-1984/ |access-date=17 August 2024 |website=Innovativeresearchmethods.org}} The record earned Luambo a gold disc for one million units sold.

File:Franco Luambo et le groupe TPOK Jazz.jpg members Wuta Mayi, Josky Kiambukuta, Djo Mpoyi, Makosso Kindudi, Papa Noël Nedule, Ndombe Opetum, and Lola Djangi "Chécain"]]

Paris emerged as a hub for soukous musicians, serving as a crossroads where other African and European music styles, synthesizers, and production values could feed into the sound. Consequently, soukous garnered an eclectic international following, with Zairean performers in Paris and London navigating the demands of European, African, and Caribbean markets. Artists like Papa Wemba profited from an international following that praised his musical compositions. With the growing international popularity of soukous in the 1980s, lyrics began to deal with a broader range of topics not limited to life in the DRC and the Republic of the Congo.{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A0XNvklcqbwC |title=Encyclopedia of Africa: Volume 1 |date=2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-533770-9 |editor-last=Appiah |editor-first=Anthony |location=Oxford, England, United Kingdom |page=408 |editor-last2=Gates (Jr.) |editor-first2=Henry Louis}} In 1985, Luambo and OK Jazz, now rebranded as TPOK Jazz, released their Congolese rumba-infused album Mario, which enjoyed immediate success, with the eponymous hit single achieving gold certification after selling over 200,000 copies in Zaire.{{Cite book |last=Stewart |first=Gary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gKEHO1z413EC&pg=PA292 |title=Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos |date=2003 |publisher=Verso |isbn=978-1-85984-368-0 |pages=292–293}} The song became one of Luambo's most significant hits.{{Cite web |date=10 October 2019 |title=Mario : le plus grand succès de Franco, en vidéo sous-titrée |trans-title=Mario: Franco's greatest success, in subtitled video |url=https://pan-african-music.com/franco-mario/ |access-date=17 August 2024 |website=Pan African Music |language=fr-FR}} Zaïko Langa Langa subsequently became the first Congolese band to appear on TF1 in 1987, during a television show presented by Christophe Dechavanne. In June 1987, the band became finalists in the Référendum RFI Canal tropical, securing second place among Afro-Caribbean groups, behind Kassav.{{Cite web |last=Yunduka |first=Karim |date=9 October 2020 |title=50 ans d'existence : Zaïko Langa Langa renaît de ses cendres |trans-title=50 years of existence: Zaïko Langa Langa rises from the ashes |url=https://www.adiac-congo.com/content/50-ans-dexistence-zaiko-langa-langa-renait-de-ses-cendres-120424 |access-date=3 May 2024 |website=Adiac-congo.com |language=fr |publication-place=Brazzaville, Republic of the Congo}} Meanwhile, Les Bantous de la Capitale became the favored Congolese rumba orchestra of Gabonese president Omar Bongo, receiving an official invitation to perform during the 20th-anniversary celebrations of Renovation Day in Libreville, held in March 1988.{{Cite web |last=Ossinondé |first=Clément |date=19 June 2019 |title=Congo – Les Bantous de la capitale, Suite du résumé chronologique des 60 ans – (Années 1980–1989) – Chapitre IV |trans-title=Congo – The Bantus of the capital, Continuation of the chronological summary of the 60 years – (Years 1980–1989) – Chapter IV |url=https://www.congopage.com/Congo-Les-Bantous-de-la-capitale-Suite-du-resume-chronologique-des-60-ans-Annees-1980-1989-Chapitre |access-date=7 September 2024 |website=Congopage |language=fr}}

File:A posture of Pepe Kalle in 1978.jpg in 1978]]

Concurrently, Congolese choreographer Jeanora pioneered a dance form called kwassa kwassa, a dance step within the soukous style (with kwassa serving as a playful allusion to the French interrogative "C'est quoi ça?" – "What's that?").{{Cite web |date=2020 |title=E-journal Kinshasa : Ces danses majeures dans la musique congolaise moderne |url=https://e-journal.info/w/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/0074.pdf |access-date=13 March 2024 |website=E-journal.info/ |page=15 |language=fr |publication-place=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}{{Cite book |last=Stewart |first=Gary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zlwQXNlD6icC |title=Breakout: Profiles in African Rhythm |date=June 1992 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-77406-0 |location=Chicago, Illinois, United States |page=14}} This dance form was adopted by many artists and was notably popularized by Kanda Bongo Man and Abeti Masikini, during her performance at the Zenith de Paris.

Pépé Kallé and his band Empire Bakuba, co-founded with Papy Tex, rose to prominence across Africa with their stripped-down, baritone, and high-octane renditions of Luambo and Rochereau's music,{{Cite web |last=Seaman |first=Jacobs Odongo |date=1 February 2023 |title=20 years after Pepe Kalle's death, where are Empire Bakuba stars? |url=https://www.monitor.co.ug/uganda/lifestyle/entertainment/20-years-after-pepe-kalle-s-death-where-are-empire-bakuba-stars--1797774 |access-date=28 October 2023 |website=Monitor}} earning Pépé Kallé nicknames such as "La Bombe Atomique" (borrowed from Empire Bakuba's self-titled album) and "the Elephant of Zaire", due to his impressive size and performance style.{{Cite web |last= |date=4 June 2023 |title=Young Africa by Pepe Kalle ft Empire Bakuba |url=https://zambia.spen-tech.com/2023/06/04/young-africa-by-pepe-kalle-ft-empire-bakuba/ |access-date=17 August 2024 |website=Zambia Music}}{{Cite web |last=Sweeney |first=Philip |date=19 January 1999 |title=Obituary: Pepe Kalle |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/obituary-pepe-kalle-1074850.html |access-date=17 August 2024 |website=The Independent |publication-place=London, England, United Kingdom}}{{Cite web |last=Kiese |first=Mboka |date=27 November 2004 |title=In mémoriam : Il y a 6 ans mourait Pépé Kallé |trans-title=In memoriam: 6 years ago Pépé Kallé died |url=https://www.congopage.com/In-memoriam-Il-y-a-6-ans-mourait |access-date=7 September 2024 |website=Congopage |language=fr}} His music often featured intricate guitar work and vibrant rhythms, hallmarks of soukous, aiding in the genre's popularization on both continental and international stages.{{Cite web |last=Nkutu |first=JP. |date=22 November 2002 |title=Congo-Kinshasa : Empire Fondation se souvient de Pepé Kallé |trans-title=Congo-Kinshasa: Empire Foundation remembers Pepé Kallé |url=https://fr.allafrica.com/stories/200211220305.html |access-date=17 August 2024 |website=Le Phare |language=fr |publication-place=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}{{Cite web |last=M. |first=Dakisi |date=17 November 2005 |title=Congo-Kinshasa : Rochereau Tabu Ley : le politique saura-t-il égaler l'artiste ? |trans-title=Congo-Kinshasa: Rochereau Tabu Ley: will the politician be able to equal the artist? |url=https://fr.allafrica.com/stories/200511170919.html |access-date=17 August 2024 |website=Le Phare |language=fr |publication-place=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}{{Cite web |last=Enyimo |first=Martin |date=29 November 2008 |title=Congo-Kinshasa : In memoriam – Il y a 10 ans mourait Pépé Kallé |trans-title=Congo-Kinshasa: In memoriam – 10 years ago Pépé Kallé died |url=https://fr.allafrica.com/stories/200811290202.html |access-date=17 August 2024 |website=Le Phare |language=fr |publication-place=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo}} Nevertheless, Kallé further distinguished himself with his use of double entendre, deploying incisive commentary on the everyday challenges faced by his compatriots.

{{Main article|Ndombolo}}

File:Papa Wemba and Koffi Olomide, 1988.jpg and Papa Wemba performing in 1988|208x208px]]

Emerging at the end of the 1990s and drawing inspiration from Congolese rumba and soukouss, ndombolo became a popular and danceable fast-paced, hip-swaying dance music in Africa. Defined by its spirited sébéné or "heated part", ndombolo featured vocal entertainment by atalakus and swirling guitar riffs.{{Cite web |date=2018 |title=Le Ndombolo |url=https://miziki-ya-congo.jimdofree.com/le-ndombolo/ |access-date=12 November 2023 |website=Site de miziki-ya-congo ! |language=fr-FR}}{{Cite news |last=Tchakam |first=Stéphane |date=2 December 2003 |title=Cameroun: L'autre danse congolaise |language=fr |work=Cameroon Tribune |url=https://fr.allafrica.com/stories/200312020974.html |access-date=8 November 2023}}{{Cite book |last=Otiso |first=Kefa M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BKnIEAAAQBAJ&dq=ndombolo+dance+music&pg=PT361 |title=Culture and Customs of Tanzania |date=24 January 2013 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |isbn=979-8-216-06991-1 |location=New York City, New York State, United States}}{{Cite book |last=Sobania |first=Neal W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fHzDEAAAQBAJ&dq=ndombolo+dance+music+east+africa&pg=PA207 |title=Culture and Customs of Kenya |date=30 June 2003 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |isbn=978-0-313-03936-2 |location=Santa Barbara, California, United States |pages=207–208}}{{Cite web |last=AfroConex |date=9 March 2023 |title=Spreading Ndombolo Dance Across Africa with Bush Sebar |url=https://www.afroconex.online/post/spreading-ndombolo-across-africa-with-bush-sebar |access-date=8 November 2023 |website=AfroConex |language=en}}{{Cite web |last=Kabwe |first=Jason |date=15 March 2013 |title=Ndombolo Craze |url=https://www.czech.radio/node/5231154 |access-date=9 November 2023 |website=Czech Radio |language=cs}} Although initiated by Radja Kula in 1995,{{Cite web |last=Ngaira |first=Amos |date=22 August 2020 |title=Dancing styles innovator Radja Kula Mbuta takes last bow |url=https://nation.africa/kenya/life-and-style/culture/dancing-styles-innovator-radja-kula-mbuta-takes-last-bow-1923740 |access-date=13 January 2024 |website=Nation}}{{Cite web |last=Mafuta |first=Masand |date=5 September 2020 |title=Kinshasa: Gentiny Ngobila s'engage mordicus pour l'organisation des obsèques de Radja Kula |trans-title=Kinshasa: Gentiny Ngobila is committed to organizing the funeral of Radja Kula |url=https://axenordsudmedia.com/2020/09/05/kinshasa-gentiny-ngobila-sengage-mordicus-pour-lorganisation-des-obseques-de-radja-kula/ |access-date=13 January 2024 |website=AxeNordSud Media |language=fr-FR}} it was notably popularized and refined in the 1990s by Wenge Musica and Koffi Olomide.{{Cite book |last1=George |first1=Nelson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vtBj4psmJlcC&dq=ndombolo+dance+music&pg=PA129 |title=Best Music Writing 2008 |last2=Carr |first2=Daphne |date=20 October 2008 |publisher=Hachette Books |isbn=978-0-7867-2612-7 |location=New York City, New York State, United States |page=129}}{{Cite book |last=Buettner |first=Elizabeth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4QjPDAAAQBAJ&dq=many+congolese+move+to+europe+in+1990s&pg=PA313 |title=Europe after Empire: Decolonization, Society, and Culture |date=24 March 2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-59470-4 |location=Cambridge, United Kingdom |page=313}}{{Cite web |last=Makumeno |first=Emery |date=1 July 2022 |title=Musique : qu'est-ce que le clan Wenge, pionnier de la danse Ndombolo ? |url=https://www.bbc.com/afrique/articles/c84xqw9ppk1o |access-date=12 November 2023 |website=BBC News Afrique |language=fr}}

File:La Rumba congolaise est inscrite au patrimoine mondial de l'UNESCO.jpg|left]]

In December 2021, Congolese rumba was added to the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.{{Cite web |last=Pietromarchi |first=Virginia |title='The soul of the Congolese': Rumba added to UNESCO heritage list |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/12/15/congolese-rumba-added-unesco-heritage-list |access-date=17 December 2021 |website=aljazeera.com}}

{{Blockquote|text=Congolese rumba is a musical genre and a dance used in formal and informal spaces for celebration and mourning. It is primarily an urban practice danced by a male-female couple. Performed by professional and amateur artists, the practice is passed down to younger generations through neighbourhood clubs, formal training schools and community organisations. The rumba is considered an integral part of Congolese identity and a means of promoting intergenerational cohesion and solidarity.|author=UNESCO|source=news release}}

File:La danse dans les bars de rumba congolaise (1955-1965).jpg

While the genre's influence reverberated throughout Africa, the spectacle of female artists taking the stage and expressing their melodic abilities was a rarity, as song composition and performance were predominantly the domain of male artists.{{Cite web |last=Ossinondé |first=Clément |date=8 March 2020 |title=Musique congolaise: 8 Mars Journée Internationale des Femmes |trans-title=Congolese Music: March 8 International Women's Day |url=http://zenga-mambu.com/2020/03/08/musique-congolaise-8-mars-journee-internationale-des-femmes/ |access-date=14 November 2023 |website=Zenga-mambu.com |language=fr-FR}}{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jCqpAgAAQBAJ&dq=Congolese+rumba+Antoine+Kasongo&pg=PA71 |title=Gendered Encounters: Challenging Cultural Boundaries and Social Hierarchies in Africa |date=21 January 2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-67051-0 |editor-last=Grosz-Ngate |editor-first=Maria |location=Thames, Oxfordshire United Kingdom |page=72 |editor-last2=Kokole |editor-first2=Omari}} In the 1930s, up-and-coming female vocalists like Nathalie and Emma Louise laid the groundwork for the emergence of female artists in Kinshasa and Brazzaville.{{Cite book |last=Stewart |first=Gary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7VmcEAAAQBAJ |title=Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos |date=5 May 2020 |publisher=Verso |isbn=9781789609110}} Despite remaining largely anonymous due to limited documentation, they are regarded as prominent figures in the Congolese music scene. In the 1940s, artists such as Gabrielle Maleka and Anne Mbassou made significant contributions to the evolving sound of Congolese rumba as part of Paul Kamba's Victoria Brazza ensemble. By the 1950s, women singers emerged as powerful voices with momentous messages about amorous entanglements, protection, and ordinary struggles, and successes. Martha Badibala, Tekele Mokango, Anne Ako, Ester Sudila, Léonine Mbongo, Joséphine Sambeya, Jeanne Ninin, Pauline Lisanga, and Caroline Mpia became influential in sculpting the genre during this transformative epoch.{{Cite book |last=Agbu |first=Osita |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3QBXEAAAQBAJ&dq=Martha+Badibala&pg=PA200 |title=Children and Youth in the Labour Process in Africa |date=15 October 2009 |publisher=African Books Collective |isbn=978-2-86978-390-4 |location=Oxford, United Kingdom |page=200}}{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZSEOAQAAMAAJ&q=Martha+Badibala |title=Jeune Afrique : cahier de l'Union africaine des arts et des lettres, Issues 21-32 |date=1954 |publisher=Kraus Reprint |location=Paris, France |pages=29 |language=fr}}{{Cite book |last=Botombele |first=Bokonga Ekanga |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tt4rAAAAMAAJ&q=Tekele+Mokango |title=Cultural Policy in the Republic of Zaire: A Study |date=1976 |publisher=Bernan Associates |isbn=978-92-3-101317-1 |location=Lanham, Maryland, United States |page=33}} Marie Kitoto emerged as one of the most prominent female voices of the time. Her collaborations with guitarist and bandleader Henri Bowane resulted in several popular recordings, including "Yo Kolo Ye Kele" and "Ya Bisu Se Malembe", both recorded on 11 September 1951.{{Cite web |last=Ossinondé |first=Clément |title=Il était une fois... Non, il était une voix Marie Kitoto! |trans-title=Once upon a time... No, there was a voice Marie Kitoto! |url=https://www.pagesafrik.com/il-etait-une-fois-non-il-etait-une-voix-marie-kitoto/ |access-date=19 April 2025 |website=Pagesafrik.com |language=fr-FR}} Other successful songs from their collaboration include "Chérie Kanga Vélo" and "Sebene Ta Sika" (1950), as well as "Monoko Ya Mboka Ya Tembe" and "Amba Louise" (1951). Kitoto's vocal tone, particularly her rich bass register, earned her the moniker of a "femme fatale". Lucie Eyenga also rose to prominence during this period. Initially known for her work with African Jazz, she later became associated with Rock-a-Mambo.{{Cite web |last=Ossinondé |first=Clément |date=5 April 2020 |title=Il était une voix...Lucie Eyenga |trans-title=There was a voice...Lucie Eyenga |url=https://www.congopage.com/Il-etait-une-voix-Lucie-Eyenga |access-date=21 April 2024 |website=Congopage |language=fr}} Despite her popularity, Lucie Eyenga was not primarily recognized as a vocalist but as the hostess of female recreational associations, occasionally performing in bars.

File:Abeti Masikini, 1978.jpg in 1978|218x218px]]

File:À l'époque coloniale, Lucie Eyenga à Léopoldville, Congo belge.jpg, 1957]]

Throughout the metamorphosing musical terrain, women persistently occupied crucial positions in various studios and record labels. Cameroonian singer Marcelle Ebibi, for instance, introduced electric guitar rhythms to the genre with her opus "Mama é", chaperoned by her fiancé Guy Léon Fylla and Belgian guitarist Bill Alexandre.{{Cite web |last=Ossinondé |first=Clément |date=8 March 2020 |title=Musique congolaise: 8 Mars Journée Internationale des Femmes |trans-title=Congolese Music: March 8 International Women's Day |url=http://zenga-mambu.com/2020/03/08/musique-congolaise-8-mars-journee-internationale-des-femmes/ |access-date=14 November 2023 |website=Zenga-mambu.com |language=fr-FR}}{{Cite web |last=Bayo |first=Herman Bangi |date=2020 |title=Les femmes dans la musique congolaise: un apport remarquable |trans-title=Women in Congolese music: a remarkable contribution |url=https://e-journal.info/w/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/0083.pdf |access-date=15 November 2023 |website=E-journal.info |page=12 |language=fr |publication-place=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}{{Cite book |last=Mudimbe |first=V. Y. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HwFXEAAAQBAJ&dq=Marcelle+Ebibi&pg=PA180 |title=Contemporary African Cultural Productions |date=31 January 2013 |publisher=African Books Collective |isbn=978-2-86978-561-8 |location=Dakar, Senegal |page=180 |language=fr}} In the 1970s, Abeti Masikini and her band Les Tigresses gained critical acclaim for their performance at the Olympia Hall in Paris in 1973 and Carnegie Hall in New York in June 1974, and sharing the stage with James Brown, Miriam Makeba, Tabu Ley Rochereau, Franco Luambo, among others, during the Zaire 74 music festival.{{Cite web |last=Matanda |first=Alvin |date=12 September 2023 |title=Découvrez l'histoire captivante d'Abeti Masikini: une légende inoubliable |trans-title=Discover the captivating story of Abeti Masikini: an unforgettable legend |url=https://www.musicinafrica.net/fr/magazine/decouvrez-lhistoire-captivante-dabeti-masikini-une-legende-inoubliable |access-date=14 November 2023 |website=Music In Africa |language=fr}}{{Cite web |title=musicMe: Biographie de Abeti Maskini |url=https://www.musicme.com/ |access-date=14 November 2023 |website=musicMe}}{{Cite web |last=Lokale |first=Prisca |date=28 December 2021 |title=RDC: Yolanda, la fille aînée de Abeti Masikini a été enterrée ce mardi |trans-title=DRC: Yolanda, Abeti Masikini's eldest daughter, was buried this Tuesday |url=https://actualite.cd/2021/12/28/rdc-yolanda-la-fille-ainee-de-abeti-masikini-ete-enterree-ce-mardi |access-date=14 November 2023 |website=Actualite.cd |language=fr}}{{Cite web |date=6 May 2008 |title=Biographie de Abeti Maskini |url=http://fr.travel.allafrica.com/view/people/main/id/0774YJ3XiSlc0J2x.html |access-date=14 November 2023 |website=AllAfrica |language=fr}} Abeti's second album, La voix du Zaire, l'idole de l'Afrique, released in 1975, with hits such as "Likayabo", "Yamba Yamba", "Kiliki Bamba", "Naliku Penda", and "Ngoyaye Bella Bellow", elevated her popularity, especially in West Africa. Her band, Les Redoutables, served as a launching pad for numerous female and male musicians, including M'bilia Bel, Lokua Kanza, and Tshala Muana. Another prominent female artist of this era was Marie Bélè, alias "Marie Bella", who infused Congolese rumba with interpretations of her ethnic folklore rhythms from the Congo Basin Department. Her critically acclaimed hits "Ofini A Tsenguè" and "Itouyi Kambi", recorded across Africa and China, garnered substantial popularity.{{Cite web |last=Ossinondé |first=Clément |date=19 February 2020 |title=Zenga-Mambu : Marie Bella, une légende immortelle |trans-title=Zenga-Mambu: Marie Bella, an immortal legend |url=https://zenga-mambu.com/2020/02/16/marie-bella-une-legende-immortelle/ |access-date=2 June 2024 |website=Zenga-mambu.com |language=fr-FR}} She was a participant in the 1977 second edition of the World Festival of Black Arts in Lagos, Nigeria, accompanied by Joséphine Bijou and Carmen Essou.

File:Bakolo Miziki 1 groupe Renapec Kinshasa 1977.jpg

Joséphine Bijou emerged as a pioneering female singer-guitarist from Congo-Brazzaville, known for her "rumba-folk" performances that combined traditional influences with dynamic stage presence.{{Cite web |last=Ossinondé |first=Clément |date=8 March 2025 |title=Joséphine Bijou, première artiste congolaise à se produire à Cuba |trans-title=Joséphine Bijou, first Congolese artist to perform in Cuba |url=https://www.pagesafrik.com/josephine-bijou-premiere-artiste-congolaise-a-se-produire-a-cuba/ |access-date=19 April 2025 |website=Pagesafrik.com |language=fr-FR}} Throughout the 1970s, she enchanted audiences with her skillful guitar riffs and inventive fusion of jazz tempos and high-energy sequences. Her visit to Havana in 1974 symbolized a cultural exchange that reinforced the historical link between Congolese and Cuban music, making her the first Congolese artist to perform in Cuba.

The 1976 release of M'Pongo Love's song "Pas Possible Mati" is recognized as one of the best female compositions in Congolese rumba.{{Cite web |title=Biographie M'pongo Love |url=https://www.musicme.com/M'pongo-Love/biographie/ |access-date=14 November 2023 |website=MusicMe |language=fr |publication-place=Boulogne-billancourt, Ile-de-France, France}} In early 1984, Tshala Muana recorded several albums—Kami, Mbanda Matière, and M'Pokolo—for the Safari Ambiance label. Through her albums and performances, she popularized the mutuashi rhythm, a Luba traditional dance characterized by pronounced hip rotations. Her 1988 soukous hit "Karibu Yangu" gained traction across East Africa, fostering the introduction of new female artists such as Faya Tess and Barbara Kanam.{{Cite news |last=Pareles |first=Jon |date=23 December 2022 |title=Tshala Muana, Congolese Singer with Danceable Messages, Dies at 64 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/23/arts/music/tshala-muana-dead.html |access-date=14 November 2023 |work=The New York Times}}{{Cite web |date=20 December 2022 |title=How East Africa said karibu to Tshala Muana's Mutuashi |url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/tea/magazine/how-east-africa-said-karibu-to-tshala-muana-4060042 |access-date=14 November 2023 |website=The East African}}{{Cite news |last=Seaman |first=Jacobs Odongo |date=17 December 2022 |title=Tshala Muana: The raunchy DR Congo diva who captivated a continent |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-63981311 |access-date=14 November 2023 |work=BBC News}}

Concurrently, alongside secular Congolese rumba, Christian-infused renditions of the genre emerged as a potent avenue for female expression. Ensembles such as Les Makoma played a pivotal role in establishing the presence of female gospel artists in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, including Deborah Lukalu, Sandra Mbuyi, and Dena Mwana.

{{Further information|Champeta}}

African music has been popular in Colombia since the 1970s and has had a significant impact on the local musical genre known as champeta.{{Cite book |last=Malandra |first=Ocean|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r2nbDwAAQBAJ&dq=congolese+in+colombia+champeta&pg=PT60 |title=Moon Cartagena & Colombia's Caribbean Coast |publisher=Avalon Publishing |date=December 2020 |isbn=9781640499416 |location=New York City, New York State, United States}}{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Utpc5-zDBqAC |title=The Concise Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: Africa; South America, Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean; The United States and Canada; Europe; Oceania |publisher=Routledge |year=2008 |editor-last=Koskoff |editor-first=Ellen |location=Oxfordshire, England, United Kingdom |pages=185|isbn=9780415994033 }} In the mid-1970s, a group of sailors introduced records from the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Nigeria to Colombia, including a plate-numbered 45 RPM titled El Mambote by Congo's l'Orchestre Veve, which gained popularity when played by DJ Victor Conde.{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UvtHAox4T5EC |title=Let Spirit Speak!: Cultural Journeys Through the African Diaspora |publisher=State University of New York Press |date=June 2012 |isbn=9781438442174 |editor-last=Valdés |editor-first=Vanessa K. |location=Albany, New York City, New York State |pages=40–41}}{{Cite news |last=Hodgkinson |first=Will |date=8 July 2010 |title=How African music made it big in Colombia |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2010/jul/08/columbia-african-music-palenque |access-date=23 August 2023 |issn=0261-3077}}{{Cite web |last=Slater |first=Russ |date=17 January 2020 |title=Colombia's African Soul |url=https://longlivevinyl.net/2020/01/17/colombias-african-soul/ |access-date=23 August 2023 |website=Long Live Vinyl}}{{Cite web |last=Mwamba |first=Bibi |date=7 February 2022 |title=L'influence de la rumba congolaise sur la scène musicale mondiale |url=https://www.musicinafrica.net/fr/magazine/linfluence-de-la-rumba-congolaise-sur-la-scene-musicale-mondiale |access-date=23 August 2023 |website=Music in Africa |language=fr}} Record labels proactively dispatched producers to find African records that would resonate with DJs and audiences. The music gained traction, especially in economically underprivileged urban areas, predominantly inhabited by Afro-Colombian communities, where it was incorporated into sound systems at parties across cities such as Cartagena, Barranquilla, and Palenque de San Basilio.

The emergence of champeta involved replicating musical arrangements by Congolese artists like Nicolas Kasanda wa Mikalay, Tabu Ley Rochereau, M'bilia Bel, Syran Mbenza, Lokassa Ya M'Bongo, Pépé Kallé, Rémy Sahlomon, and Kanda Bongo Man. Local artists such as Viviano Torres, Luis Towers, and Charles King, all from Palenque de San Basilio, started composing their own songs and producing unique musical arrangements, while still maintaining the Congolese soukous influence, a derivative of Congolese rumba. They composed and sang in their native language, Palenquero, a creole mix of Spanish and Bantu languages like Kikongo and Lingala.{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lkVADwAAQBAJ |title=Orality, Identity, and Resistance in Palenque (Colombia): An Interdisciplinary Approach |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company |date=19 December 2017 |isbn=9789027264954 |editor-last=Schwegler |editor-first=Armin |location=Amsterdam, Netherlands |pages=15–104 |editor-last2=Kirschen |editor-first2=Bryan |editor-last3=Maglia |editor-first3=Graciela}}

Champeta's sound is intimately intertwined with Congolese rumba, particularly the soukous style, sharing the same rhythmic foundation. The guitar and the use of the Casio brand synthesizer for sound effects are instrumental in shaping champeta's distinct sound.

During the Super Bowl LIV halftime show on 2 February 2020, at Hard Rock Stadium in Miami Gardens, Florida, Shakira danced to the song "Icha" by Syran Mbenza, accompanied by several dancers. The track is colloquially known as "El Sebastián" in Colombia. Shakira's performance inspired the #ChampetaChallenge on various social media platforms.{{Cite web |last= |date=2 February 2020 |title=Shakira Brought Afro-Colombian Dance to the Super Bowl |url=https://www.okayafrica.com/shakira-afro-colombian-dance-champeta-to-the-super-bowl-performance/ |access-date=23 August 2023 |website=www.okayafrica.com}}

{{Further information|Coupé-décalé}}

File:Bébé Atalaku et Nono Monzuluku lors de leur première prestation télévisée avec Zaïko Langa Langa.jpg and Nono Monzuluku during their debut televised performance with Zaïko Langa Langa at OZRT's Studio Maman Angebi on 30 October 1982, marking the official introduction of atalaku to Congolese rumba.]]

The Congolese rumba dance called ndombolo has significantly impacted coupé-décalé dance music with the incorporation of atalaku, a term referencing animators or hype men who enhance the rhythm and interactivity of performances, into its songs.{{Cite web |last=Lavaine |first=Bertrand |date=8 January 2021 |title=Coupé décalé, tempo sulfureux |url=https://musique.rfi.fr/coupe-decale/20210108-coupe-decale-tempo-sulfureux |access-date=23 August 2023 |website=RFI Musique |language=fr}}{{Cite news |last=Ciyow |first=Yassin |date=25 July 2022 |title="C'est la musique préférée des Ivoiriens" : à Abidjan, les Congolais entretiennent la flamme de la rumba |language=fr |work=Le Monde.fr |url=https://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2022/07/25/c-est-la-musique-preferee-des-ivoiriens-a-abidjan-les-congolais-entretiennent-la-flamme-de-la-rumba_6136095_3212.html |access-date=23 August 2023}}{{Citation |last=Isar |first=Yudhishthir Raj |title=Cultures and Globalization: Cities, Cultural Policy and Governance |date=31 March 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=19GCAgAAQBAJ |pages=174 |access-date=23 August 2023 |place=London, United Kingdom |publisher=SAGE Publications Ltd|isbn=9781446291726 }}{{Cite book |last=Nuttall |first=Sarah |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4azzvK4AudYC&dq=Atalaku+ndombolo&pg=PA84 |title=African and Diaspora Aesthetics |date=2006 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0-8223-3907-6 |location=Durham, North Carolina |pages=84–92}} The first Congolese band to employ atalaku was Zaïko Langa Langa, in the 1980s. In one of their early compositions featuring these animators, the repeated chant "Atalaku! Tala! Atalaku mama, Zekete" (Look at me! Look! Look at me, mama! Zekete!) echoed, commanding attention.{{Cite book |last1=Conteh-Morgan |first1=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dn4CijpnieMC |title=African Drama and Performance |last2=Olaniyan |first2=Tejumola |publisher=Indiana University Press |date=October 2004 |isbn=978-0-253-21701-1 |location=Bloomington, Indiana |pages=202}}{{Cite book |last=White |first=Bob W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MsLMW6gCULgC&dq=Atalaku!%22+Tala!+Atalaku+mama,+Zekete&pg=PA61 |title=Rumba Rules: The Politics of Dance Music in Mobutu's Zaire |date=27 June 2008 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0-8223-8926-2 |location=Durham, North Carolina |pages=48–61}} As coupé-décalé emerged, the Congolese rumba influence remained conspicuous. Notably, with the release of "Sagacité", Douk Saga's debut hit, the explicit imprint of atalaku was apparent.{{Cite news |last=Rémy |first=Jean-Philippe |date=17 October 2006 |title=Douk Saga, artiste ivoirien |trans-title=Douk Saga, Ivorian artist |url=https://www.lemonde.fr/disparitions/article/2006/10/17/douk-saga-artiste-ivoirien_824464_3382.html |access-date=17 July 2024 |work=Le Monde.fr |language=fr |publication-place=Paris, France}} In an RFI interview, DJ Arafat, an Ivorian musician, acknowledged atalaku's influence on his artistic approach. The term has transcended its origins, becoming embedded in the lexicon of Ivory Coast and neighboring countries, though it now signifies "flattery".{{Citation |title=Légendes urbaines – Dj Arafat, la renaissance |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2biumv8CjaE |publication-date=20 March 2019 |trans-title=Urban legends – Dj Arafat, the rebirth |access-date=23 August 2023 |publisher=RFI Musique |language=fr}}

{{Further information|French hip hop}}

With the emergence of satellite television across Africa in the early 1990s, coupled with the subsequent development and expansion of the internet across the continent in the subsequent decades, French hip hop flourished within the African francophone market.{{Cite book |last1=Fonseca |first1=Anthony J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FEvEEAAAQBAJ |title=Listen to Hip Hop!: Exploring a Musical Genre |last2=Goldsmith |first2=Melissa Ursula Dawn |date=9 September 2021 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |isbn=978-1-4408-7488-8 |location=New York, New York State, United States |pages=239–245}}{{Cite book |last=Charry |first=Eric S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4q8Go919P3kC |title=Hip Hop Africa: New African Music in a Globalizing World |date=2012 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-00307-2 |location=Bloomington, Indiana |pages=15}}{{Cite book |last=Sterling |first=Christopher H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZQhDq8fPj2IC |title=Encyclopedia of journalism. 6. Appendices |date=25 September 2009 |publisher=SAGE |isbn=978-0-7619-2957-4 |location=Thousand Oaks, California, United States |pages=1289}} Originating in the United States, the genre rapidly gained popularity among youth of African descent in France and various other European nations.{{Cite book |last1=Alim |first1=H. Samy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9xWOAgAAQBAJ |title=Global Linguistic Flows: Hip Hop Cultures, Youth Identities, and the Politics of Language |last2=Ibrahim |first2=Awad |last3=Pennycook |first3=Alastair |publisher=Routledge |date=October 2008 |isbn=978-1-135-59299-8 |location=Oxfordshire, England, United Kingdom |pages=141–145}}{{Cite book |last1=Bennett |first1=Andy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lNHrAwAAQBAJ |title=The SAGE Handbook of Popular Music |last2=Waksman |first2=Steve |date=16 December 2014 |publisher=SAGE |isbn=978-1-4739-1099-7 |location=Thousand Oaks, California, United States |pages=239}} Initially molded by American hip hop, the French variant has since developed a distinct identity and sound, drawing influences from the African musical heritage shared by many French rappers.

File:Maître Gims Cannes 2016.jpg and his younger brother Dadju, two of the most successful Congolese-French musicians, have drawn significant influence from Congolese rumba in their music. On 30 January 2022, they were appointed cultural ambassadors of Congolese rumba by President Félix Tshisekedi.{{Cite web |last=Dew |first=P. |date=12 December 2022 |title=Gims revisite le jingle du JT de TF1 avec de la rumba congolaise |trans-title=Gims revisits the TF1 news jingle with Congolese rumba |url=https://www.lavoixdunord.fr/1265879/article/2022-12-12/gims-revisite-le-jingle-du-jt-de-tf1-avec-de-la-rumba-congolaise |access-date=24 December 2024 |website=La Voix du Nord |language=fr |publication-place=Lille, France}}{{Cite web |date=13 June 2022 |title=Dadju en concert samedi 1er octobre 2022 |trans-title=Dadju in concert Saturday 1 October 2022 |url=https://la1ere.francetvinfo.fr/polynesie/dadju-en-concert-samedi-1er-octobre-2022-1293852.html |access-date=24 December 2024 |website=Polynésie la 1ère |language=fr-FR |publication-place=Pāmata'i, Fa'a'ā, French Polynesia}}{{Cite web |last=Mouv' |first=Team |date=1 February 2022 |title=Gims et Dadju ambassadeurs de la rumba congolaise |trans-title=Gims and Dadju appointed cultural ambassadors of Congo |url=https://www.radiofrance.fr/mouv/gims-et-dadju-nommes-ambassadeurs-culturels-du-congo-3749343 |access-date=24 December 2024 |website=Mouv' |language=fr |publication-place=Paris, France}}{{Cite web |date=31 January 2022 |title=Maître Gims et Dadju désormais "Ambassadeurs de la Rumba Congolaise" |trans-title=Maître Gims and Dadju now "Ambassadors of Congolese Rumba" |url=https://www.radiookapi.net/2022/01/31/actualite/culture/maitre-gims-et-dadju-desormais-ambassadeurs-de-la-rumba-congolaise |access-date=24 December 2024 |website=Radio Okapi |language=fr}}]]

By the late 1990s, Bisso Na Bisso, a collective of French rappers from the Republic of the Congo, pioneered the infusion of Congolese rumba rhythms into French rap.{{Cite web |title=Bisso Na Bisso – Finest African Hip Hop Music |url=http://www.african-music-safari.com/bisso-na-bisso.html |access-date=24 August 2023 |website=African Music Safari |archive-date=24 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230824084731/http://www.african-music-safari.com/bisso-na-bisso.html |url-status=usurped }}{{Cite book |last1=Goldsmith |first1=Melissa Ursula Dawn |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nOPNEAAAQBAJ |title=Hip Hop around the World [2 volumes]: An Encyclopedia [2 volumes] |last2=Fonseca |first2=Anthony J. |date=1 December 2018 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |isbn=978-0-313-35759-6 |location=Santa Barbara, California, United States |page=138}}{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=23 June 2018 |title=African Music Spotlight: Bisso Na Bisso Brought African Heritage to French Rap |url=https://africaotr.com/african-music-spotlight-bisso-na-bisso-brought-african-heritage-to-french-rap/ |access-date=24 August 2023 |website=AfricaOTR}} Their album Racines melds American hip hop, Congolese rumba, soukous, and zouk rhythms, featuring collaborations with African artists like Koffi Olomidé, Papa Wemba, Ismaël Lô, Lokua Kanza, and Manu Dibango, alongside the French-Caribbean zouk group Kassav'.{{Cite web |last=Paravisini-Gebert |first=Lisa |date=5 July 2017 |title=How French hip hop found its own voice by going back to Africa |url=https://repeatingislands.com/2017/07/05/how-french-hip-hop-found-its-own-voice-by-going-back-to-africa/ |access-date=24 August 2023 |website=Repeating Islands}} Nearly all their thematic elements revolve around a reconnection with their roots, evident through samples sourced directly from Congolese rumba and soukous. In the early 2000s, the lingua franca of many French rap tracks was Lingala, accompanied by resonant rumba guitar riffs.{{Cite web |last=Sar |first=Yerim |date=9 May 2018 |title=Le Congo dans le rap français |url=https://www.booska-p.com/musique/actualites/le-congo-dans-le-rap-francais/ |access-date=24 August 2023 |website=www.booska-p.com |language=fr-FR}}{{Cite web |last=Cynthia |first=N. |date=22 June 2020 |title=L'influence de l'Afrique dans le rap français |url=https://youtrace.tv/news/linfluence-de-lafrique-dans-le-rap-francais/ |access-date=24 August 2023 |website=Youtrace.tv |language=fr-FR}} Mokobé Traoré, a Malian–French rapper, further accentuated this influence on the album Mon Afrique, where he featured artists like Fally Ipupa on the soukous-inspired track "Malembe". The far-reaching impact of "Congolization" transcends hip hop, permeating other genres like French R&B and religious music, all while concurrently gaining traction across Europe and francophone Africa. Prominent artists include Youssoupha, Maître Gims, Dadju, Niska, Singuila, Damso, KeBlack, Naza, Zola, Kalash Criminel, Ninho, Kaysha, Franglish, Gradur, Shay, Bramsito, Baloji, Tiakola, and Ya Levis Dalwear—all descendants of Congolese musical lineage.{{Cite web |last=Kambala |first=Etienne |date=11 November 2022 |title=France : La liste non exhaustive des rappeurs originaires de deux Congo |url=https://www.eventsrdc.com/france-la-liste-non-exhaustive-des-rappeurs-originaires-de-deux-congo/ |access-date=24 August 2023 |website=Eventsrdc.com |language=fr-FR}}{{Cite web |last=Kambala |first=Etienne |date=29 September 2022 |title=Comment le Congo a transformé le rap français ? (EXPLICATIONS) |url=https://www.eventsrdc.com/comment-le-congo-a-transforme-le-rap-francais-explications/ |access-date=24 August 2023 |website=Eventsrdc.com |language=fr-FR}}

{{Further information|Music of Kenya|Muziki wa dansi|Benga music}}

Following the establishment of Radio Congo Belge, with its extensive broadcasting reach in East, Central, and West Africa, Congolese rumba garnered an extensive audience, evolving into a central focus for East African artists to observe and emulate.{{Cite web |last=Gazemba |first=Stanley |date=21 November 2014 |title=Effect of rumba on the Kenyan pop scene |url=https://www.musicinafrica.net/magazine/effect-rumba-kenyan-pop-scene |access-date=20 November 2023 |website=Music in Africa}} According to ethnomusicology professor Alex Perullo of Bryant University, Mobutu's Zairianization movement precipitated an upsurge in the popularity of Congolese rumba in Tanzania and Kenya,{{Cite journal |last=Perullo |first=Alex |date=2008 |title=Rumba in the City of Peace: Migration and the Cultural Commodity of Congolese Music in Dar es Salaam, 1968-1985 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20174590 |journal=Ethnomusicology |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=296–323 |doi=10.2307/20174590 |jstor=20174590 |issn=0014-1836|url-access=subscription }} and pirated albums and cassettes from Kinshasa made their way to local markets in East Africa. Congolese rumba bands, such as Orchestra Maquis Original, established their operational base in Tanzania, alongside Mzee Makassy. Proficient in executing Congolese rumba in Kiswahili, these bands exerted influence over local musicians like Simba Wanyika, Les Wanyika, Fundi Konde, Daudi Kabaka, and Fadhili William, who fused Congolese rumba rhythms with East African linguistic and cultural elements. Kenyan local bands, such as TP Luna Kidi{{Cite news |last=Butunyi |first=Cosmas |date=23 June 2007 |title=Kenya: Artiste Tries to Fit Into His Late Father's Big Shoes |work=Nation.africa/kenya |url=https://allafrica.com/stories/200706230012.html |access-date=20 November 2023}}{{Cite web |last=Musica |date=11 April 2012 |title=Ochieng Kabaselleh: Career, Arrest and Imprisonment |url=https://kenyapage.net/commentary/musica/ochieng-kabasselleh/ |access-date=20 November 2023 |website=Kenya Page}} and Limpopo International, embraced the Congolese rumba style while singing in their native language, Dholuo, interspersed with Swahili. Meanwhile, other homegrown artists heavily leaned towards the Congolese rumba style, singing entirely in Lingala, to the extent that their local languages were seemingly overshadowed. The popularity of rumba in East Africa, particularly in Kenya, coupled with the evolution of musical tastes, became a musical touchstone for older audiences, with resident bands in entertainment spots consistently including rumba in their repertoire.

• Music of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
• Musicians from the Democratic Republic of the Congo

{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

• {{cite book|title=Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos|year=2000|publisher=Verso|isbn=1-85984-368-9|author=Gary Stewart}}
• {{cite journal|last1=Wheeler|first1=Jesse Samba|title=Rumba Lingala as Colonial Resistance|journal=Image & Narrative|date=March 2005|issue=10|url=http://www.imageandnarrative.be/inarchive/worldmusica/jessesambawheeler.htm|access-date=16 December 2015|archive-date=15 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160115030503/http://www.imageandnarrative.be/inarchive/worldmusica/jessesambawheeler.htm|url-status=dead}}

• [http://www.worldhum.com/dispatches/item/soukous_and_the_sound_of_sunshine_20060701/ The Sound of Sunshine: How soukous saved my life]

{{Rumba}}

{{Genres of African popular music}}

{{Authority control}}

Category:Music of the Democratic Republic of the Congo

Category:Dance music genres