Estonia#Soviet Annexation

{{Main|Name of Estonia}}

The name Estonia ({{langx|et|Eesti}} {{IPA|et|ˈeˑstʲi||Et-Eesti-female.oga}}) has been connected to the Aesti, a people first mentioned by Roman historian Tacitus around 98 AD. Some modern historians believe he was referring to Balts, while others think the name applied to all inhabitants of the eastern Baltic Sea region.{{cite book |last1=Mägi |first1=Marika |title=In Austrvegr: The Role of the Eastern Baltic in Viking Age Communication across the Baltic Sea |date=2018 |pages=144–145 |publisher=Brill E|isbn=9789004363816}} Scandinavian sagas and Viking runestonesHarrison, D. & Svensson, K. (2007). Vikingaliv. Fälth & Hässler, Värnamo. {{ISBN|91-27-35725-2}} referring to Eistland are the earliest sources known to use the name in its modern geographic meaning.{{cite book |last1=Tvauri |first1=Andres |title=The Migration Period, Pre-Viking Age, and Viking Age in Estonia |date=2012 |editor1-last=Laneman |editor1-first=Margot |url=https://www.etis.ee/Portal/Publications/Display/b80b6f11-43ed-4b8c-b616-48ac53b70ec5?language=ENG |page=31 |publisher=Tartu University Press |isbn=9789949199365 |issn=1736-3810 |access-date=21 January 2020}} From Old Norse the toponym spread to other Germanic vernaculars and reached literary Latin by the end of 12th century.{{cite journal|last1=Rätsep|first1=Huno|title=Kui kaua me oleme olnud eestlased? |journal=Oma Keel |year=2007|volume=14|url=http://www.emakeeleselts.ee/omakeel/2007_1/OK_2007-1_01.pdf |language=et |access-date=21 January 2020 |page=11}}{{cite book |last1=Tamm |first1=Marek |last2=Kaljundi |first2=Linda |last3=Jensen |first3=Carsten Selch |title=Crusading and Chronicle Writing on the Medieval Baltic Frontier: A Companion to the Chronicle of Henry of Livonia |date=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781317156796 |pages=94–96}}

{{Main|History of Estonia}}

{{Very long section|date=December 2024}}

{{Main|Ancient Estonia}}

Human settlement in Estonia became possible 13,000–11,000 years ago, when the glaciers of the last ice age melted. The Pulli settlement, dated around 9000 BC, is the oldest known settlement in Estonia.{{cite news |url=http://epl.delfi.ee/news/kultuur/arheoloogid-lammutavad-ajalooopikute-arusaamu?id=50989575 |title=Arheoloogid lammutavad ajalooõpikute arusaamu |first=Riho |last=Laurisaar |publisher=Eesti Päevaleht |language=et |date=31 July 2004 |access-date=1 November 2016}} The earliest human habitation during the Mesolithic period is connected to the Kunda culture.{{Cite book|last1=Subrenat|first1=Jean-Jacques|title=Estonia: Identity and Independence|page=23 |year=2004|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=9042008903}} Around 5300 BC, Neolithic ceramics of the Narva culture appear.{{cite web |url=http://www.musicalia.lt/meli/papildymai.php?PaId=18 |work=Tautos kilmė |title=Papildymai. Narvos kultūra |publisher=Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas |year=2007 |first1=Zigmas |last1=Zinkevičius |first2=Aleksiejus |last2=Luchtanas |first3=Gintautas |last3=Česnys |language=lt |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722151814/http://www.musicalia.lt/meli/papildymai.php?PaId=18 |archive-date=2011-07-22 }} Next, the Comb Ceramic culture around 3900 BC brought early agriculture and sophisticated religious art.{{Cite web|url=https://www.eestijuured.ee/en/articles/comb-ceramic-culture|title=The Comb Ceramic culture | Eesti juured|website=www.eestijuured.ee}} Starting from around 2800 BC, the Corded Ware culture, which included primitive farming and animal husbandry, appeared.{{Cite book|last1=Subrenat|first1=Jean-Jacques|title=Estonia: Identity and Independence|page=26 |year=2004|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=9042008903}} The Comb Ceramic and Corded Ware cultures coexisted in Estonia for a millennium before blending into Bronze Age Estonian culture. Archaeological estimates place the population within Estonian territory at {{circa|10,000}} inhabitants in 2000 BC.

File:Kaali_kraater_2006.jpg in Saaremaa was created by a meteorite {{circa|1530–1450 BC}}, during the Nordic Bronze Age, in one of few impact events ever to occur in a populated area. The site was later a pagan shrine and source of meteoric iron.]]

The first hillfort settlements were established in the Bronze Age.{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres|title=A History of the Baltic States|page=4 |year=2010 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=9780230364509}} A transition from hunter-fisher subsistence to single-farm-based settlement started around 1000 BC, and was complete by around 500 BC.{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres|title=A History of the Baltic States|page=5 |year=2010|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=9780230364509}} The large amount of bronze objects indicate active communication with Scandinavian and Germanic tribes.{{Cite book|last1=Subrenat|first1=Jean-Jacques|title=Estonia: Identity and Independence|page=28 |year=2004|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=9042008903}} By the end of the Bronze Age, domestic manufacture of bronze artefacts began.Artur Vassar. Nurmsi kivikalme Eestis ja tarandkalmete areng. Tartu 1944.

During the Iron Age, the local iron production began around 200 BC; north Estonia, particularly the coastal region of Virumaa, emerged as a trade hub.{{Cite web|url=https://www.eestijuured.ee/en/articles/second-coming-finnic|title=The "second coming" of Finnic | Eesti juured|website=www.eestijuured.ee}} North Estonia developed increasingly robust connections with the southern and southeastern Baltic Sea regions, particularly with tribes associated with the Wielbark culture, including Goths and Aesti.{{Cite web|url=https://www.eestijuured.ee/en/articles/formation-late-proto-finnic-culture-basis-archaeological-findings|title=The formation of the Late Proto-Finnic culture on the basis of archaeological findings | Eesti juured|website=www.eestijuured.ee}} North Estonian settlers moved into some other less populated areas in the Baltic Sea region.Valter Lang. Läänemeresoome tulemised. Tartu: Tartu Ülikooli Kirjastus, 2018. This cultural and linguistic expansion continued until early 2nd millennium and also gave rise to the neighbouring Finnish language.

In the 4th century, King Ermanaric of the Goths claimed to have subjugated Estonia, but no archaeological evidence so far has supported this.Andres Tvauri (2003). [https://www.academia.edu/2521719/Balti_arheoloogia_maailmaajaloo_p%C3%B6%C3%B6rises_ehk_gooti_teooria_saatus._With_summary_Baltic_archaeology_in_the_course_of_world_history_or_the_fate_of_the_hypothesis_about_the_goths_in_the_Eastern_Baltic Balti arheoloogia maailmaajaloo pöörises ehk gooti teooria saatus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240710201352/https://www.academia.edu/2521719/Balti_arheoloogia_maailmaajaloo_p%C3%B6%C3%B6rises_ehk_gooti_teooria_saatus._With_summary_Baltic_archaeology_in_the_course_of_world_history_or_the_fate_of_the_hypothesis_about_the_goths_in_the_Eastern_Baltic |date=10 July 2024 }}. Eesti Arheoloogia Ajakiri 2003, 7, 38–71, lk 41–43 The Late Antique Little Ice Age is evident in the archaeological record, with a sharp drop in the number of sites and grave finds, indicating a severe population decline and slow recovery.{{Cite web|url=https://www.eestijuured.ee/en/articles/climate-anomaly-between-536-540-and-justinian-plague-and-their-possible-influence|title=The climate anomaly between 536–540 and the Justinian plague, and their possible influence on linguistic developments | Eesti juured|website=www.eestijuured.ee}}

{{Main|Viking Age in Estonia}}

File:Old Estonian counties.png

The Estonian coast was a trade hub located on a major waterway, making it both a target and a starting point for many raids. Coastal Estonians, particularly Oeselians from Saaremaa, adopted a Viking lifestyle.Mägi, M. (2023). Pronksi- ja rauaaeg Eesti merenduse ajaloos. Arold, A., Talvi, T. (Toim.). Eesti merenduse ajalugu. (45−83). Tallinn: Varrak.Leimus, Ivar. (2009) Millennium breakthrough. North goes West. - In: Tuna (2009) p. 7-34 Several Scandinavian sagas referred to major confrontations with Estonians, notably when 7th century "Estonian Vikings" defeated and killed Ingvar Harra, the King of Swedes.{{Cite book|last1=Frucht|first1=Richard C.|year=2005 |title=Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture|page=[https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/68 68] |publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781576078006 |url=https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/68}}{{Cite web|url=http://kes-kus.ee/moistatuslik-salme-lahing/|title=Mõistatuslik Salme lahing}} The mid-8th century Salme ship burials have been proposed as the beginning of the European Viking Age.[https://novaator.err.ee/1116598/euroopas-ainulaadse-salme-laevamatuse-uuringud-on-tais-musteeriume Euroopas ainulaadse Salme laevamatuse uuringud on täis müsteeriume] ERR.ee, 24 July 2020{{Cite web|url=https://meremuuseum.ee/lennusadam/muuseum/viikingid-enne-viikingeid-naitus-salme-laevmatustest/|title=Viikingid enne viikingeid. Näitus Salme laevmatustest|website=Lennusadam}}

In {{circa|1030}}, Grand Prince Yaroslav the Wise of Kievan Rus attempted to subjugate the Chuds (as East Slavic sources called Estonians and related Finnic tribes) in southeast Estonia and captured Tartu. Chuds (Sosols) destroyed this foothold in 1061.{{cite book|last1=Tvauri|first1=Andres|title=The Migration Period, Pre-Viking Age, and Viking Age in Estonia|date=2012|pages=33, 34, 59, 60 |url=https://www.etis.ee/Portal/Publications/Display/b80b6f11-43ed-4b8c-b616-48ac53b70ec5?language=ENG |access-date=27 December 2016}}{{cite journal|last1=Mäesalu |first1=Ain|title=Could Kedipiv in East-Slavonic Chronicles be Keava hill fort?|journal=Estonian Journal of Archaeology|year=2012|volume=1 |issue=16supplser|page=199|doi=10.3176/arch.2012.supv1.11 |url=http://www.kirj.ee/public/Archaeology/2012/sup_vol_1/arhe-keava-2012-195-200.pdf|access-date=27 December 2016 |issn=1406-2933}}{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres |title=A History of the Baltic States |page=9 |year=2010|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=9780230364509}}{{Cite book|last1=Raun |first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=12|year=2002 |publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}} In 1187, Estonians, Curonians and Karelians sacked Sigtuna, a major Swedish city at the time.{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres |title=A History of the Baltic States|pages=9–11 |year=2010|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=9780230364509}}Enn Tarvel (2007). [http://haridus.opleht.ee/Arhiiv/7_82007/38-41.pdf Sigtuna hukkumine] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011191449/http://haridus.opleht.ee/Arhiiv/7_82007/38-41.pdf |date=11 October 2017 }} Haridus, 2007 (7–8), pp. 38–41

File:Varbola maalinna värav 2008.jpg, the largest fortress of pre-Christian Estonia]]

In the early centuries AD, Estonia's first administrative subdivisions emerged, primarily the parish (Estonian: kihelkond) and the county (Estonian: maakond). Counties usually included multiple parishes which local nobles referred to as kings (Estonian: kuningas) typically governed.Aivar Kriiska, Valter Lang, Ain Mäesalu, Andres Tvauri, Heiki Valk. Eesti ajalugu I. 2020. p. 408 Ancient Estonia had a professional warrior casteTõnno Jonuks. Eesti muinasusundid. Tallinn 2022. P. 302 while international trade provided nobles wealth and prestige.Aivar Kriiska, Valter Lang, Ain Mäesalu, Andres Tvauri, Heiki Valk. Eesti ajalugu I. 2020. p. 396 Parishes were commonly centred on hill forts, though occasionally a parish had multiple forts. By the 13th century, Estonia was divided into eight major counties – Harjumaa, Järvamaa, Läänemaa, Revala, Saaremaa, Sakala, Ugandi, and Virumaa – and several smaller, single-parish counties. Counties operated independently, forming only loose defensive alliances against foreign threats.{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=4 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}{{Cite book|last1=Raukas|first1=Anto | author-link1 = Anto Raukas|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld|page=227|year=2002|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus|language=et|isbn=9985701151}}

Estonia had two regional cultures in this period. Northern and western coastal areas maintained close connections with Scandinavia, while the inland had stronger ties to the Balts and the principality of Pskov.{{cite book|last1=Tvauri|first1=Andres|title=The Migration Period, Pre-Viking Age, and Viking Age in Estonia|date=2012|pages=322–325 |url=https://www.etis.ee/Portal/Publications/Display/b80b6f11-43ed-4b8c-b616-48ac53b70ec5?language=ENG |access-date=19 December 2019}} Viking Age Estonia participated actively in trade, including exports of iron, furs, and honey. They imported fine goods like silk, jewelry, glass, and Ulfberht swords. Evidence of ancient harbour sites has been found along the coast of Saaremaa.{{cite book|last=Mägi |first=Marika |editor-last1=Barrett |editor-first1=James H. |editor-last2=Gibbon |editor-first2=Sarah Jane |title=Maritime Societies of the Viking and Medieval World |publisher=Maney Publishing |date=2015 |pages=45–46 |chapter=Chapter 4. Bound for the Eastern Baltic: Trade and Centres AD 800–1200 |isbn=978-1-909662-79-7}} This era's Estonian burial sites often contain both individual and collective graves, with artefacts like weapons and jewelry reflecting the shared material culture of Scandinavia and Northern Europe.{{cite journal|last=Martens |first=Irmelin |year=2004 |title= Indigenous and imported Viking Age weapons in Norway – a problem with European implications |journal= Journal of Nordic Archaeological Science |volume=14 |pages=132–135 |url= https://www.archaeology.su.se/polopoly_fs/1.138785.1371480692!/menu/standard/file/martens.pdf |access-date=19 December 2019}}

Very little is known about the religious beliefs of medieval Estonians prior to Christianisation. A 1229 chronicle mentions Tharapita as the supreme deity of the islanders of Saaremaa (Ösel). Sacred groves, particularly of oak trees, factored prominently into pagan worship practices.{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres|title=A History of the Baltic States|page=7 |year=2010|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=9780230364509}}{{cite news |url=http://epl.delfi.ee/news/kultuur/kes-oli-saarlaste-suurjumal-taarapita?id=51037692 |title=Arheoloogid lammutavad ajalooõpikute arusaamu |first=Riho |last=Laurisaar |publisher=Eesti Päevaleht |language=et |date=29 April 2006 |access-date=4 November 2016}} Albeit foreign traders and missionaries introduced Christian (both Western Catholic and Eastern Orthodox) practices already in the 10th–11th centuries, most people retained their indigenous beliefs.Tõnno Jonuks. Eesti muinasusundid. Tallinn 2022.

{{Main|Livonian Crusade|Terra Mariana|Danish Estonia}}

File:Medieval Livonia 1260.svg]]

File:Toompea loss 2014.jpg in Tallinn, built in the 13th century as a crusader fortress, now houses Riigikogu (the parliament of Estonia)]]

In 1199, Pope Innocent III declared a crusade to "defend the Christians of Livonia".{{Cite book|last1=Tyerman|first1=Christopher|author-link = Christopher Tyerman|title=God's War: A New History of the Crusades|page=[https://archive.org/details/godswarnewhistor00tyer/page/690 690]|year=2006|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674023871|url=https://archive.org/details/godswarnewhistor00tyer/page/690}} The crusading German Swordbrothers, who had previously subjugated Livonians, Latgalians, and Selonians, started campaigning against Estonians in 1208. The following years saw many raids and counter-raids. In 1217, the Estonians suffered a significant defeat in the battle where their most prominent leader Lembitu, an elder of Sakala, was killed. In 1219, the armies of King Valdemar II of Denmark defeated Estonians in the Battle of Lyndanisse (Tallinn), and conquered northern Estonia.{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres|title=A History of the Baltic States|page=14 |year=2010|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=9780230364509}}{{Cite book|last1=Raukas|first1=Anto|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld|page=278|year=2002|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus|language=et|isbn=9985701151}} In the uprising of 1223, Estonians were able to push the German and Danish invaders out of the whole country, except Tallinn. The Catholic crusaders soon resumed their offensive, and in 1227, Saaremaa was the last Estonian maakond ("pagan county") to surrender, and convert to Christianity.{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres|title=A History of the Baltic States|page=15 |year=2010|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=9780230364509}}{{Cite book|last1=Raukas|first1=Anto|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld|page=279|year=2002|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus|language=et|isbn=9985701151}}

In the 13th century, the newly Christian territory of present-day Estonia and Latvia was named Terra Mariana; later it became known simply as Livonia.{{Cite book|last1=Plakans|first1=Andrejs|title=A Concise History of the Baltic States|page=54 |year=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521833721}} North Estonia became part of the Kingdom of Denmark. The rest was divided between Swordbrothers and the Holy Roman Empire's prince-bishops of Dorpat and Ösel–Wiek. In 1236, the Swordbrothers merged into the then larger Teutonic Order (becoming its regional branch, the "Livonian Order").{{Cite book|last1=O'Connor|first1=Kevin|title=Culture and Customs of the Baltic States|pages=9–10|year=2006|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=9780313331251}} In the areas between southeast Estonia and the city of Pskov, then part of the Novgorod Republic, the indigenous Setos converted to Eastern Orthodoxy.{{cite book |last1=Kupari |first1=Helena |last2=Vuola |first2=Elina |title=Orthodox Christianity and gender: dynamics of tradition, culture and lived practice |date=2020 |publisher=Routledge |location=Abingdon New York (N.Y.) |isbn=9781138574205 |page=98 |doi=10.4324/9780203701188-6 |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/oa-edit/10.4324/9780203701188-6/ask-embarrassing-questions-women-religion-andreas-kalkun |access-date=15 December 2024}}

Initially, Estonian nobles who accepted baptism could retain their power and influence by becoming vassals of the king of Denmark or the local Catholic prince-bishops of the Holy Roman Empire. The indigenous Estonian nobles intermarried with the newcomers, and several centuries later their descendants would become known as the Baltic Germans.Kristjan Kaljusaar. [https://oes.ut.ee/wp-content/uploads/Kaljusaar.pdf Virumaa läänimehed 13. sajandi esimesel poolel]. Õpetatud Eesti Seltsi aastaraamat / Annales Litterarum Societatis Esthonicae, 2021, 31−64, 2023 In 1343, a major anti-German uprising encompassed north Estonia and Saaremaa. The Teutonic Order suppressed the rebellion by 1345, and the next year bought the Estonian lands from the king of Denmark.{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=20 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}{{Cite book|last1=O'Connor|first1=Kevin|title=Culture and Customs of the Baltic States|page=10|year=2006|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=9780313331251}} The German upper-class minority consolidated their power after the unsuccessful rebellion.{{cite book |last= Pekomäe|first= Vello|title= Estland genom tiderna|year= 1986|publisher= VÄLIS-EESTI & EMP|location= Stockholm |language= sv|isbn= 91-86116-47-9|page=319}} For the subsequent centuries Low German remained the language of the ruling elite in both Estonian cities and the countryside.{{cite book |last1= Jokipii|first1= Mauno|editor1-first= Mauno|editor1-last= Jokipii|title= Baltisk kultur och historia|year= 1992 |language= sv|isbn= 9789134512078|pages= 22–23|publisher= Bonniers}}

Tallinn, the capital of Danish Estonia founded on the site of Lindanise, adopted the Lübeck law and received full town rights in 1248.{{Cite book|last1=Miljan|first1=Toivo|title=Historical Dictionary of Estonia|page=441|year=2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=9780810875135}} The Hanseatic League controlled trade on the Baltic Sea, and the four largest cities in Estonia became members: Tallinn, Tartu, Pärnu, and Viljandi.{{Cite book|last1=Frucht|first1=Richard C.|title=Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture, Volume 1|page=[https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/100 100]|year=2005|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781576078006|url=https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/100}} Protected by stone walls and membership in the Hansa, prosperous cities like Tallinn and Tartu often defied other rulers of the medieval Livonian Confederation.{{Cite book|last1=Frost|first1=Robert I.|title=The Northern Wars: War, State and Society in Northeastern Europe, 1558 – 1721|page=305|year=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781317898573}}{{efn|After the decline of the Teutonic Order following its defeat in the Battle of Grunwald in 1410, and the defeat of the Livonian Order in the Battle of Swienta on 1 September 1435, the Livonian Confederation was established by a treaty signed on 4 December 1435.{{cite book|title=Vana-Liivimaa maapäev|last=Raudkivi|first=Priit|author1-link=Priit Raudkivi (historian)|year=2007|publisher=Argo|language=et|isbn=978-9949-415-84-7|pages=118–119}}}}

In the 1520s, as new ideas of Reformation and Protestantism spread northwards, the then Master of the Livonian Order Wolter von Plettenberg sought to maintain stability while resisting religious change.{{Cite book|last1=Mol|first1=Johannes A.|last2=Militzer|first2=Klaus|last3=Nicholson|first3=Helen J.|title=The Military Orders and the Reformation: Choices, State Building, and the Weight of Tradition|pages=5–6|year=2006|publisher=Uitgeverij Verloren|isbn=9789065509130}} Despite this, the Protestant teachings of Martin Luther gained momentum in Tallinn by 1525, prompting the town council to embrace Lutheranism. Churches and monasteries in Tallinn and Tartu were damaged in iconoclastic riots. By the late 1520s, most towns had converted, though Catholicism persisted in some areas and rural regions were slower to follow.{{Cite book|last1=Frucht|first1=Richard C.|title=Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture, Volume 1|page=[https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/121 121]|year=2005|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781576078006|url=https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/121}}{{Cite book|last1=O'Connor|first1=Kevin|title=The History of the Baltic States|page=25|year=2003|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=9780313323553}} The Reformation introduced vernacular church services, shifting from Low German to Estonian by the 1530s.{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=24 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}} Early Estonian-language Protestant texts emerged, including Wanradt–Koell Catechism in 1535.{{Cite web|url=https://vakk.ut.ee/tekstid.php?kood=1535-Koell|title=Vakk -- Tekstid|website=vakk.ut.ee}} Ethnic Estonian townspeople, inspired by Protestant ideals, also sought greater rights during the Reformation.Inna Põltsam. [https://www.ra.ee/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/PoltsamInna_Reformatsiooni_TUNA2003_3.pdf Reformatsiooni mõju argielule Liivimaal]. Tuna 2003, nr 3.

During the 16th century, the expansionist monarchies of Muscovy, Sweden, and Poland became a growing threat to the Old Livonia then weakened by disputes between cities, nobility, prince-bishops, and the Teutonic Order.{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=25 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}} In 1558, Tsar Ivan the Terrible of Russia (Muscovy) invaded Livonia, starting the Livonian War. The Order was decisively defeated in 1560. The majority of Livonia accepted Polish–Lithuanian rule, while Tallinn and the nobles of northern Estonia swore loyalty to the king of Sweden, and the bishop of Ösel-Wiek sold his lands to Denmark. Tsar Ivan's forces were at first able to conquer the larger part of Livonia. Plague swept through the land, compounding the destruction.

Reports of the Russian atrocities spread over Europe. Many chroniclers of the era depicted Tsar Ivan as barbaric and tyrannical, emphasizing the suffering of local populations under Muscovite occupation. These accounts shaped the European perceptions of Tsar Ivan and his armies as brutal oppressors.Halperin, C.J.. (2018). The Double Standard: Livonian Chronicles and Muscovite Barbarity during the Livonian War (1558–1582). Studia Slavica et Balcanica Petropolitana. 126-147. 10.21638/11701/spbu19.2018.106. Muscovite armies twice laid a siege on Tallinn, yet failed to capture it.{{Cite web|url=https://forte.delfi.ee/artikkel/65878140/139-aastat-oli-see-tallinna-pidupaev-siis-aga-saabusid-peeter-i-vaed|title=139 aastat oli see Tallinna pidupäev, siis aga saabusid Peeter I väed|website=Forte}} In 1580, the Polish and Swedish armies went on the offensive; the war ended in 1583 with Ivan's defeat.{{Cite book|author1-link=David R. Stone|last1=Stone|first1=David R.|title=A Military History of Russia: From Ivan the Terrible to the War in Chechnya|pages=14–18 |year=2006|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=9780275985028}}

As a result of the war, north Estonia became part of Sweden, south Estonia part of Poland, and Saaremaa remained part of Denmark.{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|pages=28–29 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}} During Polish rule in south Estonia, efforts were made to restore Catholicism, yet this was distinct from traditional Counter-Reformation, as Polish rulers fostered religious tolerance. Jesuit influence also flourished, and institutions were established, e.g Collegium Derpatense in Tartu, where Estonian-language catechisms were published to support local missions. Jesuits' presence in Tartu was cut short by Swedish conquest in the early 17th century.Enn Tarvel. Valge kotka tiiva all. Poola võim eestlaste maal 16.-17. sajandil; Editor(s). Marten Seppel; Publishing house. Varrak; Year. 2024; {{ISBN|978-9985-3-5956-3}}

{{Main|Swedish Estonia|Governorate of Estonia|Governorate of Livonia}}

File:Album von Dorpat, TKM 0031H 05, crop.jpg (Dorpat), one of the oldest universities in Northern Europe, founded in 1632 by King Gustav II Adolph of Sweden, closed in 1710 and reopened in 1802. Main building, painted by L. Höflinger, 1860.]]

File:Tallinn asv2022-04 img55 Kadriorg Palace.jpg in Tallinn was built in 1718–1725 during the reign of Tsar Peter I (Emperor Peter the Great of Russia).]]

Wars between Sweden and Poland-Lithuania continued until 1629, when the victorious Sweden acquired south Estonia and northern Latvia.{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=28 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}} Sweden gained Saaremaa from Denmark in 1645.{{cite book |title=Estonia, Latvia & Lithuania |last1=Williams |first1=Nicola |first2=Debra |last2=Herrmann |first3=Cathryn |last3=Kemp |year=2003 |publisher=University of Michigan |isbn=1-74059-132-1 |page=190}} The wars cut the population of Estonia from about 250–270,000 people in the mid-16th century to 115–120,000 in the 1630s.{{Cite book|last1=Frost|first1=Robert I.|title=The Northern Wars: War, State and Society in Northeastern Europe, 1558 – 1721|page=77|year=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781317898573}}

The Swedish era in Estonia was marked by both religious repression and significant reforms. Initially, it brought Protestant puritans who opposed traditional Estonian beliefs and practices, leading to witch trials and bans on folk music.Uuspuu, Villem 1938. [https://www.folklore.ee/tagused/nr19/uuspuu.pdf Surmaotsused Eesti nõiaprotsessides]. While large parts of rural population remained in serfdom, legal reforms under King Charles XI strengthened both serfs' and free tenant farmers' land usage and inheritance rights, resulting in this period's reputation as "The Good Old Swedish Time" in historical memory.{{Cite book|last1=Raukas|first1=Anto|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld|page=283|year=2002|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus|language=et|isbn=9985701151}} King Gustav II Adolph established gymnasiums in Tartu (which became the university in 1632) and Tallinn. Printers were established in both towns. The beginnings of the Estonian-language public education system appeared in the 1680s, largely owing to Bengt Forselius, who also introduced orthographical reforms to written Estonian.{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|pages=32–33 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}} The population of Estonia grew rapidly until about 20% of the population died in the Great Famine of 1695–97.{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=31 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}

By the Great Northern War, in which Tsar Peter I of Russia invaded Estonia in 1700, many Estonians were loyal to the Swedish crown. Up to 20,000 fought to defend Estonia against the invasion.Laidre, Margus. The Great Northern War and Estonia, The Trials of Dorpat 1700–1708. Inglise keelde tõlkinud Piret Ruustal. Tallinn 2010. Reverential folk stories of the Swedish king Charles XII embody a sentiment that distinguished the Swedish era from the harsher Russian rule that followed. Despite the initial Swedish victory in the Battle of Narva, Russia conquered the whole of Estonia by the end of 1710.{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=33 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}} The war again devastated the population of Estonia, with the 1712 population estimated at only 150,000–170,000.{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=34 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}

Under the 1710 terms of capitulation to Peter I, the country was incorporated into the Tsardom of Russia (after 1721 the Russian Empire), the tsar restored all political rights of the local German aristocracy, and recognised Lutheranism as the dominant faith.{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=38 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}} Estonia was divided into two governorates: the Governorate of Estonia, which included Tallinn and north Estonia, and the Governorate of Livonia, which included south Estonia and parts of north Latvia.{{Cite web|url=http://www.bdcol.ee/fileadmin/docs/bdreview/bdr-2002-8-11.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090319083729/http://www.bdcol.ee/fileadmin/docs/bdreview/bdr-2002-8-11.pdf|url-status=dead|title=The Baltic States from 1914 to 1923 By LtCol Andrew Parrott|archive-date=19 March 2009}} The rights of local farmers reached their nadir, as serfdom completely dominated 18th century agricultural relations.{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=41 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}

Despite occasional Russian attempts to align Estonian governance with broader imperial standards, Baltic autonomy generally remained intact, as the tsarist regime sought to avoid conflicts with the local nobility. The Baltic "special order" remained largely in effect until the late 19th century, marking a distinctive period of localised governance within the Russian Empire. Although serfdom was abolished in Estonia already in 1816–1819, major reforms improving farmers' rights started in the mid-19th century.{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|pages=47–49 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}

{{Main|Estonian national awakening}}

File:Kreutzwald-köler.jpg (1803-1882), author of the Estonian national epic Kalevipoeg (by Johann Köler, 1864)]]

The University of Tartu reopened in 1802, offering education to Baltic Germans and an increasing number of Estonian students. University students became the first proponents of Estonian nationalism, and the nationalist ideas of Johann Gottfried Herder influenced the local intelligentsia to value the native Estonian culture and folklore. The Estophile movement spurred scientific societies like the Learned Estonian Society, Estonian-language education and the first newspapers in Estonian.Arvo Pärt, Paul Hillier, Oxford University Press, 1997, {{ISBN|0-19-816616-8}}

The 1860s saw the first nationwide movements, like a campaign to establish an Estonian-language secondary school, the founding of the Society of Estonian Literati and Estonian Students' Society, and the first nationwide Estonian Song Festival.{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=59 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}{{Cite book|last1=Raukas|first1=Anto|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld|page=287|year=2002 |publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus|language=et|isbn=9985701151}}{{Cite book|last1=Subrenat|first1=Jean-Jacques|title=Estonia: Identity and Independence|pages=93 |year=2004|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=9042008903}} Linguistic reforms helped to develop the Estonian language.{{Cite book|last1=Subrenat|first1=Jean-Jacques|title=Estonia: Identity and Independence|pages=90–91 |year=2004|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=9042008903}} The national epic Kalevipoeg was published in 1857, and 1870 witnessed the first performances of Estonian theatre.{{Cite book|last1=Subrenat|first1=Jean-Jacques|title=Estonia: Identity and Independence|pages=91 |year=2004|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=9042008903}}{{Cite book| title=Cultural Policy in Estonia|page=23 |year=1997|publisher=Council of Europe|isbn=9789287131652}} In 1878 the nationalist movement split. The moderate wing of Jakob Hurt focussed on promoting the Estonian language media, education and culture, whereas the radical, anti-clerical and anti-German wing led by Carl Robert Jakobson demanded more political rights to Estonian farmers.

In the 1890s, the central government of the Russian Empire launched a Russification campaign in order to tie the Baltic governorates more closely to the empire administratively and culturally. Russian language replaced German and Estonian in most secondary schools and universities, and many societal activities in local languages were suppressed.

In the late 1890s, prominent figures like Jaan Tõnisson and Konstantin Päts rose in a new surge of nationalism. In the early 20th century, Estonians started taking over their German-run town governments.{{Cite book|last1=Raukas|first1=Anto|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld|page=291|year=2002|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus|language=et|isbn=9985701151}}

During the 1905 Russian Revolution, the first Estonian political parties were founded. The flag of Estonia, used by the Estonian Students' Society since 1881, was prominent during political demonstrations in Tallinn, Tartu, and other towns. Popular unrest resulted in peaceful demonstrations, violent riots and, in Tallinn and a number of countryside manors, looting.{{Cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David |title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration|page=10 |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136452130}} The Tsarist government reacted brutally; some 500 people were executed and hundreds more jailed or deported to Siberia.{{Cite book|last1=Raukas|first1=Anto|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld|page=292|year=2002|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus|language=et|isbn=9985701151}}

World War I saw over 100,000 Estonians mobilised into the Imperial Russian Army; 8,000 to 10,000 perished, and one in five suffered injuries.{{cite journal | url=https://doi.org/10.1080/01629778.2016.1251068 | doi=10.1080/01629778.2016.1251068 | title=Liisi Esse, Eesti sõdurid Esimeses maailmasõjas: Sõjakogemus ja selle sõjajärgne tähendus | date=2017 | last1=Kuldkepp | first1=Mart | journal=Journal of Baltic Studies | volume=48 | pages=99–101 }} During the war, ideas for an Estonian national army gained traction, while the shortages and hardships at home led to civil unrest.

{{Main|Estonian Declaration of Independence|History of Estonia#Interwar period (1920–1939)}}

File:Soomusrong nr 2 Valgas 1919.jpg during the Estonian War of Independence (1919)]]

In 1917, following the collapse of the Russian Empire, the Russian Provisional Government yielded to popular demand and the two main Estonian-speaking governorates were merged into one Autonomous Governorate of Estonia, and the Estonian Provincial Assembly was then elected.{{Cite book|last1= Calvert |first1=Peter|title= The Process of Political Succession |page=67 |year=1987|publisher= Springer |isbn= 9781349089789}}

In November 1917, Russian Bolsheviks seized power both in then capital Saint Petersburg and in the Estonian mainland, declaring the Provincial Assembly disbanded. Three months later, the invading Imperial German army forced the Russian Bolsheviks into hasty retreat. On 24 February 1918, the designated committee of the Provincial Assembly proclaimed the Estonian Declaration of Independence in Tallinn, and formed the first national government. By the end of February 1918 the German Empire occupied the entire territory of Estonia. After Germany's capitulation in World War I, German occupation authorities handed over the power (back) to the Estonian government on 19 November 1918.{{Cite book|last1=Calvert|first1=Peter|title= The Process of Political Succession |page=68 |year=1987|publisher= Springer |isbn= 9781349089789}}

On 28 November 1918, Soviet Russia invaded, starting the Estonian War of Independence.{{Cite book |last1=Pinder|first1=David|title=Western Europe: Challenge and Change|page=[https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/75 75]|year=1990|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn= 9781576078006|url=https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/75}} The Red Army came within 30 km of Tallinn, but in January 1919, an Estonian counter-offensive, led by Johan Laidoner, expelled the Bolshevik forces within weeks. Renewed Soviet attacks failed, and in the spring of 1919, the Estonian army advanced into Russia and Latvia.{{Cite book|last1=Pinder|first1=David|title=Western Europe: Challenge and Change|page=[https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/76 76]|year=1990|publisher= ABC-CLIO|isbn= 9781576078006|url= https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/76}}{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1= Andres|title=The Radical Right in Interwar Estonia |page=10 |year=2000|publisher= Springer |isbn= 9781403919557}} On 2 February 1920, Russia and Estonia signed the Peace Treaty where the two countries recognized each other's independence.{{Cite book |last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres|title=The Radical Right in Interwar Estonia |page=11 |year=2000|publisher= Springer |isbn=9781403919557}} Estonia joined the League of Nations in 1921.

In April 1919, the Estonian Constituent Assembly was elected. They passed a sweeping land reform and adopted a highly liberal constitution, establishing Estonia as a parliamentary democracy.{{Cite book|last1=Miljan|first1=Toivo|title=Historical Dictionary of Estonia |pages=80–81|year= 2015 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=9780810875135}}{{Cite book|last1= Raun |first1=Toivo U.|title= Estonia and the Estonians: Second edition, updated|page=128 |year=2002 |publisher=Hoover Press|isbn= 9780817928537}} Estonia's cultural-autonomy law for ethnic minorities, adopted in 1925, was one of the most liberal of its time.{{Cite book|last1=Bell|first1=Imogen|title=Central and South-Eastern Europe 2003|page=244 |year=2002|publisher= Psychology Press|isbn=9781857431360}}

The Great Depression strained Estonia's political system, and in 1933 the right-wing Vaps movement spearheaded a constitutional reform establishing a strong presidency.{{Cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David |title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration |page= 18 |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136452130}}{{Cite book|last1=Misiunas|first1= Romuald J. |last2=Taagepera|first2=Rein |title=The Baltic States, Years of Dependence, 1940–1980|page=11 |year=1983|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=9780520046252}} On 12 March 1934 the acting head of state, Konstantin Päts, extended a state of emergency over the entire country, under the pretext that the Vaps movement had been planning a coup. Päts ruled by decree for several years while parliament did not reconvene ("era of silence").{{Cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David |title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration |pages=19–20 |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136452130}} The Päts régime was relatively benign compared to other authoritarian régimes in interwar Europe, never using violence against political opponents.{{Cite book|last1= Smith|first1= David |title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration|pages=22 |year=2013|publisher= Routledge|isbn= 9781136452130}} A 1937 referendum adopted a new constitution. In 1938, an election including opposition candidates provided a new bicameral parliament .{{Cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David |title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration|pages= 21 |year= 2013|publisher= Routledge|isbn= 9781136452130}}

Estonia enjoyed rapid economic growth during the interwar period. Land reforms improved the farmers' conditions, but the country also prospered from industrialisation and the development of oil shale mining. With independence, most economic links with Russia dissolved, but trade rapidly reoriented towards Western markets.Ahde, Pasi & Teet Rajasalu (eds.) Economic Structures. Estonia and Finland. A Retrospective Socioeconomic Comparison. Eds. Lugus Oleve & Pentti Vartia Helsinki: The Research Institute of the Finnish Economy, 1993. Attempts to establish an alliance with Finland, Poland, and Latvia failed, though a mutual-defence pact with Latvia was in 1923, followed by the Baltic Entente of 1934.{{Cite book |last1= von Rauch|first1=Georg |title=Die Geschichte der baltischen Staaten|pages=108–111 |year=1974|publisher= University of California Press|isbn=9780520026001}}{{Cite book|last1=Hiden|first1=John |last2= Lane |first2= Thomas |title=The Baltic and the Outbreak of the Second World War|page=7 |year=2003 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521531207}} In the 1930s, Estonia engaged in secret military co-operation with Finland.{{Cite book|last1=Åselius|first1=Gunnar |title= The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Navy in the Baltic 1921–1941|page= 119 |year=2004 |publisher= Routledge |isbn=9781135769604}} They signed non-aggression pacts with the Soviet Union in 1932, and with Germany in 1939.{{Cite book|last1= Lane|first1=Thomas |last2=Pabriks|first2=Artis |last3= Purs|first3= Aldis |last4=Smith|first4=David J. |title=The Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania|page=154 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136483042}} In 1939, Estonia declared neutrality, but this proved futile in World War II.{{Cite book|last1= Gärtner |first1=Heinz |title=Engaged Neutrality: An Evolved Approach to the Cold War |page=125 |year=2017|publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=9781498546195}}

{{Main|Estonia in World War II|Occupation of the Baltic states}}

A week before the outbreak of World War II, the 23 August 1939 Nazi-Soviet Pact secretly assigned Estonia to the Soviet Union's sphere of influence.{{Cite book|last1=Miljan|first1=Toivo|title=Historical Dictionary of Estonia|page=335|year=2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-8108-7513-5}} In September 1939, during the Soviet invasion of Poland, Joseph Stalin pressured the Estonian government into signing a "mutual assistance treaty", allowing the USSR to establish military bases in Estonia.{{Cite book|last1=Hiden|first1=John |last2=Salmon|first2=Patrick |title=The Baltic Nations and Europe: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania in the Twentieth Century |page=110 |year=2014|publisher= Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-89057-7}} On 14 June 1940, the Soviet Union instituted a full naval and air blockade on Estonia, shooting down the airliner Kaleva. On 16 June, the USSR demanded free passage of the Red Army into Estonia and the establishment of a pro-Soviet government. Feeling that resistance was hopeless, the Estonian government complied and Soviet occupation began.{{Cite book |last1=Raukas |first1=Anto |title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld |page=309 |year=2002 |publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus |language=et |isbn=9985701151}}{{cite web |first1=Eric A. |last1=Johnson |first2=Anna |last2=Hermann |date=May 2007 |title=The Last Flight from Tallinn |work=Foreign Service Journal |url=http://finland.usembassy.gov/root/pdfs/antheil_article.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117175841/http://finland.usembassy.gov/root/pdfs/antheil_article.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2012 |publisher=American Foreign Service Association}} The Independent Signal Battalion was the only unit of the Estonian Army to offer armed resistance.{{cite web |url=https://www.err.ee/954916/staabi-ja-sidepataljon-meenutas-raua-tanava-lahingut|title=Staabi- ja sidepataljon meenutas Raua tänava lahingut |date=21 June 2019 |language=et |publisher=ERR}}{{cite web |url=https://www.postimees.ee/3380167/staabi-ja-sidepataljon-meenutas-kaitsevae-ainsat-lahingut-teises-maailmasojas|title=Staabi- ja sidepataljon meenutas kaitseväe ainsat lahingut Teises maailmasõjas |date=29 October 2015 |language=et |publisher=Postimees}} On 6 August 1940, Estonia was formally annexed by the Soviet Union as the Estonian SSR.{{Cite book|first=Lauri |last=Mälksoo|year=2003|title=Illegal Annexation and State Continuity: The Case of the Incorporation of the Baltic States by the USSR|location= Leiden – Boston|publisher= Brill|isbn= 90-411-2177-3}}

File:PlaqueMemorizingEstonianGovernment.jpg in Toompea, Tallinn)]]

The USSR established a repressive terror regime in occupied Estonia, targeting the country's elite for destruction. Hundreds of people were executed and, on 14 June 1941, {{circa|11,000}} Estonians were deported to Russia, where most would be killed.{{Cite book|last1=Miljan|first1=Toivo|title=Historical Dictionary of Estonia|page=110|year=2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-8108-7513-5}}{{Cite book|last1=Gatrell|first1=Peter |last2=Baron|first2=Nick |title=Warlands: Population Resettlement and State Reconstruction in the Soviet-East European Borderlands, 1945–50 |page=233 |year=2009 |publisher= Springer|isbn=978-0-230-24693-5}} When Germany launched Operation Barbarossa against the Soviet Union on 22 June, the Summer War began in Estonia. The Soviet authorities conscripted around 34,000 young Estonian men; fewer than 30% would survive the war. Soviet extermination battalions adopted a scorched-earth policy, massacring civilians in the process, and NKVD units executed political prisoners who could not be evacuated.The Baltic Revolution: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and the Path to Independence by Anatol Lieven p424 {{ISBN|0-300-06078-5}}{{Cite book|last1=Lane|first1=Thomas |last2=Pabriks|first2=Artis |last3=Purs|first3=Aldis |last4=Smith|first4=David J. |title=The Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania|page=34 |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-48304-2}} Thousands of Estonians joined anti-Soviet partisan groups known as the Forest Brothers.{{Cite book|first1=Peeter |last1=Kaasik |first2=Mika |last2=Raudvassar |year=2006|pages=496–517|chapter=Estonia from June to October, 1941: Forest brothers and Summer War|editor-first1=Toomas |editor-last1=Hiio |editor-first2=Meelis |editor-last2=Maripuu |editor-first3=Indrek |editor-last3=Paavle |title=Estonia 1940–1945: Reports of the Estonian International Commission for the Investigation of Crimes Against Humanity|location=Tallinn |publisher=Estonian International Commission for the Investigation of Crimes Against Humanity}} By mid-July, the Forest Brothers' uprising succeeded in liberating south Estonia ahead of the advancing German army, allowing local institutions of the pre-war Republic of Estonia to resume operation.Meelis Maripuu. [https://dspace.ut.ee/server/api/core/bitstreams/f9387131-c2f5-42b4-84f6-37187a57f7fa/content Omavalitsuseta omavalitsused: Halduskorraldus Eestis Saksa okupatsiooni ajal 1941–1944]. 2012. The Soviet armed forces and officials evacuated Tallinn by sea in late August 1941, suffering massive losses in the process.{{Cite book|last1=Pinder|first1=David|title=Western Europe: Challenge and Change|page=[https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/80 80]|year=1990|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-800-6|url=https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/80}}

A puppet Estonian Self-Administration was established, and occupied Estonia was merged into Reichskommissariat Ostland.{{Cite book|last1=Miljan|first1=Toivo|title=Historical Dictionary of Estonia|page=209|year=2015 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-8108-7513-5}} About a thousand Estonian Jews were killed in 1941 and numerous forced labour camps were established.{{cite web|title=Conclusions of the Commission|url=http://www.historycommission.ee/temp/conclusions.htm#crimger|publisher=Estonian International Commission for Investigation of Crimes Against Humanity |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080629035526/http://www.historycommission.ee/temp/conclusions.htm#crimger|archive-date=29 June 2008|year=1998}} German occupation authorities started recruiting men into volunteer units and limited conscription was instituted in 1943, eventually leading to formation of the Estonian Waffen-SS division.{{Cite book|last1=Smith |first1=David |title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration|page=36 |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-45213-0}} Thousands of Estonians escaped to Finland, where many volunteered to fight together with Finns against Soviets.{{Cite book|last1=Miljan|first1=Toivo|title=Historical Dictionary of Estonia|page=275|year=2004|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-6571-6}}

File:Tallinn Old Town after being bombed by the Soviet Air Forces in 1944.jpg after bombing by the Soviet air force (March 1944)]]

The Soviet Army reached the Estonian borders again in early 1944, heightening fears of a new Soviet occupation. The Estonian Self-Administration, with the support of major pre-war political parties and acting president Jüri Uluots, declared a general conscription, drafting 38,000 men into the Waffen-SS.[http://www.estonica.org/eng/lugu.html?menyy_id=99&kateg=43&alam=61&leht=4German mobilisation in Estonia] estonica.org {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090131101150/http://www.estonica.org/eng/lugu.html?menyy_id=99&kateg=43&alam=61&leht=4German |date=31 January 2009 }}[http://www.historycommission.ee/temp/pdf/tables/chronology.pdf Chronology] at the EIHC {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609224537/http://www.historycommission.ee/temp/pdf/tables/chronology.pdf |date=9 June 2007 }}Resistance! Occupied Europe and Its Defiance of Hitler by Dave Lande on Page 200 {{ISBN|978-0-7603-0745-8}} With significant support from Estonian units, German forces managed to halt the Soviet advance for six months in fierce battles near Narva.{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=159 |year=2002 |publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=978-0-8179-2853-7}} The Soviet Air Force launched extensive bombing raids on Tallinn and other Estonian cities, resulting in severe damage and loss of life.{{Cite book|last1=Kangilaski|first1=Jaan |display-authors=etal |editor-last=Salo|editor-first=Vello |title=The white book: losses inflicted on the Estonian nation by occupation regimes, 1940–1991|page=18|year=2005|publisher=Estonian Encyclopaedia Publishers |isbn=9789985701959}} From July to September, the Soviet forces launched several major offensives, compelling German troops to withdraw. During the German retreat, Jüri Uluots appointed a government led by Otto Tief in a final effort to restore independence. The government controlled Tallinn and parts of western Estonia, but failed to stop the Soviet offensive, which captured Tallinn on 22 September, followed by the rest of mainland Estonia. In November and December, German troops retreated from the Estonian islands, leaving the entire country under Soviet occupation.{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres|title=A History of the Baltic States|page=138 |year=2010|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-230-36450-9}}

In 1944, tens of thousands of Estonians fled westwards from the Soviets.{{Cite book|last1=Kangilaski|first1=Jaan |display-authors=etal |editor-last=Salo|editor-first=Vello |title=The white book: losses inflicted on the Estonian nation by occupation regimes, 1940–1991|page=30|year=2005|publisher=Estonian Encyclopaedia Publishers|isbn=9789985701959}} Estonia lost around one fourth of its population through war-related deaths, deportations and evacuations.{{Cite book|last1=Kangilaski|first1=Jaan|display-authors=etal|editor-last=Salo|editor-first=Vello |title=The white book: losses inflicted on the Estonian nation by occupation regimes, 1940–1991|page=37 |year=2005|publisher=Estonian Encyclopaedia Publishers|isbn=9789985701959}}

{{Main|Estonian SSR|Occupation of the Baltic states}}

Following renewed occupation, thousands of Estonians once again joined the Forest Brothers to resist Soviet rule. This armed resistance was particularly intense in the immediate post-war years, but by the 1960s, Soviet forces had conquered it through attrition.{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=174 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}} The Soviet regime also intensified its policy of collectivisation, forcing farmers to abandon private agriculture and join state-run collectives. When locals resisted, authorities launched a campaign of terror, culminating in the March 1949 mass deportation of around 20,000 Estonians to the Siberian gulag.{{cite book |last1=Misiunas |first1=Romuald |title=The Baltic States, Years of Dependence: 1940-1990 |date=1983 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley, Los Angeles |isbn=978-0-520-04625-2 |page=78 |url=https://archive.org/details/balticstatesyear00misi/page/n7/mode/2up |access-date=September 1, 2022}} Full collectivisation followed, marking a new phase of Soviet control.

File:Estonian forest brothers relaxing and cleaning their guns after a shooting exercise in Veskiaru, Järva County, Estonia, 1953. (47953893422).jpg after a shooting exercise in 1953]]

Simultaneously, the Soviet Union initiated Russification policies to reshape Estonia's demographics and dilute its cultural identity. Large numbers of Russians and other Soviet people were settled in Estonia.{{Cite book|last1=Taagepera|first1=Rein|title=The Finno-Ugric Republics and the Russian State|page=128|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136678011}} Between 1945 and 1989, the proportion of ethnic Estonians in the country dropped from 97% to 62%.{{cite journal |last1=Puur |first1=Allan |last2=Rahnu |first2=Leen |last3=Sakkeus |first3=Luule |last4=Klesment |first4=Martin |last5=Abuladze |first5=Liili |date=22 March 2018 |title=The formation of ethnically mixed partnerships in Estonia: A stalling trend from a two-sided perspective |url=https://www.demographic-research.org/volumes/vol38/38/38-38.pdf |journal=Demographic Research |volume=38 |issue=38 |page=1117 |doi=10.4054/DemRes.2018.38.38 |access-date= 7 January 2020|doi-access=free }} Occupying authorities carried out campaigns of ethnic cleansing, mass deportation of Estonians, and mass Russian settlement.{{cite book |last1=Misiunas |first1=Romuald |title=The Baltic States, Years of Dependence: 1940-1990 |date=1983 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley, Los Angeles |isbn=978-0-520-04625-2 |page=96 |url=https://archive.org/details/balticstatesyear00misi/page/n7/mode/2up |access-date=September 1, 2022}} Estonians faced additional hardships, as thousands were forcibly conscripted into Soviet military conflicts, including the 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia and Soviet–Afghan War of 1979–1989.

The Soviet regime seized all industry and almost all agricultural land, neglecting most of the resulting damage to the environment and quality of life of the local people.Karsten Staehr. [https://haldus.taltech.ee/sites/default/files/2021-04/011_2004-CC20in20Estonia.pdf Economic Transition in Estonia. Background, Reforms and Results].{{Cite book|last1=Miljan|first1=Toivo|title=Historical Dictionary of Estonia|page=227|year=2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=9780810875135}} The military presence was pervasive, with closed military zones occupying around one-fifth of the Estonian land and the entire surrounding sea. Access to coastal areas required permits, rendering the Estonian people physically isolated from the world outside USSR.{{Cite book|last1=Spyra|first1=Wolfgang |last2=Katzsch |first2=Michael |title=Environmental Security and Public Safety: Problems and Needs in Conversion Policy and Research after 15 Years of Conversion in Central and Eastern Europe |page=14|year=2007 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=9781402056444}}{{Cite book|last1=Stöcker|first1=Lars Fredrik |title=Bridging the Baltic Sea: Networks of Resistance and Opposition during the Cold War Era |page=72|year=2017 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=9781498551281}} Although Estonia had one of the highest standards of living compared to other parts of USSR, as a result of the Soviet occupation it fell far behind its neighbour Finland in economic development and quality of life.Klesment, Martin. The Estonian Economy Under Soviet Rule: A Historiograhy Overview. Journal of Baltic Studies 40, no. 2 (2009): 245–264. {{JSTOR|43212878}}.

Soviet security forces enjoyed vast powers to suppress dissent, yet underground resistance endured. Despite heavy censorship, many Estonians covertly listened to Voice of America broadcasts and watched Finnish television, which offered a glimpse into life beyond the Iron Curtain.{{cite journal | url = http://viewjournal.eu/european-television-memories/window-to-the-west/ | title = Window to the West: Memories of watching Finnish television in Estonia during the Soviet period | first1 = Annika | last1 = Lepp | first2 = Mervi | last2 = Pantti | format = PDF | journal = VIEW | date = 2013 | number = 3/2013 | pages = 80–81 | publisher = Journal of European Television History and Culture | access-date = October 11, 2021 | language = en | archive-date = 18 December 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181218054651/http://viewjournal.eu/european-television-memories/window-to-the-west/ | url-status = dead }}{{Cite web|url=https://www.ohtuleht.ee/107853/raadiohaali-segati-kuibo353evist|title=Raadiohääli segati Kuibõševist|website=www.ohtuleht.ee}} In the late 1970s, Moscow's ideological pressure intensified with new Russian immigration. Estonian dissidents grew increasingly vocal, with notable protests such as the Baltic Appeal to the United Nations in 1979, and the Letter of 40 intellectuals in 1980.Sirje Kiin, Rein Ruutsoo, Andres Tarand. 1990. 40 kirja lugu. Tallinn: Olion. {{ISBN|5-450-01408-2}}

Most Western nations refused to recognise the Soviet annexation of Estonia, maintaining its illegality under international law.{{Cite book|last1=Feldbrugge|first1=F. J. Ferdinand Joseph Maria |last2=Van den Berg|first2=Gerard Pieter|last3=Simons |first3=William Bradford |title=Encyclopedia of Soviet Law |page=461|year=1985 |publisher=Brill |isbn=9789024730759}} Legal continuity of the Estonian state was preserved through the government-in-exile and the Estonian diplomatic representatives which Western governments continued to recognise.{{Cite book|last1=Lane|first1=Thomas |last2=Pabriks|first2=Artis |last3=Purs|first3=Aldis |last4=Smith|first4=David J. |title=The Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania|page=xx |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136483042}}{{Cite book|last1=Frankowski|first1=Stanisław |last2=Stephan III|first2=Paul B. |title=Legal Reform in Post-Communist Europe: The View from Within |page=73|year=1995 |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers |isbn=9780792332183}} This stance drew support from the Stimson Doctrine, which denied recognition of territorial changes enacted through force. American maps carried disclaimers explaining their representation of Estonia. In 1980, Tallinn hosted the sailing events for the Moscow Olympics, triggering international boycotts in protest of Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and the continuing occupation of the Baltic countries. The Estonian exile community and Western nations condemned the events held on occupied soil.{{Cite web|url=https://news.err.ee/1096871/the-moscow-olympic-games-changed-the-face-of-tallinn-forever|title=The Moscow Olympic Games changed the face of Tallinn forever|date=1 June 2020|website=ERR}}

File:Balti kett 22.jpg on 23 August 1989, two million people formed a human chain across three countries in a mass demonstration against the Soviet occupation.]]

The introduction of perestroika by the Soviet government in 1987 enabled political activism in Estonia, sparking the Singing Revolution, a peaceful movement towards independence.{{Cite book|last1=Backes|first1=Uwe |last2=Moreau |first2=Patrick |title=Communist and Post-Communist Parties in Europe: Schriften Des Hannah-Arendt-Instituts Für Totalitarismusforschung 36 |page=9|year=2008 |publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht |isbn=9783525369128}} One of the first major acts of resistance was the Phosphorite War, an environmental protest against Soviet plans to establish large phosphate mines in Virumaa.{{Cite book|last1=Vogt|first1=Henri |title=Between Utopia and Disillusionment: A Narrative of the Political Transformation in Eastern Europe |pages=20–22|year=2005 |publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht |isbn=9781571818959}} On 23 August 1987, the Hirvepark meeting in Tallinn called for the public disclosure of the secret protocols of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact that had led to Estonia's occupation. Although demands for independence were not yet made, organisers aimed to reinforce the continuity of the Estonian state as the foundation for a restoration based on legal principles.Hirvepark 1987: 20 aastat kodanikualgatusest, mis muutis Eesti lähiajalugu. [Peatoimetaja Tõnu Tannberg; eessõna: Tunne Kelam; fotod: Taaniel Raudsepp; intervjuud: Anneli Kivisiv] Tallinn: Kultuuriselts Hirvepark, 2007. ISBN 9789949153510Viktor Niitsoo. Müürimurdjad: MRP-AEG ja ERSP lugu. Tallinn: [Ortwil], 2002. ISBN 9985897137

In 1988, new political movements emerged, including the Popular Front of Estonia, a moderate faction within the independence movement, and the Estonian National Independence Party, which became the first non-communist political party registered in the Soviet Union.{{Cite book|last1=Simons|first1=Greg |last2=Westerlund |first2=David |title=Religion, Politics and Nation-Building in Post-Communist Countries |page=151 |year=2015 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing |isbn=9781472449719}} The parliament of Soviet-controlled Estonia asserted the primacy of Estonian laws with the Sovereignty Declaration on 16 November 1988, inspiring similar declarations across other Soviet republics.{{Cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David |title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration |pages=46–48|year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781136452130}}{{Cite book |last1=Walker |first1=Edward W. |title=Dissolution: Sovereignty and the Breakup of the Soviet Union |page=[https://archive.org/details/dissolutionsover00walk/page/63 63] |year=2003 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=9780742524538 |url=https://archive.org/details/dissolutionsover00walk/page/63}} On 23 August 1989, two million people formed the Baltic Way, a human chain spanning Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, to demonstrate unity in pursuit of independence.{{Cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David |title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration |page=52|year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781136452130}} In 1989, the Estonian Citizens' Committees began registering citizens according to jus sanguinis (i.e. people who were citizens of Estonia in 1940, and their descendants). This led to the February 1990 election of the Congress of Estonia, a special parliament for the restoration of nation's independence via legal continuity of its citizenry. In March 1991, a general referendum (where all citizens, resident non-citizens, and Soviet military personnel had a vote) 78.4% of voters supported full independence. During the 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt in Moscow, Estonia declared the restoration of independence on 20 August 1991. The central government of the Soviet Union recognised the independence of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania on 6 September 1991, and on 17 September the three countries became members of the United Nations. The last military units of the former Soviet, now Russian, armed forces left Estonia in 1994.{{Cite book|last1=Nørgaard|first1=Ole |title=The Baltic States After Independence|page=188|year=1999|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |isbn=9781843765561}}

In 1992, a new Constitution of Estonia was approved by referendum, a new national currency (Estonian kroon) was introduced, the 1992 Estonian parliamentary election and presidential elections were held, where Lennart Meri was elected president and Mart Laar became prime minister. Under their leadership, Estonia initiated rapid and radical reforms, including privatisation and a currency overhaul, which accelerated the transition to a market economy.

At the turn of the century Estonia launched the Tiigrihüpe programme, aiming to become an information society, and completed negotiations for membership in the European Union and NATO. Corporate income tax was abolished, and the national ID card was introduced.

Estonia joined the OECD in 2010.{{Cite web|url=https://oecd.mfa.ee/estonia-and-oecd/|title=Estonia and OECD|website=Estonia in OECD}}

In April 2007, the Estonian authorities successfully stopped a multi-day pro-Russian riot in Tallinn and repelled a simultaneous wave of Russian cyberattacks targeting Estonian institutions. The 2007 incident further strained the relations with Russia, exacerbated by later Russian military attacks in Georgia and Ukraine. Estonia aligned with the EU in imposing against Russia the international sanctions during the Russo-Ukrainian War.{{Cite web|url=https://www.vm.ee/en/about-sanctions|title=About sanctions | Välisministeerium|website=www.vm.ee}}

Due to the 2008 financial crisis, Estonia's economic growth stalled in 2008, prompting strict government budget cuts to meet the criteria for adopting the euro. Estonia joined the Eurozone in 2011.{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-12098513|title=Estonia becomes 17th member of the euro zone|work=BBC News|date=31 December 2010}}

File:Rõuge Suurjärv drone photo.jpg, the deepest lake in Estonia with maximal depth of {{convert|38|m|ft|abbr=on}}]]

Estonia is geographically located in Europe,{{efn|name=location}} on the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea, on the East European Plain.{{cite journal|last=Raukas|first=Anto|author-link=Anto Raukas|title=Briefly about Estonia |journal=Dynamiques Environnementales|year=2018|volume=42|issue=42 |doi=10.4000/dynenviron.2230|issn=2534-4358|pages=284–291|s2cid=240432618 |doi-access=free}}{{Cite web|url=https://climate-adapt.eea.europa.eu/en/countries-regions/countries/estonia|title=Estonia|publisher=European Environment Agency|date=15 March 2021|access-date=5 March 2023}}{{Cite web|url=https://unstats.un.org/unsd/methodology/m49/|title=Methodology |publisher=United Nations Statistics Division|access-date=5 March 2023}} It is located on the northwestern part of the East European Platform, bordering the Fennoscandian Shield.{{Cite web|url=https://geoportaal.maaamet.ee/docs/geoloogia/andmed/Aluskord_400000_seletuskiri.pdf?t=20160506132630|title=Eesti kristalse aluskorra geoloogiline kaart}} It covers an area of {{convert|45335|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}}, of which 4.6% is internal waters mostly in Võrtsjärv and the Estonian portion of Lake Peipus.{{Cite web |date=2016-09-29 |title=Overview — Estonia |url=https://estonia.ee/overview/ |access-date=2025-04-09 |website=estonia.ee |language=en-US}} The longest land border is with Latvia (339 km).

The Estonian coastline stretches for {{convert|3794|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} and features limestone cliffs along the northern coast as well as its largest islands.{{Cite web|url=https://www.eesti.ee/en/republic-of-estonia/republic-of-estonia/information-about-estonia|title=Information about Estonia|publisher=Estonian Information System Authority|date=9 November 2022|access-date=5 March 2023}} Estonia includes 2,355 islands, counting those in internal waters, with 2,222 in the Baltic Sea. The largest islands are Saaremaa, Hiiumaa, Muhu and Vormsi.

The country's terrain is predominantly flat, with an average elevation of about {{convert|50|m|ft|0}} above sea level. While plains dominate in the north and west, the south and east of Estonia are hillier. Suur Munamägi, the highest peak of the country at {{convert|318|m|ft|0}}, is situated in the Haanja Landscape Conservation Area. Estonia's landscape features various types of highlands, including gently rolling uplands (Pandivere Upland), steeply rising plateaus (Sakala Upland), and hilly areas (Otepää Upland). The terrain of southern Estonia is defined by plateaus, hills, valleys, and extensive ancient river canyons.

There are {{circa|1,560}} natural lakes in Estonia; Lake Peipus and Võrtsjärv are the two largest. There are more than 7,000 rivers, streams, and canals, with only ten of them exceeding {{convert|100|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} in length. The longest rivers in Estonia include the Võhandu at {{convert|162|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} and the Pärnu at {{convert|144|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}. The rivers are primarily fed by groundwater, rainfall, and snowmelt, with each source contributing approximately one-third of the annual runoff. Bogs and mires cover about 23% of the country, and many of them form large wetland complexes where bogs and peatlands are interspersed with swamp forests, lakes and rivers.

File:Aurora Borealis in Vormsi, Estonia.jpg above the sea and lighthouse in Saxby, Estonia]]

Estonia has a transitional climate that lies between continental and maritime influences, characterised as a humid continental climate. Estonia's climate is notably milder than that of other regions at the same latitude due to the moderating effects of the North Atlantic Current. The prevailing weather patterns in Estonia are significantly influenced by active cyclonic activity in the northern Atlantic Ocean, particularly from the Icelandic low. This results in strong winds, precipitation, and abrupt temperature fluctuations, especially during the autumn and winter months. The westerly winds carry moist maritime air far into continental interior, leading to milder temperatures in winter and cooler conditions in summer compared to the continental areas further away from the coast. Coastal regions and islands generally enjoy a milder climate, as the Baltic Sea moderates temperatures, keeping coastal areas warmer in winter and cooler in summer.Estonica: [https://web.archive.org/web/20171223164112/http://www.estonica.org/et/Loodus/Asend_ja_looduslikud_tingimused/Kliima/ Asend ja looduslikud tingimused: Kliima]

The calculated mean temperature for the country's territory ranges from {{convert|17.8|°C|1|abbr=on}} in July to {{convert|-3.8|°C|1|abbr=on}} in February, with the annual average being {{convert|6.4|°C|1|abbr=on}}.{{Cite web|url=https://www.ilmateenistus.ee/kliima/kliimanormid/ohutemperatuur/?lang=en|title=Climate normals - Temperature|publisher=Estonian Environment Agency |access-date=27 February 2023}} The highest recorded temperature is {{convert|35.6|°C|1|abbr=on}} from 1992, and the lowest is {{convert|-43.5|°C|1|abbr=on}} from 1940.{{Cite web|url=https://www.ilmateenistus.ee/kliima/rekordid/ohutemperatuur/?lang=en|title=Weather records - Temperature|publisher=Estonian Environment Agency |access-date=27 February 2023}} The annual average precipitation is {{convert|662|mm|1}},{{Cite web|url=https://www.ilmateenistus.ee/kliima/kliimanormid/sademed/?lang=en|title=Climate normals - Precipitation|publisher=Estonian Environment Agency |access-date=27 February 2023}} with the daily record being {{convert|148|mm|1}}.{{Cite web|url=https://www.ilmateenistus.ee/kliima/rekordid/sademed/?lang=en|title=Weather records - Precipitation|publisher=Estonian Environment Agency |access-date=27 February 2023}} Snow cover varies significantly on different years. Prevailing winds are westerly, southwesterly, and southerly, the average annual wind speed varies between 2.1 m/s and 6.1 m/s, being smaller inland and the largest on the west coast. The average monthly sunshine duration ranges from 290 hours in August, to 21 hours in December.{{Cite web|url=https://www.ilmateenistus.ee/kliima/kliimanormid/paikesepaiste-kestus/?lang=en|title=Climate normals - Sunshine|publisher=Estonian Environment Agency |access-date=27 February 2023}} As a calculated average, Estonia receives 1830 hours of sunshine per year.{{Cite web|url=https://www.ilmateenistus.ee/kliima/kliimanormid/paikesepaiste-kestus/?lang=en/?lang=en|title=Climate normals - Temperature|publisher=Estonian Environment Agency |access-date=27 February 2023}}

Seasonal differences in Estonia are pronounced also in day length. For example, the longest day of the year lasts up to 18 hours and 40 minutes (in Tallinn), while the shortest day lasts only 6 hours and 2 minutes. The phenomenon of "white nights" occurs from early May to late July, during which the sun remains visible for extended periods. Snow cover varies significantly across the country, lasting on average between 75 and 135 days per year, with the least amount found on the western coast of Saaremaa and the most in the Haanja and Pandivere Upland.

File:Landsvale.jpg (Hirundo rustica) is the national bird of Estonia.]]

Estonia is recognised as one of the most biodiverse regions in Europe, particularly for its size and latitude. The country boasts a diverse array of climatic and soil conditions, as well as an abundance of both marine and freshwater ecosystems. This rich biodiversity allows for the survival of many species that have become extinct in most other European nations.{{Cite book|last1=Taylor|first1= Neil|title= Estonia|pages=4, 6–7|year=2014|publisher= Bradt Travel Guides |isbn=9781841624877}} Protected areas of Estonia cover 19.4% of the land (or 23% of the total area incl. territorial sea). The country is home to nearly 4,000 protected natural objects including 6 national parks, 231 nature conservation areas, and 154 landscape reserves.{{Cite web|url=https://envir.ee/en/climate-and-environment-protection/nature-conservation|title=Nature conservation|publisher=Ministry of the Environment|date=13 July 2021|access-date=6 March 2023}}

Estonia lies on the northern border of the Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests biomes.{{Cite web|url=https://metsaring.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/6_ypef-2011-12-booklet_eesti.pdf|title=Eesti metsade iseloomustus ja metsatüübid}} Phytogeographically, Estonia is shared between the Central European and Eastern European provinces of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the WWF, the territory of Estonia belongs to the ecoregion of Sarmatic mixed forests.{{cite journal|display-authors=3|last1=Dinerstein|first1=Eric|last2=Olson|first2=David|last3=Joshi|first3=Anup|last4=Vynne|first4=Carly|last5=Burgess|first5=Neil D.|last6=Wikramanayake|first6=Eric|last7=Hahn|first7=Nathan|last8=Palminteri|first8=Suzanne|last9=Hedao|first9=Prashant|last10=Noss|first10=Reed|last11=Hansen|first11=Matt|last12=Locke|first12=Harvey|last13=Ellis|first13=Erle C|last14=Jones|first14=Benjamin|last15=Barber|first15=Charles Victor|last16=Hayes|first16=Randy|last17=Kormos|first17=Cyril|last18=Martin|first18=Vance|last19=Crist|first19=Eileen|last20=Sechrest|first20=Wes|last21=Price|first21=Lori|last22=Baillie|first22=Jonathan E. M.|last23=Weeden|first23=Don|last24=Suckling|first24=Kierán|last25=Davis|first25=Crystal|last26=Sizer|first26=Nigel|last27=Moore|first27=Rebecca|last28=Thau|first28=David|last29=Birch|first29=Tanya|last30=Potapov|first30=Peter|last31=Turubanova|first31=Svetlana|last32=Tyukavina|first32=Alexandra|last33=de Souza|first33=Nadia|last34=Pintea|first34=Lilian|last35=Brito|first35=José C.|last36=Llewellyn|first36=Othman A.|last37=Miller|first37=Anthony G.|last38=Patzelt|first38=Annette|last39=Ghazanfar|first39=Shahina A.|last40=Timberlake|first40=Jonathan|last41=Klöser|first41=Heinz|last42=Shennan-Farpón|first42=Yara|last43=Kindt|first43=Roeland|last44=Lillesø|first44=Jens-Peter Barnekow|last45=van Breugel|first45=Paulo|last46=Graudal|first46=Lars|last47=Voge|first47=Maianna|last48=Al-Shammari|first48=Khalaf F.|last49=Saleem|first49=Muhammad|title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm|journal=BioScience|volume=67|issue=6|year=2017|pages=534–545|issn=0006-3568|doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014|pmid=28608869|pmc=5451287|doi-access=free}} Over 330 bird species have been found in Estonia, including the white-tailed eagle, lesser spotted eagle, golden eagle, western capercaillie, black and white stork, and a variety of owls, waders, and geese.{{Cite book|last1=Taylor|first1= Neil|title= Estonia|pages=7–8|year=2014|publisher= Bradt Travel Guides |isbn=9781841624877}} The barn swallow is the national bird of Estonia.{{Cite book|last1=Spilling|first1=Michael|title=Estonia|page=11|year=2010|publisher=Marshall Cavendish |isbn=9781841624877}} Estonia is located on the migration route for millions of passerines flying through central Estonia as well as over 50 million waterfowl and shorebirds flying along the northwestern coast, holding the European record for the highest number of migrating species observed.{{Cite web|url=https://www.estonianwildlifetours.com/tour/birdwatching-in-estonia/autumn-birds-migration-estonia/|title=Autumn birds migration Estonia}}

Estonian fauna has a significant presence of aquatic, riparian, forest, and open-field species. The country is home to 64 recorded mammal species, 11 amphibians, and 5 reptiles. Large mammals include the grey wolf, lynx, brown bear, red fox, badger, wild boar, moose, roe deer, beaver, otter, grey seal, and ringed seal. Notably, Estonia has successfully maintained a population of European minks on its islands through decades-long conservation programmes, countering the encroachment of American minks. The critically endangered European mink has been successfully reintroduced on Hiiumaa, while the rare Siberian flying squirrel thrives in eastern Estonia. Furthermore, red deer, previously extirpated, have been successfully reintroduced.{{Cite web|url=https://loodusveeb.ee/en/themes/species-and-their-distribution/how-much-has-mammal-fauna-estonia-changed|title=How much has the mammal fauna in Estonia changed?|publisher=Loodusveeb|first1=Uudo|last1=Timm|first2=Tiit|last2=Maran|date=March 2020|access-date=7 April 2023}} In the early 21st century, a population of European jackals was confirmed in western Estonia, expanding their range significantly.{{Cite web|url=https://maaleht.delfi.ee/artikkel/65914222/peep-mannil-laanemaal-elab-veel-vahemalt-kaks-saakalit-toenaoliselt-rohkem|title=Peep Männil: Läänemaal elab veel vähemalt kaks šaakalit, tõenäoliselt rohkem|website=Maaleht|date=3 April 2013|access-date=18 April 2023}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.postimees.ee/4229725/saakalite-jahihooaeg-pikenes-kahe-kuu-vorra|title=Šaakalite jahihooaeg pikenes kahe kuu võrra|website=Postimees|first=Andres|last=Einmann|date=1 September 2017|access-date=18 April 2023}} Introduced mammals include sika deer, fallow deer, raccoon dog, muskrat, and American mink.

Estonia's natural landscape features unique flora, including endemic species such as the Saaremaa yellow rattle, which cannot be found elsewhere in the world.{{Cite web|url=https://media.voog.com/0000/0050/7864/files/VilsandiRP_KKK_KA_kommentaaridega.pdf|title=Vilsandi rahvuspargi kaitsekorralduskava aastateks 2011–2020}} The country has a rich composition of floristic groups, with estimated 3,000 algae and cyanobacteria species, 850 lichens, and 600 bryophytes. As of 2012, forests covered 48% of Estonia's land area, supporting a wide range of plant species.{{cite web |year=2012 |title=Forest resources based on national forest inventory |url=http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=EN51&ti=FOREST+RESOURCES+BASED+ON+NATIONAL+FOREST+INVENTORY+%28NFI%29&path=../I_Databas/Environment/04Natural_resources_and_their_use/06Forest_resources/&lang=1 |publisher=Statistics Estonia}} Among these, 87 native and over 500 introduced tree and bush species have been identified, with the most common trees being pine (41%), birch (28%), and spruce (23%). The cornflower is Estonia's national flower.

The environmental conditions in Estonia are generally favourable, with some issues regarding pollution from transportation, the preservation of biodiversity, and the protection of water bodies. Coastal waters in Estonia also face similar environmental concerns. Monitoring of five coastal water bodies in 2023 indicated suboptimal ecological statuses. High mercury levels in biota were a major contributor to these classifications, and in Tallinn Bay, tributyl tin concentrations in sediments also exceeded safe limits. These chemical pollutants pose risks to both aquatic ecosystems and the overall environmental health of the region.{{Cite web|url=https://keskkonnaportaal.ee/sites/default/files/Teemad/Keskkonnaseire/RKSP_seiretulemuste_ülevaade_2023.pdf|title=Riikliku keskkonnaseire programmi 2023. aasta seiretulemuste kokkuvõte}}

Several indicators have worsened in recent years, particularly those concerning greenhouse gas emissions and waste management. Estonia's net greenhouse gas emissions increased from 13.4 million CO₂-equivalent tons in 2021 to 14.3 million tons in 2022, moving the nation further from its 2035 target of 8 million tons. Waste production has also grown, rising from 19.4 million tons in 2021 to 22.9 million tons in 2022. Estonia's reliance on natural resources is further reflected in increased oil shale extraction, from 9.2 million tons in 2021 to 10.7 million tons in 2022, and a rise in groundwater extraction to 236.5 million m³ in 2022.{{Cite web|url=https://bioneer.ee/statistikaamet-kuidas-l%C3%A4heb-eesti-keskkonnal|title=Statistikaamet: Kuidas läheb Eesti keskkonnal?|date=16 October 2024|website=Bioneer}}

Estonia is largely protected from major natural disasters. However, occasional forest fires and minor floods in low-lying areas still pose challenges. The most significant disaster to affect the Estonian people in recent history was the 1994 sinking of the cruiseferry Estonia in the Baltic Sea.{{Cite web|url=https://www.eesti.ca/estonia-the-safest-country-in-the-world/article36897|title=Estonia: The safest country in the world|website=Estonian World Review}}

{{Main|Politics of Estonia|List of political parties in Estonia|Elections in Estonia}}{{Multiple image

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President since 2021

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Prime Minister since 2024

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Estonia is a unitary parliamentary republic where the unicameral parliament, Riigikogu, serves as the legislature and the government acts as the executive branch.{{cite web |first=Anu |last=Toots |url=http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/baltikum/15260.pdf |title=2019 Parliamentary elections in Estonia |page=3 |publisher=Friedrich Ebert Foundation |date=March 2019 |access-date=4 January 2020}} The Riigikogu comprises 101 members elected for four-year terms by proportional representation, with voting rights granted to citizens over 18 years of age. The parliament approves the national government, passes legal acts and the state budget, and exercises parliamentary oversight. Additionally, upon the president's recommendation, the Parliament appoints the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, the chair of the Bank of Estonia, the Auditor General, the Chancellor of Justice, and the Commander-in-Chief of the Defence Forces.{{cite web|url=https://www.riigikogu.ee/en/introduction-and-history/riigikogu-tasks-organisation-work/what-is-riigikogu/ |title=What is Riigikogu? |publisher=Riigikogu |date=15 October 2019 |access-date=4 January 2020}}{{cite web|url=https://www.riigikogu.ee/en/introduction-and-history/riigikogu-tasks-organisation-work/what-does-riigikogu/ |title=What does Riigikogu do? |publisher=Riigikogu |date=4 September 2019 |access-date=4 January 2020}}

The Government of Estonia, led by the Prime Minister, is nominated by the President, subject to parliamentary approval. Estonia's political system has been marked by coalition governments, as no single party has managed to secure an absolute majority in parliament. The President, Estonia's head of state, plays a mostly ceremonial role, representing the nation internationally and holding the power to proclaim or veto laws passed by the Parliament. Should a law be passed unamended after presidential veto, the President may petition the Supreme Court to review its constitutionality.{{cite web |first=Taavi |last=Annus |url=http://www.estonica.org/en/State/President_of_the_Republic/Duties_of_the_President_of_the_Republic/ |title=Duties of the President of the Republic |publisher=Estonica |date=27 September 2012 |access-date=4 January 2020 |archive-date=24 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210924110941/http://www.estonica.org/en/State/President_of_the_Republic/Duties_of_the_President_of_the_Republic/ |url-status=dead }} There is no direct election of the president, who is elected by the Riigikogu, or by a special electoral college.[https://yle.fi/uutiset/3-12053491 YLE: Viron presidentinvaali on ajautumassa kaaokseen jo toista kertaa peräkkäin – "Instituutio kyntää pohjamudissa", sanoo politiikan tutkija] (in Finnish)

The Constitution of Estonia allows referendums. After the adoption of the current constitution by a referendum in 1992, only one more referendum has been held: the 2003 Estonian European Union membership referendum.{{cite journal |last1=Liivik |first1=Ero |year=2011 |title=Referendum in the Estonian Constitution |url=https://www.juridicainternational.eu/public/pdf/ji_2011_1_17.pdf |journal=Juridica International |volume=18 |page=21 |access-date=14 January 2020}} Estonia has pioneered in e-government, offering nearly all public services online{{cite news |first=Elizabeth |last=Schulze |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2019/02/08/how-estonia-became-a-digital-society.html |title=How a tiny country bordering Russia became one of the most tech-savvy societies in the world |publisher=CNBC |date=8 February 2019 |access-date=4 January 2020}} and becoming the first country globally to enable nationwide binding Internet voting in 2005 local elections.{{cite conference |first=Priit |last=Vinkel |title=Information Security Technology for Applications |chapter=Internet Voting in Estonia |series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science |book-title=Laud P. (eds) Information Security Technology for Applications. NordSec 2011. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol 7161 |publisher=Springer Publishing |year=2012 |volume=7161 |pages=4–12 |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-29615-4_2 |isbn=978-3-642-29614-7 }} During the 2023 parliamentary elections, over half of the votes were cast online.{{cite news |url=https://news.err.ee/1608904730/estonia-sets-new-e-voting-record-at-riigikogu-2023-elections |title=Estonia sets new e-voting record at Riigikogu 2023 elections |publisher=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |date=6 March 2023 |access-date=31 March 2023}} Six parties secured seats in the Riigikogu in the 2023 elections, with Kaja Kallas of the Reform Party forming a coalition government with Estonia 200 and the Social Democratic Party, while the Conservative People's Party, Centre Party and Isamaa became the opposition.{{cite news |url=https://news.err.ee/1608905309/reform-party-takes-landslide-win-in-2023-riigikogu-elections |title=Reform Party takes landslide win in 2023 Riigikogu elections |date=6 March 2023 |access-date=17 April 2023}}{{cite news |url=https://www.err.ee/1608950416/reformierakonna-eesti-200-ja-sotsiaaldemokraatide-valitsus-astus-ametisse |title=Reformierakonna, Eesti 200 ja Sotsiaaldemokraatide valitsus astus ametisse |publisher=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |date=17 April 2023 |access-date=17 April 2023 |language=Estonian}} In 2024, after Kallas' resignation, Kristen Michal became the prime minister.{{Cite web|url=https://www.postimees.ee/8063997/video-blogi-ja-fotod-ametivanded-antud-eesti-sai-riigikogus-aplausi-saatel-uue-valitsuse|title=VIDEO, BLOGI JA FOTOD ⟩ Ametivanded antud: Eesti sai riigikogus aplausi saatel uue valitsuse|date=23 July 2024|website=Postimees}}

File:Estonia, administrative divisions - et - colored.svg (boundaries as of 2025)]]

File:Estonian administrative divisions 2017 with labels.svg

Estonia is a unitary country with a single-tier local government system. Local affairs are managed autonomously by local governments. Since administrative reform in 2017, there are in total 79 local governments, including 15 towns and 64 rural municipalities. All municipalities have equal legal status and form part of a maakond (county), which is an administrative subunit of the state.{{cite book |title=Public administration characteristics and performance in EU28 |last1=Pesti |first1=Cerlin |last2=Randma-Liiv |first2=Tiina |date=April 2018 |chapter=Estonia |chapter-url= https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/c017bdc1-960e-11e8-8bc1-01aa75ed71a1/language-en |editor-last=Thijs |editor-first=Nick |editor2-last=Hammerschmid |editor2-first=Gerhard |publisher=Publications Office of the European Union |location=Luxembourg |pages=252–255 |doi=10.2767/74735 |isbn=9789279904530}} Representative body of local authorities is municipal council, elected at general direct elections for a four-year term. Each municipal council appoints the mayor and the local government. The local authorities may form municipal districts with limited authority — such municipal districts have been formed, e.g in Tallinn and Hiiumaa.

Local governments in Estonia are not intended as extensions of the central government. Instead, they serve to directly address the needs of each local community. Issues such as construction projects, road maintenance, waste management, and quality-of-life initiatives are handled primarily by local governments. The state provides financial and legislative support, ensuring that local governments have adequate funding for these initiatives.{{Cite web|url=https://www.oiguskantsler.ee/ylevaade2017/kohalik-voim|title=Õiguskantsleri Aastaülevaade 2016/2017|website=www.oiguskantsler.ee}}

The Constitution of Estonia is the fundamental law. It is based on five main principles: human dignity, democracy, rule of law, social state, and the Estonian identity.{{cite book |last1=Ernits |first1=Madis |last2=Ginter |first2=Carri |last3=Laos |first3=Saale |last4=Allikmets |first4=Marje |last5=Tupay |first5=Paloma Krõõt |last6=Värk |first6=René |last7=Laurand |first7=Andra |editor-last1=Albi |editor-first1=Anneli |editor-last2=Bardutzky |editor-first2=Samo |title=National Constitutions in European and Global Governance: Democracy, Rights, the Rule of Law |publisher=T.M.C. Asser Press |location=The Hague |date=2019 |page=889 |chapter=The Constitution of Estonia: The Unexpected Challenges of Unlimited Primacy of EU Law |isbn=978-94-6265-272-9 |doi=10.1007/978-94-6265-273-6|hdl = 10138/311890|display-authors=1}} Estonia has a civil law legal system based on the Germanic legal model.{{cite journal |last1=Varul |first1=Paul |year=2000 |title=Legal Policy Decisions and Choices in the Creation of New Private Law in Estonia |url=https://www.juridicainternational.eu/public/pdf/ji_2000_1_104.pdf |journal=Juridica International |volume=5 |page=107 |access-date=11 January 2020}} The court system has a three-level structure. The first instance are county courts which handle all criminal and civil cases, and administrative courts which hear complaints about government and local officials, and other public disputes. The second instance are district courts which handle appeals about the first instance decisions.{{cite web |last1=Madise |first1=Ülle |author-link1=Ülle Madise |date=27 September 2012 |title=Courts of first instance and courts of appeal |url=http://www.estonica.org/en/State/Judicial_system/Courts_of_first_instance_and_courts_of_appeal/ |publisher=Estonica |access-date=16 January 2020 |archive-date=19 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210919193533/http://www.estonica.org/en/State/Judicial_system/Courts_of_first_instance_and_courts_of_appeal/ |url-status=dead }} The Supreme Court is the court of cassation, conducts constitutional review, and has 19 members.{{cite web |title=Supreme Court of Estonia

|url=https://www.riigikohus.ee/en/supreme-court-estonia |publisher=Supreme Court of Estonia |access-date=16 January 2020}} The judiciary is independent, judges are appointed for life, and can be removed from office only when convicted of a crime.{{cite book |last1=Heydemann |first1=Günther |last2=Vodička |first2=Karel |title=From Eastern Bloc to European Union: Comparative Processes of Transformation since 1990 |publisher=Berghahn Books |date=2017 |page=12 |isbn=9781785333187}} The justice system has been rated among the most efficient in the EU by the EU Justice Scoreboard.{{cite news |first=Aili |last=Vahtla |url=https://news.err.ee/837471/study-estonian-judicial-system-among-most-efficient-in-eu |title=Study: Estonian judicial system among most efficient in EU |publisher=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |date=6 June 2018 |access-date=16 January 2020}}

The Estonian legal system is built upon stable democratic institutions, with an independent judiciary as a fundamental pillar of the rule of law. However, concerns remain regarding the judiciary's structural independence, particularly due to the Ministry of Justice's significant role in managing lower courts and overseeing their administration. This connection has raised questions about potential indirect influence on judicial decision-making, as the Ministry's oversight and control of court finances limit the financial autonomy of the courts, making them more susceptible to political pressures.

Estonia legalised civil unions for same-sex couples with a law approved by the parliament in 2014.{{cite news |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/estonia-passes-law-recognizing-gay-partnerships-1412857097 |title=Estonia Passes Law Recognizing Gay Partnerships |first=Liis |last=Kangsepp |work=The Wall Street Journal |date=9 October 2014 |access-date=4 January 2014}} Same-sex couples gained the right to sign cohabitation agreements in 2016. In 2023, gay registered partners and married couples gained limited right to adopt. Gay couples gained the right to marriage in Estonia in 2024.{{Cite web |date=2023-05-15 |title=Estonian government approves draft same-sex marriage act |url=https://news.err.ee/1608978632/estonian-government-approves-draft-same-sex-marriage-act |access-date=2023-06-06 |website=ERR News |language=en}}

Law enforcement in Estonia is primarily managed by agencies under the Ministry of the Interior. The main agency, the Police and Border Guard Board, oversees law enforcement and internal security, responsible for a range of duties from public order to immigration control. Estonia also has a strong private security sector, which provides additional security services to individuals and businesses but holds no legal authority to arrest or detain suspects. To address national security, the Estonian Internal Security Service serves as the country's principal counterintelligence and counterterrorism agency, while the Estonian Foreign Intelligence Service handles external threats, gathering intelligence abroad to protect Estonia's national interests.Kotkin, Pavel. Eesti julgeolekuasutused kehtivas õiguses: magistritöö / Pavel Kotkin; juhendaja K. Merusk; Tartu Ülikool, õigusteaduskond, riigi- ja haldusõiguse õppetool. – Tartu : Tartu Ülikool, 2010. Emergency services in Estonia include comprehensive emergency medical services and the Estonian Rescue Board, which is responsible for search and rescue operations across the country.

As a member of the former League of Nations from 1921, and of the United Nations since 1991,{{cite book |last=Whittaker Briggs |first=Herbert |title=The law of nations: cases, documents, and notes |url= https://archive.org/details/lawofnationscase0000brig |url-access=registration |year=1952 |publisher=Appleton-Century-Crofts |page=[https://archive.org/details/lawofnationscase0000brig/page/106 106]}}{{cite web |url= http://dfat.gov.au/geo/estonia/Pages/estonia-country-brief.aspx |title=Estonia country brief |publisher=Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade |access-date=22 February 2018}} Estonia quickly integrated into European and transatlantic frameworks, joining NATO and the EU in 2004. In 2007, Estonia joined the Schengen Area, and in 2011 the Eurozone. Tallinn hosts the eu-LISA systems, operational since 2012,{{cite web |url= http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/what-we-do/policies/borders-and-visas/agency/index_en.htm |title=EU Agency for large-scale IT systems |publisher=European Commission |date=20 July 2012 |access-date=11 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120910112010/http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/what-we-do/policies/borders-and-visas/agency/index_en.htm |archive-date=10 September 2012}} and Estonia held the rotating Presidency of the Council of the European Union in the second half of 2017.{{cite news |url=https://euobserver.com/eu-presidency/140368 |title=Estonian presidency leaves 'more confident' EU |work=EUobserver |date=21 December 2017 |access-date=22 February 2018}} Estonia is also a member of the OECD, OSCE, WTO, and IMF.{{cite web |url= http://www.oecd.org/about/membersandpartners/list-oecd-member-countries.htm |title=List of OECD Member countries – Ratification of the Convention on the OECD |publisher=OECD |access-date=22 February 2018}}{{cite web |url=https://www.osce.org/participating-states |title=Participating States |publisher=OSCE |access-date=22 February 2018}}

Estonia's has engaged in ever closer regional cooperation with Latvia and Lithuania, and participates in several regional councils, such as the Baltic Assembly, the Baltic Council of Ministers, the Council of the Baltic Sea States,{{cite web |url=http://www.vm.ee/?q=en/node/4096 |title=Estonian Chairmanship of the Baltic Council of Ministers in 2011 |publisher=Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs |access-date=11 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131113111112/http://www.vm.ee/?q=en%2Fnode%2F4096 |archive-date=13 November 2013}} and the Three Seas Initiative.{{Cite web|url=https://maaleht.delfi.ee/artikkel/120337099/helsingin-sanomate-ajakirjanik-kaja-kunnas-eesti-maine-on-soomes-praegu-laineharjal|title=Helsingin Sanomate ajakirjanik Kaja Kunnas: Eesti maine on Soomes praegu laineharjal|website=Maaleht}}

Since the end of the Soviet occupation in 1991, the Estonia–Russia relations have remained strained.{{cite news |url= https://news.err.ee/649606/ambassador-successes-tend-to-get-ignored-in-estonian-russian-relations |title=Ambassador: Successes tend to get ignored in Estonian-Russian relations |publisher=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |date=9 December 2017 |access-date=22 February 2018}} Since 24 February 2022, the relations with Russia have further deteriorated due to Russia's invasion of Ukraine. Estonia has strongly supported Ukraine during the war, providing highest support relative to its gross domestic product.{{cite news |url= https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/06/03/estonia-russia-ukraine-war-kallas-baltics-nato/ |title=Estonia's Prime Minister: 'We Need to Help Ukraine Win' |publisher=Foreign Policy |date=3 June 2022 |access-date=27 June 2022}}{{cite web|url=https://estonianworld.com/security/blog-russia-ukraine-crisis-a-view-from-estonia/|title=Updates: Russia's invasion of Ukraine – reactions in Estonia|website=Estonian World|access-date=15 March 2023}}

Estonia has built close relationship with the Nordic countries and is a member of Nordic-Baltic Eight.{{cite web |url=http://www.vm.ee/?q=en/node/4097 |title=Nordic-Baltic Co-operation |publisher=Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs |date=10 July 2012 |access-date=11 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120511184410/http://www.vm.ee/?q=en%2Fnode%2F4097 |archive-date=11 May 2012}} Joint Nordic-Baltic projects include the education programme Nordplus{{cite web |url=http://www.nordplusonline.org/eng/nordplus/about_nordplus |title=Nordplus |publisher=Nordic Council of Ministers |access-date=11 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131113110917/http://www.nordplusonline.org/eng/nordplus/about_nordplus |archive-date=13 November 2013}} and mobility programmes for business and industry{{cite web |url=http://www.nb8businessmobility.org/ |title=NordicBaltic Mobility and Network Programme for Business and Industry |publisher=Nordic Council of Ministers' Office in Latvia |access-date=11 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131118051601/http://www.nb8businessmobility.org/ |archive-date=18 November 2013}} and for public administration.{{cite web |url= http://www.norden.ee/en/about-us/funding/mobility-programme-for-public-administration |title=NordicBaltic mobility programme for public administration |publisher=Nordic Council of Ministers' Office in Estonia |access-date=11 August 2012}} The Nordic Council of Ministers has an office in Tallinn with a subsidiaries in Tartu and Narva.{{cite web |url= http://www.norden.org/en/nordic-council-of-ministers/the-secretariat-to-the-nordic-council-of-ministers/nordic-council-of-ministers-information-offices-in-the-baltic-states-and-russia |title=Nordic Council of Ministers' Information Offices in the Baltic States and Russia|publisher=Nordic Council of Ministers |access-date=11 August 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121018134356/http://www.norden.org/en/nordic-council-of-ministers/the-secretariat-to-the-nordic-council-of-ministers/nordic-council-of-ministers-information-offices-in-the-baltic-states-and-russia |archive-date=18 October 2012 |url-status=dead}}{{cite web |url=http://www.norden.ee/en/about-us/about-us |title=Norden in Estonia |publisher=Nordic Council of Ministers' Office in Estonia |access-date=11 August 2012}} The Baltic states are members of Nordic Investment Bank, the EU's Nordic Battle Group, and in 2011 were invited to co-operate with Nordic Defence Cooperation in selected activities.{{cite web |url=https://www.nib.int/news_publications/cases_and_feature_stories/1517/estonia_latvia_and_lithuania_10-year_owners_at_nib |title=Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania 10-year owners at NIB |publisher=Nordic Investment Bank |date=December 2014 |access-date=22 February 2018 |archive-date=23 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180223050920/https://www.nib.int/news_publications/cases_and_feature_stories/1517/estonia_latvia_and_lithuania_10-year_owners_at_nib |url-status=dead }}{{cite news |url= https://www.irishtimes.com/opinion/world-view-german-paper-outlines-vision-for-eu-defence-union-1.2638290 |last=Smyth |first=Patrick |title=World View: German paper outlines vision for EU defence union |newspaper=The Irish Times |date=7 May 2016 |access-date=22 February 2018}}{{cite book |last1=Dahl |first1=Ann Sofie |last2=Järvenpää |first2=Pauli |title=Northern Security and Global Politics: Nordic-Baltic strategic influence in a post-unipolar world |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-83657-9 |page=166 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=NTZtAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA167 |access-date=24 December 2016}}{{cite web |url=http://www.nordefco.org/files/nordefco-annual-report-2015_webb.pdf|title=NORDEFCO annual report 2015 |publisher=Nordefco.org |access-date=23 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014085148/http://www.nordefco.org/files/nordefco-annual-report-2015_webb.pdf |archive-date=14 October 2017 |url-status=dead}}

File:Exercise WINTER CAMP NATOBGEST-20230129-ESTONIA EX WINTERCAMP 0435.jpg Battlegroup training with 1st Infantry Brigade (Estonia) during an annual exercise (February 2023)]]

The Estonian Defence Forces consist of land forces, navy, and air force. The current national military service is compulsory for healthy men between ages of 18 and 28, with conscripts serving 8- or 11-month tours of duty, depending on their education and position provided by the Defence Forces.{{cite web|url=http://www.mil.ee/en/defence-forces/compulsory-military-service |title=Compulsory military service |publisher=Estonian Defence Forces |date=11 March 2014|access-date=28 December 2019}} The peacetime size of the Estonian Defence Forces is about 6,000 persons, with half of those being conscripts. The planned wartime size of the Defence Forces is 60,000 personnel, including 21,000 personnel in high readiness reserve.{{cite web |url=http://www.mil.ee/en/defence-forcesp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241204003503/https://mil.ee/en/defence-forcesp/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 December 2024 |title=Estonian Defence Forces |publisher=Estonian Defence Forces |access-date=28 December 2019 }} Since 2015, the Estonian defence budget has been over 2% of GDP, fulfilling its NATO defence spending obligation.{{cite web|url=http://www.kaitseministeerium.ee/et/eesmargid-tegevused/kaitse-eelarve |title=Kaitse-eelarve |publisher=Estonian Ministry of Defence|date=3 December 2019 |language=et |access-date=28 December 2019}}

The Estonian Defence League is a voluntary national defence organisation under management of Ministry of Defence. It is organised based on military principles, has its own military equipment, and provides various different military training for its members, including in guerilla tactics. The Defence League has 17,000 members, with additional 11,000 volunteers in its affiliated organisations.{{cite web |url=http://www.kaitseliit.ee/en/edl |title=Estonian Defence League |publisher=Estonian Defence League |access-date=23 March 2023}}{{cite news|first=Daniel |last=McLaughlin |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/europe/baltic-volunteers-guard-against-threat-of-russian-stealth-invasion-1.2714047 |title=Baltic volunteers guard against threat of Russian stealth invasion |newspaper=The Irish Times |date=8 July 2016 |access-date=29 December 2019}}

Estonia co-operates with Latvia and Lithuania in several trilateral defence co-operation initiatives. As part of Baltic Air Surveillance Network (BALTNET) the three countries manage the common airspace control centre, Baltic Battalion (BALTBAT) has participated in the NATO Response Force, and a joint military educational institution Baltic Defence College is located in Tartu.{{cite news|first=Aili |last=Vahtla |url=https://news.err.ee/590917/defense-chiefs-decide-to-move-forward-with-baltic-battalion-project |title=Defense chiefs decide to move forward with Baltic battalion project |publisher=Eesti Rahvusringhääling|date=20 April 2017 |access-date=28 December 2019}} Estonia joined NATO on 29 March 2004.{{cite web |last1=Rang |first1=Adam |title=A letter from 1949 indicates Estonia wanted to be a NATO founding member |url=https://estonianworld.com/security/the-74-year-old-letter-that-indicates-estonia-wanted-to-be-a-nato-founding-member/ |website=Estonian World |date=29 March 2023}} NATO Cooperative Cyber Defence Centre of Excellence was established in Tallinn in 2008.{{cite news|first=Andrew |last=Whyte |url=https://news.err.ee/590917/defense-chiefs-decide-to-move-forward-with-baltic-battalion-project |title=Nine more nations join NATO cyberdefense center |publisher=Eesti Rahvusringhääling|date=5 May 2019 |access-date=29 December 2019}} In response to Russian war in Ukraine, since 2017 a NATO Enhanced Forward Presence battalion battle group has been based in Tapa Army Base.{{cite news|first=Jonathan |last=Marcus |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-40554104 |title=Nato sends 'alive and strong' message from Estonia |publisher=BBC|date=10 July 2017 |access-date=29 December 2019}} Also part of NATO, the Baltic Air Policing deployment has been based in Ämari Air Base since 2014.{{cite news|url=https://eng.lsm.lv/article/society/defense/czechs-and-belgians-take-over-in-latest-baltic-air-police-rotation.a330782/ |title=Czechs and Belgians take over in latest Baltic air police rotation |publisher=LSM|date=3 September 2019 |access-date=29 December 2019}} In the EU, Estonia participates in Nordic Battlegroup and Permanent Structured Cooperation.{{cite web |first=Jan Joel |last=Andresson |url=https://www.iss.europa.eu/content/if-not-now-when-nordic-eu-battlegroup |title=If not now, when? The Nordic EU Battlegroup |publisher=European Union Institute for Security Studies |date=17 February 2015 |access-date=29 December 2019}}{{cite web |url=http://www.kaitseministeerium.ee/en/news/estonia-joins-european-intervention-initiative |title=Estonia joins European Intervention Initiative |publisher=Estonian Ministry of Defence |date=26 June 2018 |access-date=29 December 2019}}

According to the 2024 Global Peace Index, Estonia is the 24th most peaceful country in the world.{{Cite web|url=https://www.economicsandpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/GPI-2024-web.pdf|title=2024 Global Peace Index}} Since 1995, Estonia has participated in numerous international security and peacekeeping missions, including: Afghanistan, Iraq, Lebanon, Kosovo, and Mali.{{cite web|url=http://www.mil.ee/et/operatsioonid/operatsioonid-alates-1995 |title=Operatsioonid alates 1995 |publisher=Estonian Defence Forces |language=et |access-date=28 December 2019}} The peak strength of Estonian deployment in Afghanistan was 289 soldiers in 2009.{{cite news|url=https://www.postimees.ee/1171242/eesti-sodurite-10-aastat-afganistanis-9-surnut-90-haavatut |title=Eesti sõdurite 10 aastat Afganistanis: 9 surnut, 90 haavatut |work=Postimees|date=15 March 2013 |language=et |access-date=28 December 2019}} Eleven Estonian soldiers have been killed in missions of Afghanistan and Iraq.{{cite news|first=Maria-Ann |last=Rohemäe |url=https://www.err.ee/512040/valisoperatsioonidel-on-hukkunud-11-eesti-sodurit |title=Välisoperatsioonidel on hukkunud 11 Eesti sõdurit |publisher=Eesti Rahvusringhääling|date=27 April 2014 |language=et |access-date=28 December 2019}} In addition, up to a hundred Estonian volunteers have joined the Armed Forces of Ukraine during the Russian invasion of Ukraine,Jaanus Piirsalu. [https://www.postimees.ee/7586926/ak-eestlased-ukraina-sojas-tahtsad-kuid-naota-ja-nahtamatud Eestlased Ukraina sõjas – tähtsad, kuid näota ja nähtamatud]. Postimees, 19 August 2022 three of whom have been killed.{{Cite web|url=https://www.err.ee/1609379606/ukrainas-hukkus-kolmas-eesti-vabatahtlik-sodur|title=Ukrainas hukkus kolmas Eesti vabatahtlik sõdur|date=23 June 2024|website=ERR}}

{{Main|Economy of Estonia}}

Estonia is a developed country with an advanced, high-income economy that was among the fastest-growing in the EU since its entry in 2004.{{cite magazine |title= Estonian Economic Miracle: A Model For Developing Countries |magazine= Global Politician | url= http://www.globalpolitician.com/2614-baltic-eu-expansion-estonia | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110628230137/http://www.globalpolitician.com/2614-baltic-eu-expansion-estonia | archive-date= 28 June 2011 |access-date= 5 June 2011 |url-status= dead}} With a GDP (PPP) per capita of $46,385 in 2023, ranked 40th globally by the IMF, Estonia ranks highly in international rankings for education,{{cite web | url= https://www.yahoo.com/news/asian-countries-dominate-science-teaching-criticised-survey-101202488.html | title= Asian countries dominate, science teaching criticised in survey | publisher= Yahoo | access-date= 10 December 2016 | archive-date= 15 August 2020 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200815210528/https://www.yahoo.com/news/asian-countries-dominate-science-teaching-criticised-survey-101202488.html | url-status= dead }}{{Cite news |date=2 December 2019 |title=Pisa rankings: Why Estonian pupils shine in global tests |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/education-50590581}} press freedom,{{cite web |url= https://rsf.org/en/ranking |title= Press Freedom Index 2016 |date= 30 January 2013 |publisher= Reports Without Borders |access-date= 29 May 2016}} digitalisation of public services,{{Cite web |date=24 July 2020 |title=Estonia among top 3 in the UN e-Government Survey 2020 |url=https://e-estonia.com/estonia-top-3-in-un-e-government-survey-2020/ |website=e-Estonia}}{{cite web |last=Harold |first=Theresa |date=October 30, 2017 |title=How A Former Soviet State Became One Of The World's Most Advanced Digital Nations |url=https://www.alphr.com/technology/1007520/how-a-former-soviet-state-became-one-of-the-worlds-most-advanced-digital-nations/ |access-date=November 29, 2021 |work=Alphr}} the prevalence of technology companies,{{Cite web |title=Number of start-ups per capita by country |url=https://2020.stateofeuropeantech.com/chart/746-3309 |website=2020.stateofeuropeantech.com}} and maintains very high rankings in the Human Development Index.{{cite web |title= 2020 Human Development Report|publisher= United Nations Development Programme |year= 2019 |url= http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf |access-date= 15 December 2020}} Free education[http://www.oecd.org/estonia/Education-Policy-Outlook-Country-Profile-Estonia.pdf Estonia] OECD 2016. and the longest paid maternity leave in the OECD{{cite news |url= https://www.economist.com/blogs/graphicdetail/2016/10/daily-chart-10 |title= Which countries are most generous to new parents? |newspaper= The Economist |access-date= 28 October 2016}}. are also distinctive characteristics of modern Estonian social fabric.

Telecommunications, energy, textiles, chemical products, banking, services, food and fishery, timber, shipbuilding, electronics, and transportation are key sectors of the economy.{{cite web|title=DISCOVER BUSINESS AND INVESTMENT OPPORTUNITIES IN ESTONIA!|url=http://www.estonianexport.ee/?page=b4&lang=eng|work=Estonian Export Directory|access-date=2 July 2013|archive-date=21 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120121064237/http://www.estonianexport.ee/?page=b4&lang=eng|url-status=dead}} Historically, the locally mined oil shale was the main source of energy, contributing over 85% of energy production in early 2010s,{{cite web |url=https://valitsus.ee/UserFiles/valitsus/et/valitsus/arengukavad/keskkonnaministeerium/Põlevkivi%20kasutamise%20riikliku%20arengukava%20täitmise%20aruanne%202011.pdf |title="Põlevkivi kasutamise riikliku arengukava 2008–2015" 2011. a täitmise aruanne |publisher=Valitsus.ee |date=6 September 2012 |access-date=16 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508121023/https://valitsus.ee/UserFiles/valitsus/et/valitsus/arengukavad/keskkonnaministeerium/P%C3%B5levkivi%20kasutamise%20riikliku%20arengukava%20t%C3%A4itmise%20aruanne%202011.pdf |archive-date=8 May 2013 |url-status=dead }} with renewable sources like wood, peat, and biomass accounting for the remaining part of primary energy production. The share of wind energy, comprising only 6% of energy consumption in 2009,[http://www.stat.ee/34167 "Energy Effectiveness, Yearly"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171128212459/http://www.stat.ee/34167 |date=28 November 2017 }} 22 September 2010 (Estonian) has been rapidly growing in recent years.

The 2008 financial crisis impacted Estonia with an initial contraction of GDP, which led to governmental budget adjustments to stabilise the economy. By 2010, the economy began to recover driven by exports, and annual industrial output increased by over 20%.{{cite web |url=http://www.stat.ee/pohinaitajad |title=Eesti Statistika – Enim nõutud statistika |publisher=Stat.ee |date=23 March 2010 |access-date=5 June 2011 |archive-date=14 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171114194049/https://www.stat.ee/pohinaitajad |url-status=dead }} Real GDP growth in 2011 reached 8%, and in 2012, Estonia was the only eurozone country with a budget surplus, with national debt at 6%, among the lowest in EU. Despite economic disparities between regions – over half of the GDP is generated in the capital city Tallinn – the country has continued to perform well, including a notable first-place ranking in the Environmental Performance Index in 2024.{{Cite web |title=2024 Environmental Performance Index |url=https://epi.yale.edu/measure/2024/EPI |access-date=2024-10-10 |website=Environmental Performance Index |language=en}}

Estonia's economy continues to benefit from a transparent government and policies that sustain a high level of economic freedom, ranking 6th globally and 2nd in Europe.{{cite web |url=http://www.heritage.org/index/ranking/ |title=Country Rankings: World & Global Economy Rankings on Economic Freedom |publisher=Heritage.org |date=13 January 2017 |access-date=23 July 2017 |archive-date=16 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170916153902/http://www.heritage.org/index/ranking/ |url-status=unfit }}{{cite web |url=http://www.transparency.org/news/feature/corruption_perceptions_index_2016 |title=Corruption Perceptions Index 2016 – Transparency International |publisher=Transparency.org |date=25 January 2017 |access-date=23 July 2017 |archive-date=30 January 2017 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20170130045244/http://www.transparency.org/news/feature/corruption_perceptions_index_2016 |url-status=dead }} The rule of law remains strongly buttressed and enforced by an independent and efficient judicial system. A simplified tax system with flat rates and low indirect taxation, openness to foreign investment, and a liberal trade regime have supported the resilient and well-functioning economy.{{cite web|url=http://taxfoundation.org/article/2015-international-tax-competitiveness-index|title=2015 International Tax Competitiveness Index|date=28 September 2015|publisher=Taxfoundation.org|access-date=23 July 2017|archive-date=25 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161125001702/http://taxfoundation.org/article/2015-international-tax-competitiveness-index|url-status=dead}} {{As of|2018|May}}, the Ease of Doing Business Index by the World Bank Group places the country 16th in the world.{{cite web |url=http://www.doingbusiness.org/rankings |title=Rankings & Ease of Doing Business Score |website=Doing Business |publisher=The World Bank |access-date=25 January 2019}} The strong focus on the IT sector through its e-Estonia programme has led to much faster, simpler and efficient public services where for example filing a tax return takes less than five minutes and 98% of banking transactions are conducted through the internet.{{cite web|url=http://neweuropeaneconomy.com/fdi/digital-economy-estonia/ |title=Digital Economy Estonia: From IT tiger to the World's Most Pre-eminent e-state |date=23 May 2016 |publisher=New European Economy |access-date=23 July 2017}}{{cite web |date=June 2015 |url=http://treasurytoday.com/2015/06/estonia-a-digital-economy-ttcyf |title=Estonia: a digital economy |publisher=Treasury Today |access-date=23 July 2017 |archive-date=8 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808034930/http://treasurytoday.com/2015/06/estonia-a-digital-economy-ttcyf |url-status=dead }} Estonia has the 13th lowest business bribery risk in the world, according to TRACE Matrix.{{cite web|url=https://www.traceinternational.org/trace-matrix |title=Trace Matrix |publisher=Traceminternational.org |access-date=19 August 2021}}

After restoring independence, in the 1990s, Estonia eagerly pursued economic reform and reintegration with other Western democracies.{{Cite web |title=30 years of monetary reform in Estonia: Lessons learned for the decade ahead |url=https://www.bundesbank.de/en/press/speeches/30-years-of-monetary-reform-in-estonia-lessons-learned-for-the-decade-ahead-893014 |access-date=2023-08-11 |website=www.bundesbank.de |language=en}} In 1994, applying the economic theories of Milton Friedman, Estonia became one of the first countries to adopt a flat tax, with a uniform rate of 26% regardless of personal income. This rate has since been reduced several times, e.g., to 24% in 2005, 23% in 2006, and to 21% in 2008.[http://www.fin.ee/personal-income-tax Personal Income Tax] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102031341/http://www.fin.ee/personal-income-tax |date=2 November 2013}}, Estonian Ministry of Finance The Government of Estonia adopted the euro as the country's currency on 1 January 2011, later than planned due to then continued high inflation.{{cite news|url=http://www.estonianfreepress.com/2009/03/estonia-gets-closer-to-the-euro/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710203542/http://www.estonianfreepress.com/2009/03/estonia-gets-closer-to-the-euro/ |archive-date=10 July 2011 |newspaper=Estonian Free Press |title=Estonia Gets Closer to the Euro |last=Angioni |first=Giovanni |date=31 March 2009 |access-date=22 November 2009 |url-status=dead }}

File:Johannes Pääsuke 214 312.jpg

File:Tallinn asv2022-04 img16 Vanasadam Tallink.jpg connect Estonia to neighbouring Finland and Sweden (Tallinn, 2022).]]

The primary modes of transportation in Estonia include road, rail, maritime, and air transport, each contributing significantly to the economy and accessibility of the region. Port of Tallinn is one of the largest maritime enterprises in the Baltic Sea, catering to both cargo and passenger traffic. Among the facilities is the ice-free port of Muuga, located near Tallinn, which boasts modern transhipment capabilities, a high-capacity grain elevator, chill and frozen storage, and enhanced oil tanker offloading facilities.{{Cite web |title=Muuga Harbour |url=https://www.ts.ee/en/muuga-harbour/ |access-date=2023-08-11 |website=Tallinna Sadam |language=en-US}} Estonian shipping company Tallink operates a fleet of Baltic Sea cruiseferries and ropax ships. Tallink is the largest passenger and cargo shipping operator in the Baltic Sea, with routes connecting Estonia to Finland and Sweden. The ferry lines to Estonian islands are operated by TS Laevad and Kihnu Veeteed.{{Cite web|url=https://www.err.ee/1609300836/suursaarte-praamiuhenduses-ilmselt-olulisi-muutusi-ei-tule|title=Suursaarte praamiühenduses ilmselt olulisi muutusi ei tule|first=Huko Aaspõllu |last=ERR|date=2 April 2024|website=ERR}}

Estonia's railway network, primarily operated by the state-owned Eesti Raudtee, encompasses over 2,000 km, including the {{convert|209.6|km|abbr=on}} Tallinn–Narva line, which also serves as a link to St. Petersburg.{{Cite web|url=https://www.mkm.ee/raudtee|title=Raudtee | Majandus- ja Kommunikatsiooniministeerium|website=www.mkm.ee}} Most of Estonia's original narrow-gauge railways were dismantled during the Soviet occupation, however, the narrow-gauge tram lines in Tallinn are in service to this day. The country now primarily operates on 5 ft and 1520 mm gauge railways. Since 2017, a major infrastructure project Rail Baltica has been in process in order to integrate Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania to the European standard gauge railway system.{{cite web |url=http://www.railbaltica.org/about-rail-baltica/ |title=About Rail Baltica |publisher=Rail Baltica |access-date=7 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180312171052/http://www.railbaltica.org/about-rail-baltica/ |archive-date=12 March 2018 }}

Highways in Estonia are extensive, with 16,982 km of state-managed roads, including 12,716 km of paved surfaces, ensuring reliable transport across the country.{{Cite web|url=https://www.transpordiamet.ee/eesti-teedevork|title=Eesti teedevõrk | Transpordiamet|website=www.transpordiamet.ee}} Major motorways such as the Road 1 (E20), Road 2 (E263), and Road 4 (E67), are essential for both local and international travel. Estonia has a high rate of car ownership, with most households owning at least one vehicle, and nearly half owning two.{{Cite web|url=https://www.if.ee/ifist/pressiruum/2022/uuring-eesti-inimestel-on-erakordselt-palju-autosid|title=Uuring: Eesti inimestel on erakordselt palju autosid | If.ee|website=www.if.ee}}

The Tallinn Airport is the largest in Estonia and serves as a secondary hub for AirBaltic{{cite news |title=Latvian airBaltic becomes number one airline in Estonia |url=http://estonianworld.com/business/airbaltic-becomes-number-one-airline-in-estonia/ |work=Estonian World |date=4 May 2016 |access-date=6 May 2016}} and LOT Polish Airlines.{{cite news |first=Siiri |last=Liiva |url=http://majandus24.postimees.ee/3915711/nordica-lennukipark-taeieneb-ajutiselt-uehe-loti-lennukiga |title=Nordica lennukipark täieneb ajutiselt ühe LOTi lennukiga |newspaper=Postimees Majandus |publisher=Postimees |date=18 November 2016 |access-date=19 November 2016 |language=et}} Other airports with regular passenger flights are located in Tartu, Pärnu, Kuressaare, and Kärdla.

Estonia is relatively rich in natural resources, although many are not found in economically viable quantities or face technical and environmental challenges that hinder their extraction. The country has large oil shale and limestone deposits. In addition, Estonia also has large reserves of phosphorite, pitchblende, and granite that currently are not mined, or not mined extensively.{{cite web |url=http://www.ut.ee/BGGM/maavara/dityoneema.html |title=Uranium production at Sillamäe |publisher=Ut.ee |access-date=2 June 2010 |archive-date=4 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150104181758/http://www.ut.ee/BGGM/maavara/dityoneema.html |url-status=dead }} The underground resources may include gold, molybdenum, platinum, vanadium, and strontium. Future potential resources are thought to include diatomaceous earth and uranium. There are also indications of oil near Hiiumaa and natural gas reserves in north Estonia. Currently, the most significant resources being exploited in Estonia are oil shale and phosphorite, along with natural building materials such as sand, gravel, limestone, and clay.{{Cite web|url=https://kliimaministeerium.ee/maavarad|title=Maavarad | Kliimaministeerium|website=kliimaministeerium.ee}}

As of 2013, the oil shale industry in Estonia was among the most developed globally,{{Cite book |title=Estonia 2013 |series=Energy Policies Beyond IEA Countries |author=IEA |author-link=International Energy Agency |year=2013 |location=Paris |publisher=IEA |doi=10.1787/9789264190801-en |isbn=978-92-6419079-5 |issn=2307-0897 |page=20}} supplying approximately 70% of the country's total primary energy needs and contributing about 4% to the GDP in 2012.

{{cite web

|url = http://www.riigikontroll.ee/DesktopModules/DigiDetail/FileDownloader.aspx?AuditId=2314&FileId=13239

|title = Actions of the state in directing the use of oil shale. Does the state guarantee that oil shale reserves are used sustainably? Report of the National Audit Office to the Riigikogu

|publisher = National Audit Office of Estonia

|date = 19 November 2014

|pages = 7–14; 29

|access-date = 7 January 2015

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181213120049/https://www.riigikontroll.ee/DesktopModules/DigiDetail/FileDownloader.aspx?AuditId=2314&FileId=13239

|archive-date = 13 December 2018

|url-status = live

}}

{{Cite book |title=Estonia 2013 |series=Energy Policies Beyond IEA Countries |author=IEA |author-link=International Energy Agency |year=2013 |location=Paris |publisher=IEA |doi=10.1787/9789264190801-en |isbn=978-92-6419079-5 |issn=2307-0897 |page=7}} Additionally, significant quantities of rare-earth oxides are found in the tailings from over 50 years of uranium ore, shale and loparite mining at Sillamäe.{{cite book |title=Turning a Problem into a Resource: Remediation and Waste Management at the Sillamäe Site, Estonia |last1=Rofer |first1=Cheryl K. |first2=Tõnis |last2=Kaasik |series=Volume 28 of NATO science series: Disarmament technologies |year=2000 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-7923-6187-9 |page=229}} The rising global prices for rare earth elements have made the extraction of these oxides economically viable, with Estonia currently exporting around 3,000 tonnes annually, accounting for approximately 2% of global production.{{cite news |title=Estonia's rare earth break China's market grip |first=Anneli |last=Reigas |agency=Agence France-Presse |date=1 December 2010 |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5itXbI57zv-lwfcaFdBdh7UZXuVuA?docId=CNG.a00f68010092a06189a0276c763e93a4.141 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120513001130/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5itXbI57zv-lwfcaFdBdh7UZXuVuA?docId=CNG.a00f68010092a06189a0276c763e93a4.141 |url-status=dead |archive-date=13 May 2012 |access-date=1 December 2010}}

The energy sector in Estonia has since the 1920s been dominated by the oil shale industry. However, the production of electricity from oil shale has declined since the 1990s.{{cite web |url=https://majandus.postimees.ee/7300789/polevkivist-elektri-tootmine-on-30-aastaga-kahanenud-81-9-protsenti|title=Põlevkivist elektri tootmine on 30 aastaga kahanenud 81,9 protsenti|date=25 July 2021 |language=et |publisher=Postimees}} The oil shale industry, concentrated in Ida-Viru County, produces around 73% of the entire country's electricity.{{Cite web |date=2022-08-28 |title=Energy emergency revives Estonia's polluting oil shale industry |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/energy-emergency-revives-estonias-polluting-oil-shale-industry/ |access-date=2023-08-11 |website=POLITICO |language=en}} In recent years, however, there has been a significant growth in renewable energy generation, alongside ongoing discussions regarding the potential future use of nuclear energy. The largest producer of electricity and thermal energy in Estonia is the state-owned company Eesti Energia. Oil shale remains the primary energy source in Estonia, primarily utilised for electricity generation and heating, particularly in Narva. In addition to electricity, Estonia has been increasingly producing oil from this resource, with production volumes steadily rising. Other energy sources include peat, firewood, hydroelectric and wind energy, solar panels, and imported natural and liquefied gas, as well as coal.{{Cite web|url=https://elering.ee/elektrituru-kasiraamat/3-eesti-elektrisusteem/32-tootmine/321-elektritootmiseks-kasutatavad|title=3.2.1 Elektritootmiseks kasutatavad tootmisliigid Eestis ja Läänemere regioonis | Elering|website=elering.ee}}

File:Elektrituulikud.jpg]]

Estonia enjoys one of the lowest dependencies on energy imports within the EU. This is largely due to the high share of domestic energy sources, including oil shale and an increasing proportion of renewable energy, such as biomass, wind, solar power, and improved energy efficiency in production, transmission, and consumption. The diversity of suppliers for electricity, gas, liquid fuels, and solid fuels has contributed to competitive, market-based energy prices for consumers.{{Cite web|url=https://kliimaministeerium.ee/sites/default/files/documents/2024-06/Energeetika%20tulemusvaldkonna%202023.a.%20aruanne.pdf|title=Energeetika tulemusvaldkonna 2023. aasta tulemusaruanne}} In a notable policy shift, Estonia has prohibited the import of pipeline gas from Russia as of 2023. This follows a decade during which Russian gas accounted for 100% of the country's consumption. As of 2023, Estonia's gas consumption was recorded at 3.42 TWh, supported by a strategic gas reserve of 1 TWh located in the Inčukalns underground gas storage facility in Latvia, equating to approximately 29% of the country's average annual gas needs. There has also been increased investment in renewable energy sources,{{Cite web |last=Kütt |first=Ave |date=2022-10-28 |title=Estonia to use 100% renewable energy by 2030 |url=https://investinestonia.com/estonia-to-use-100-renewable-energy-by-2030/ |access-date=2023-08-11 |website=Invest in Estonia |language=en-US}}{{Cite web |title=The EBRD invests in renewable energy developer Sunly in Estonia |url=https://www.ebrd.com/news/2023/the-ebrd-invests-in-renewable-energy-developer-sunly-in-estonia.html |access-date=2023-08-11 |website=www.ebrd.com |language=en}}{{Cite web |last=Howey |first=William |date=2023-05-26 |title=Baltic states ramp up investment in energy sector |url=https://www.eiu.com/n/baltic-states-ramp-up-investment-in-energy-sector/ |access-date=2023-08-11 |website=Economist Intelligence Unit |language=en-GB}} with wind power steadily expanding; current production is nearly 60 MW, with an additional 399 MW of projects underway and over 2,800 MW proposed in areas such as Lake Peipus and the coastal regions of Hiiumaa.{{cite web|url=http://www.tuuleenergia.ee/?path=0x139x173 |title=Estonian Wind Power Association |publisher=Tuuleenergia.ee |access-date=2 June 2010}}[http://wwx.postimees.ee/211007/esileht/majandus/290763.php Peipsile võib kerkida mitusada tuulikut], Postimees. 21 October 2007 (in Estonian) {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130822013819/http://wwx.postimees.ee/211007/esileht/majandus/290763.php |date=22 August 2013}}Henrik Ilves [http://arileht.delfi.ee/news/uudised/tuule-puudmine-on-saanud-eesti-kullapalavikuks.d?id=51133036 Tuule püüdmine on saanud Eesti kullapalavikuks] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102082217/http://arileht.delfi.ee/news/uudised/tuule-puudmine-on-saanud-eesti-kullapalavikuks.d?id=51133036 |date=2 November 2013 }}, Eesti Päevaleht. 13 June 2008 (in Estonian) Plans to renovate older units of the Narva Power Plants and establish new stations aim to enhance efficiency in oil shale-based energy production.{{cite web |url=http://enrin.grida.no/htmls/estonia/env2001/content/soe/air_2-3.htm |title=State Environment in Estonia |publisher=Enrin.grida.no |access-date=2 June 2010 |archive-date=14 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514153806/http://enrin.grida.no/htmls/estonia/env2001/content/soe/air_2-3.htm |url-status=dead }} While Estonia, along with Lithuania, Poland, and Latvia, considered participating in the construction of the Visaginas nuclear power plant in Lithuania,{{cite news

|url = http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/NN_Visaginas_recognised_with_nuclear_site_name_3007082.html

|title = Visaginas recognised with nuclear site name

|publisher = World Nuclear News

|date=30 July 2008

|access-date=31 July 2008}}

{{cite web

|url=http://www.lpc.lt/en/main/news/press?ID=469

|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722151647/http://www.lpc.lt/en/main/news/press?ID=469

|archive-date=22 July 2011

|title=Nuclear Power Plant Project in Lithuania is Feasible. Press release

|date=25 October 2006

|publisher=Lietuvos Energija

|access-date=13 July 2007

|url-status=dead

}}

the project faced delays and challenges, prompting Eesti Energia to shift its focus to shale oil production, viewed as more profitable.{{cite web |url=http://news.err.ee/v/economy/876c4997-500b-4adc-aeab-eb2e8c0dbcb7|date=24 November 2014 |title= Liive: Eesti Energia ditched nuclear plant plans for shale oil |publisher=ERR |access-date=24 February 2015}} The Estonian electricity market was liberalised in 2013,{{cite web|url=http://www.evi.ee/lib/Security.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325013625/http://www.evi.ee/lib/Security.pdf |archive-date=25 March 2009 |title=Developing Estonian energy policy hand in hand with EU energy packages|access-date=18 August 2010 |url-status=dead }} integrating into the Nord Pool Spot network.{{cite web|title=Nord Pool|url=http://www.nordpoolspot.com/|access-date=23 July 2017|publisher=Nordpoolspot.com}}

Historically, Estonia has been the northernmost country that can grow grain for export.Mati Laur, Tõnu Tannberg, Helmut Piirimäe. Eesti ajalugu IV. Põhjasõjast pärisorjuse kaotamiseni. 2003. p. 168

In the 1990s, agricultural significance in the economy declined sharply as large Soviet-era collective farms were dismantled and privatised. In recent years, large enterprises have once again become dominant, while smaller farms focus on niche markets, organic farming, and rural tourism. Recent years have seen an increase in Estonia's cultivated land, with approximately 1.05 million hectares of arable land and 0.24 million hectares of natural grasslands recorded by 2019.{{Cite web|url=https://www.agri.ee/sites/default/files/content/ylevaated/ulevaade-pokat-2019-02.pdf|title=Põllumajanduse, kalanduse ja toiduainetööstuse ülevaade 2019}}[https://www.err.ee/1609392091/kartuli-kasvupind-on-eestis-vaiksem-kui-kunagi-varem "Kartuli kasvupind on Eestis väiksem kui kunagi varem"], ERR, 09.07.2024 Estonia has one of the largest average farm sizes within the EU at 62 hectares per farm, with around 78% of farmland owned by entities managing at least 100 hectares – far above the EU average of 49% for this ownership category.Algandmed Eurostati andmebaasist, tabel "Main farm land use by NUTS 2 regions", andmed 2016. a kohta, vaadatud 2.11.2020. Estonia ranks second in Europe, following Austria, in the proportion of farmland under organic cultivation.{{Cite web|url=https://estonianworld.com/business/almost-a-quarter-of-estonias-agricultural-land-animal-production-is-organic/|title=Almost a quarter of Estonia's agricultural land, animal production is organic|date=3 June 2023}}

About 95% of the fish caught in Estonia's waters comes from the Baltic Sea, with the remainder sourced from inland waters. Distance fishing is also practiced. The Baltic Sea fisheries distinguish between migratory species, such as sprat, herring, cod, and salmon, which are subject to EU quotas, and local species, such as perch and pike, which are managed domestically. Despite stringent regulations, Estonian fish stocks face significant challenges, including habitat loss, overfishing, and decreased spawning areas. In response, Estonia has introduced conservation initiatives to protect vulnerable fish species and enhance breeding programmes.{{Cite web|url=https://www.kaluriteliit.ee/kalandus/|title=Kalandussektorist}}

The forestry sector is a significant contributor to Estonian economy. The Estonian government aims to establish sustainable annual harvest levels that align with EU climate objectives, while the industry pushes for higher harvest quotas to ensure profitability and job security. Conversely, conservationists advocate for reduced logging to safeguard biodiversity and fulfill climate commitments. Currently, the government maintains a harvest threshold of at least 9.5 million m³ to balance economic impacts and environmental goals. However, inventories indicate serious over-harvesting, leading to intensified debates about how to sustain the timber industry while protecting Estonia's rich biodiversity.{{Cite web|url=https://www.postimees.ee/7400676/metsanduse-arengukava-metsatoostus-peab-jarele-andma|title=Metsanduse arengukava: metsatööstus peab järele andma|date=4 December 2021|website=Postimees}} Since at least 2009, logging has increased significantly across both private and protected lands, including national parks.{{Cite web |last=Millington |first=David |date=2022-04-11 |title=The war on Estonian forests |url=https://estonianworld.com/life/the-war-on-estonian-forests/ |access-date=2023-05-31 |website=Estonian World |language=en-GB}} While Estonia's logging practices need to be reduced to enhance biodiversity and achieve carbon sequestration goals, the sector continues to expand; in 2022, the state forestry agency RMK reported a record profit of 1.4 billion euros.{{Cite web |last=ERR |first=Marko Tooming {{!}} |date=2023-03-20 |title=RMK 2022 profit €153 million |url=https://news.err.ee/1608920819/rmk-2022-profit-153-million |access-date=2023-05-31 |website=ERR |language=en}}

Industry is the backbone of Estonia's economy. The manufacturing sector is the largest segment of industry, accounting for over 15% of the GDP. This sector provides employment for around one-fifth of the workforce, equating to about 120,000 individuals. Additionally, the export turnover of industrial enterprises typically represents around two-thirds of Estonia's total export volume.[https://mkm.ee/toostus Tööstus] mkm.ee Food, construction, and electronic industries are currently among the most important branches of Estonia's industry.{{Cite web |date=2019-07-02 |title=What Are The Biggest Industries In Estonia? |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-are-the-biggest-industries-in-estonia.html |access-date=2023-08-11 |website=WorldAtlas |language=en-US}} Key branches within Estonia's industry include food production, construction, and electronics, with the construction industry alone employing over 80,000 people in 2007, roughly 12% of the total workforce.{{cite web|url=http://www.investinestonia.com/index.php?option=displaypage&Itemid=118&op=page&SubMenu= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071021094336/http://www.investinestonia.com/index.php?option=displaypage&Itemid=118&op=page&SubMenu= |archive-date=21 October 2007 |title=Invest in Estonia: Overview of the Construction industry in Estonia |access-date=2 June 2010 |url-status=dead }} The machinery and chemical industries are also significant, primarily concentrated in Ida-Viru County and around Tallinn.

The Estonian manufacturing sector comprises 7,981 enterprises, representing 8% of all businesses in the country. This sector employs over 107,000 individuals, accounting for 22% of all employed persons in Estonia. In 2020, the total profit margin for manufacturing companies was 4.9%. A significant portion of the sector consists of micro-enterprises, with 78% of manufacturing firms employing fewer than 10 workers, while only 3% of companies have more than 100 employees (totaling 215 firms). Approximately 17% of manufacturing enterprises report sales revenues exceeding 1 million euros, and exports contribute to 52% of the sector's total sales revenue.{{Cite web|url=https://www.stat.ee/|title=Avaleht | Statistikaamet|website=stat.ee}} The most significant branch of the manufacturing sector is machinery production, which accounts for approximately 25% of total output. Other key industries include wood and paper production (20%), food processing (15%), chemical production (10%), metalworking (13%), and light industry, which constitutes less than 5% of the total output. In 2018, Estonia's exported goods amounted to €10.4 billion, representing 72% of the country's total merchandise exports. The manufacturing sector employed around 124,000 individuals and contributed 15.4% to Estonia's GDP, with 20% of the GDP growth that year stemming from this sector.[https://web.archive.org/web/20200703043802/http://www.estonica.org/et/Majandus/Eesti_majandusest_%C3%BCldiselt/T%C3%B6%C3%B6tlev_t%C3%B6%C3%B6stus/ "Töötlev tööstus"], Estonica[https://web.archive.org/web/20220331092856/https://ekspordikonverents.ee/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/T%C3%B6%C3%B6stusettev%C3%B5tete-uuring-2019.pdf Tööstusettevõtete uuring 2019], 3 April 2019

In terms of value added, the manufacturing sector's share of the Estonian economy is slightly below the EU average (at 15%). However, Estonia has one of the highest proportions of employment in manufacturing among EU countries, with nearly one-fifth of the workforce engaged in this sector. Manufacturing is the largest employer in Estonia, with significant job creation occurring in 2019, particularly in the production of electrical equipment and the repair and installation of machinery and equipment. The wood industry saw the highest growth in production volume during that year. The major industrial sectors by employment are wood processing, food production, and metalworking. The sector is heavily reliant on external markets, with over 60% of its output being exported. Key export markets include Finland and Sweden, which also account for more than 60% of foreign direct investments in Estonia's manufacturing industry.{{Cite web|url=https://www.mkm.ee/sites/default/files/majandusulevaade_2019.pdf|title=Wayback Machine|website=www.mkm.ee}}

In the 2000s, there was a notable shift in Estonia's economic structure, with the services sector's contribution to GDP increasing while agriculture and industry saw a decline in their share. Currently, services account for 68.1% of Estonia's GDP and employ 76.8% of the workforce. Despite its growth, certain service-related sectors often offer some of the lowest wages in the economy. For instance, jobs in personal services, such as hairdressing and other beauty services, as well as in the repair of household goods, reported an average gross monthly salary of €617, which is nearly three times lower than salaries in the IT sector.Eesti Statistika. "Eesti Statistika Kvartalikiri. 2/2017", Tallinn, 2017.

{{See also|Space science in Estonia}}

Estonia is a member of the international scientific organisations CERN,{{Cite web |url=https://cerncourier.com/a/estonia-becomes-24th-member-state/ |title=Estonia becomes 24th Member State |website=CERN Courier |date=16 September 2024 }} ESA,{{cite web|url=http://www.eas.ee/kosmos/en/estonian-space-office/news/article/460-estonia-is-full-member-of-esa-from-1-of-september-2015 |title=Estonia is a full member of ESA starting from 1st of September 2015 | Estonian Space Office |website=Eas.ee |access-date=2016-02-11}} Euratom and UNESCO. The Estonian Academy of Sciences is the national academy of science. The strongest public non-profit research institute that carries out fundamental and applied research is the National Institute of Chemical Physics and Biophysics. {{As of|2015}}, Estonia spends around 1.5% of its GDP on Research and Development, compared to an EU average of around 2.0%.{{cite web|title=Research and development expenditure (% of GDP)|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/GB.XPD.RSDV.GD.ZS?end=2015&locations=EE&name_desc=false&start=1998&view=chart|year=2015|publisher=World Bank|access-date=19 January 2019}}

File:ESTCube orbiidil 2.jpg was the first Estonian satellite.]]

Estonia has established a strong information technology sector, a development partly attributed to the Tiigrihüpe project initiated in the mid-1990s. The country is often cited as one of the most "wired" and advanced in Europe concerning e-government initiatives.[https://www.wired.com/politics/security/magazine/15-09/ff_estonia Hackers Take Down the Most Wired Country in Europe], August 2007 The e-residency programme, launched in 2014, extended various digital services to non-residents. Notable tech startups include Skype,{{cite web|url=https://infocus.credit-suisse.com/app/article/index.cfm?fuseaction=OpenArticle&aoid=163167&coid=7805&lang=EN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207073839/https://infocus.credit-suisse.com/app/article/index.cfm?fuseaction=OpenArticle&aoid=163167&coid=7805&lang=EN|url-status=dead|archive-date=7 February 2012|date=6 September 2006|first=Andreas|last=Thomann|title=Skype – A Baltic Success Story|publisher=credit-suisse.com|access-date=24 February 2008}} Bolt, GrabCAD, Fortumo and Wise. The country reportedly holds the highest startup-per-person ratio globally, with 1,291 startups as of January 2022, including seven unicorn companies, translating to nearly one startup for every 1,000 Estonians.{{cite news|date=11 July 2013|title=Not only Skype|newspaper=The Economist|url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/schumpeter/2013/07/estonias-technology-cluster|access-date=24 February 2015}}{{Cite web|title=Estonian Startup Database|url=https://startupestonia.ee/startup-database|access-date=2022-01-11|website=Startup Estonia|language=en}}{{Cite web|date=2022-01-07|title=The Estonia-Singapore tech corridor: A conversation with Priit Turk, Estonian ambassador to Singapore|url=https://kr-asia.com/the-estonia-singapore-tech-corridor-a-conversation-with-priit-turk-estonian-ambassador-to-singapore|access-date=2022-01-11|website=KrASIA|language=en}}

Space science in Estonia is anchored by the Tartu Observatory. Since the 2000s, Estonia has re-engaged with the space sector, signing a cooperation treaty with the European Space Agency in 2007 and officially joining in 2015, leading to collaborative projects such as the Gaia mission and the successful launches of research satellites ESTCube-1 in 2013 and ESTCube-2 in 2023.

Estonia is the first state to sponsor personal genetic testing services in order to minimise, and prevent, genetically caused health problems, e.g., adult-onset diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. The government also plans to provide lifestyle advice in a pilot project based on the DNA data of 100,000 Estonians.{{Cite news|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2165318-estonia-to-give-genetic-testing-and-advice-to-100000-residents/|title=Estonia to give genetic testing and advice to 100,000 residents|work=New Scientist|access-date=3 April 2018}}

File:Eesti rahvaarv 1960-2019.png

Major changes in the demographics of Estonia have taken place after the country restored independence in 1991.{{cite web|url=https://www.baltictimes.com/report__estonia_is_most_westernized_of_former_soviet_union_members/|title=Report: Estonia is most westernised of former Soviet Union members|work=The Baltic Times|date=May 1, 2018|access-date=November 29, 2021}} Some of the more notable changes have taken effect in the level of stratification and distribution of family income. The Gini coefficient has held steadily higher than the EU average (31 in 2009),[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html CIA World Factbook] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100610232357/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html |date=10 June 2010 }}. . Retrieved 7 November 2011 although it has clearly dropped. The registered unemployment rate in 2024 was 7.6%.{{cite web |url=https://www.stat.ee/et/avasta-statistikat/valdkonnad/tooelu/tooturg/tootuse-maar |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200916215536/https://www.stat.ee/et/avasta-statistikat/valdkonnad/tooelu/tooturg/tootuse-maar |url-status=live |archive-date=16 September 2020 |title=Töötuse määr |trans-title=Unemployment rate |publisher=Statistics Estonia |language=Estonian |access-date=20 September 2021 }}

Estonia's population on 1 January 2025 (1,369,285 people) was about 3% higher than in the previous census of 2021. 211 different self-reported ethnic groups are represented in the country's population and 243 different mother tongues are spoken. Census data indicate that Estonia has continued to stand out among European countries for its highly educated population – 43% of the population aged 25–64 have a university education, which puts Estonia in 7th place in Europe (Estonian women rank 3rd).{{cite web |url=http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=PC223&ti=POPULATION+BY+THE+PLACE+OF+RESIDENCE+AND+MOTHER+TONGUE&path=../I_Databas/Population_census/PHC2000/08Ethnic_nationality._Mother_tongue._Command_of_foreign_languages/&lang=1 |title=Population by the place of residence and mother tongue, statistical database: Population Census 2000|date=July 2010|publisher=Statistics Estonia (government agency at the area of administration of the Ministry of Finance)|access-date=19 June 2009}}

More people of different ethnic origin live in Estonia than ever before, but the share of Estonians in the population has remained stable over the three censuses (2000: 68.3%; 2011: 69.8%; 2021: 69.4%). Estonian is spoken by 84% of the population: 67% of people speak it as their mother tongue and 17% as a foreign language. Compared with previous censuses, the proportion of people who speak Estonian has increased (2000: 80%; 2011: 82%), particularly due to people who have learned to speak Estonian as a foreign language (2000: 12%; 2011: 14%). It has been estimated that 76% of Estonia's population can speak a foreign language. As of 2021 census data, English is the most widely spoken foreign language in Estonia (overtaking the top position from Russian). An estimated 17% of the native Estonian-speaking population speak a dialect of Estonian.{{cite web |url=https://rahvaloendus.ee/en/news/results-population-census-have-been-published|title=The results of the 2021 population and housing census have been published|date=December 2022|publisher=Statistics Estonia (government agency at the area of administration of the Ministry of Finance)|access-date=11 May 2024}}

Estonia is generally ethnically homogeneous, with 13 of its 15 counties having over 80% ethnic Estonian populations; the most homogeneous county is Hiiumaa, where 98.4% of residents are ethnic Estonians. However, in Harju County, which includes the capital Tallinn, and Ida-Viru County, the demographic makeup is more diverse due to a significant Russian-speaking minority. Ethnic Estonians make up around 60% of the population in Harju County and only about 20% in Ida-Viru, where the Russian-speaking community forms nearly 70% of residents. This ethnic Russian minority comprises about 24% of Estonia's total population, largely a result of Soviet-era immigration, and exists alongside recent Ukrainian refugees who arrived in 2022, now representing around 6% of the national population.{{Cite web |last=Tambur |first=Silver |date=2022-12-29 |title=Estonia has accepted the largest share of Ukrainian refugees in the EU |url=https://estonianworld.com/life/estonia-has-accepted-the-largest-share-of-ukrainian-refugees-in-the-eu/ |access-date=2023-08-11 |website=Estonian World |language=en-GB}}

Historically, Estonia, as well as Latvia, had a significant Baltic Germans community. In the 12th and 13th centuries, Catholic German traders and crusaders (see {{lang|de|Ostsiedlung|italic=unset}}) began settling in the eastern Baltic territories.{{cite book |last=Christiansen |first=Eric |title=The Northern Crusades: The Baltic and the Catholic Frontier 1100–1525 |date=1980 |location=Minneapolis |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |isbn=9780816609949 |oclc=6092550}} The Baltic Germans, including especially the Baltic German nobility, were the most influential stratum of society, and their presence significantly influenced Estonian culture. German language maintained its leading position until the Russification policy of the tsarist era at the end of the 19th century, and sometimes even longer. The German-speaking population mostly left Estonia in 1939.

File:Ruhnu puukirik.jpg (built in 1644) in the Swedish village of Ruhnu, now the oldest preserved wooden shrine in Estonia]]

Historically, large parts of Estonia's northwestern coast and islands have been populated by the indigenous ethnic group of Estonian Swedes. In recent years, the number of Swedish residents in Estonia has risen again, numbering almost 500 people by 2008, owing to property reforms enacted in the early 1990s. In 2004, the Ingrian Finnish minority in Estonia elected a cultural council and was granted cultural autonomy. The Estonian Swedes minority similarly received cultural autonomy in 2007.{{Cite web|title=National Minorities Cultural Autonomy Act|url=https://www.riigiteataja.ee/en/eli/504042019005/consolide|access-date=2022-04-07|website=Riigi Teataja }} There is also a Roma community of approximately 1,000–1,500.{{cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/social/BlobServlet?docId=8967&langId=en|title=Estonia - Promoting Social Inclusion of Roma |website= European Commission |first1=Mare |last1=Viies |date=July 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231216002737/https://ec.europa.eu/social/BlobServlet?docId=8967&langId=en |archive-date= Dec 16, 2023 }}

{{as of|2010|July|2}}, 84.1% of Estonian residents were citizens of Estonia, 8.6% were citizens of other countries and 7.3% were "citizens with undetermined citizenship".{{cite web|url=http://estonia.eu/about-estonia/society/citizenship.html|title=Citizenship|publisher=Estonia.eu|date=13 July 2010|access-date=18 August 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100827195243/http://estonia.eu/about-estonia/society/citizenship.html|archive-date=27 August 2010}} Estonia has also accepted quota refugees under the migrant plan agreed upon by EU member states in 2015.{{cite news |title=Refugees frustrated and trapped in chilly Baltic states |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-40479224 |work=BBC News |date=4 July 2017}} The 2008 United Nations Human Rights Council report called "extremely credible" the description of the citizenship policy of Estonia as "discriminatory".[http://www.osce.org/odihr/34040?download=true Naturalisation in Estonia Statement by the Legal Information Centre for Human Rights (Tallinn, Estonia)] ([...]the Special Rapporteur considers extremely credible the views of the representatives of the Russian-speaking minorities who expressed that the citizenship policy is discriminatory[...]) Estonian Russians have developed their own identity – more than half of the respondents recognised that Estonian Russians differ noticeably from the Russians in Russia.[http://web-static.vm.ee/static/failid/195/yhiskond.pdf Eesti ühiskond Society] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110902020818/http://web-static.vm.ee/static/failid/195/yhiskond.pdf |date=2 September 2011}}. (2006, PDF in Estonian/English). Retrieved 23 December 2011.

The Estonian Cultural Autonomy law that was passed in 1925 was unique in Europe at that time.{{Cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David James|title=The Baltic States and Their Region: New Europe Or Old? |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bRvH4quutCUC&pg=PA211 |page=211|year=2005|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=978-90-420-1666-8}} Cultural autonomies could be granted to minorities numbering more than 3,000 people with longstanding ties to the Republic of Estonia. The Law on Cultural Autonomy for National Minorities was reinstated in 1993.

{{See also|List of cities and towns in Estonia|Populated places in Estonia}}

According to the Estonian government's regulations established in 2004, populated areas in Estonia are categorised as follows: küla (village), alevik (small town or small borough), alev (town), and linn (city). A küla is typically a sparsely populated area or a densely populated settlement with fewer than 300 permanent residents. An alevik generally has at least 300 permanent residents, while both alev and linn are classified as densely populated areas with at least 1,000 residents. As of 2024, Estonia has 47 cities, 13 towns, 186 small towns, and 4,457 villages, with Tallinn being the capital and largest city, located on the northern coast along the Gulf of Finland.{{Cite web|url=https://www.agri.ee/regionaalareng-planeeringud/kohalikud-omavalitsused/asustusjaotus|title=Asustusjaotus | Regionaal- ja Põllumajandusministeerium|website=www.agri.ee}}

In the 21st century, Estonia has continued to experience urbanisation, as more people have moved to the capital Tallinn, Tartu and other cities. However, the last decade has also witnessed the emergence of new residential areas near urban centres, indicating a shift in living preferences. More than 70% of Estonia's population now reside in cities.{{Cite web|url=https://www.stat.ee/et/uudised/linnastumisest-valglinnastumisest-ja-vastulinnastumisest-kolme-viimase-rahvaloenduse-naitel|title=Linnastumisest, valglinnastumisest ja vastulinnastumisest kolme viimase rahvaloenduse näitel | Statistikaamet|website=stat.ee}} The population density in Estonia averages around 30.6 people per square km, with significant regional variations. The lowest density is found on Hiiumaa at 10.2 people per square km, while Harju County, which includes Tallinn, has the highest density at 121.3 people per square km.{{Cite web|url=https://rahvaloendus.ee/et/uudised/tutvu-rahvastiku-paiknemisega-eesti-kaardil|title=Tutvu rahvastiku paiknemisega Eesti kaardil | Statistikaamet|website=rahvaloendus.ee}}

{{Largest cities

| kind = cities and towns

| country = Estonia

| stat_ref = 2024{{cite web | title=RV068: POPULATION BY CITIZENSHIP AND PLACE OF RESIDENCE, 1 JANUARY | website=PxWeb | url=https://andmed.stat.ee/en/stat/rahvastik__rahvastikunaitajad-ja-koosseis__rahvaarv-ja-rahvastiku-koosseis/RV068 | access-date=30 January 2024}}

| list_by_pop = Demographics of Estonia

| div_name =

| div_link = Counties of Estonia{{!}}County

| city_1 = Tallinn | div_1 = Harju County{{!}}Harju | pop_1 = 457,572 |

| city_2 = Tartu | div_2 = Tartu County{{!}}Tartu | pop_2 = 97,759 |

| city_3 = Narva | div_3 = Ida-Viru County{{!}}Ida-Viru | pop_3 = 53,360 |

| city_4 = Pärnu | div_4 = Pärnu County{{!}}Pärnu | pop_4 = 41,520 |

| city_5 = Kohtla-Järve | div_5 = Ida-Viru County{{!}}Ida-Viru | pop_5 = 33,434

| city_6 = Viljandi | div_6 = Viljandi County{{!}}Viljandi | pop_6 = 17,255

| city_7 = Maardu | div_7 = Harju County{{!}}Harju | pop_7 = 17,017

| city_8 = Rakvere | div_8 = Lääne-Viru County{{!}}Lääne-Viru | pop_8 = 15,695

| city_9 = Kuressaare | div_9 = Saare County{{!}}Saare | pop_9 = 13,185

| city_10 = Sillamäe | div_10 = Ida-Viru County{{!}}Ida-Viru | pop_10 = 12,352

| city_11 = Valga, Estonia{{!}}Valga | div_11 = Valga County{{!}}Valga | pop_11 = 12,173

| city_12 = Võru | div_12 = Võru County{{!}}Võru | pop_12 = 12,112

| city_13 = Keila | div_13 = Harju County{{!}}Harju | pop_13 = 10,964

| city_14 = Jõhvi | div_14 = Ida-Viru County{{!}}Ida-Viru | pop_14 = 10,880

| city_15 = Haapsalu | div_15 = Lääne County{{!}}Lääne | pop_15 = 9,693

| city_16 = Paide | div_16 = Järva County{{!}}Järva | pop_16 = 8,073

| city_17 = Saue | div_17 = Harju County{{!}}Harju | pop_17 = 6,227

| city_18 = Elva, Estonia{{!}}Elva | div_18 = Tartu County{{!}}Tartu | pop_18 = 5,692

| city_19 = Põlva | div_19 = Põlva County{{!}}Põlva | pop_19 = 5,498

| city_20 = Tapa, Estonia{{!}}Tapa | div_20 = Lääne-Viru County{{!}}Lääne-Viru | pop_20 = 5,492

}}

{{Main|Religion in Estonia}}

File:St Olaf's church, Tallinn, July 2008.jpg, built in 12th century as Catholic, after Reformation turned Lutheran, since 1950 home to a congregation of Baptists]]

File:Saare küla Piirissaar.JPG Old Believer village with an Orthodox church in Piirissaar, an island of Lake Peipus]]

Estonia's constitution guarantees freedom of religion, separation of church and state, and individual rights to privacy of belief and religion.Constitution of Estonia#Chapter 2: Fundamental Rights, Liberties, and Duties Article 40.–42. Estonia is one of the least religious countries in the world, with majority of the population claiming to be irreligious.{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_225_report_en.pdf |title=Social Values|access-date=5 June 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060524004644/http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_225_report_en.pdf |archive-date=24 May 2006 }}{{cite web|last1=Crabtree|first1=Steve|title=Religiosity Highest in World's Poorest Nations|date=31 August 2010 |url=http://www.gallup.com/poll/142727/religiosity-highest-world-poorest-nations.aspx|publisher=Gallup|access-date=27 May 2015}} (in which numbers have been rounded)

Traditionally, the largest religious denomination in the country has been the Lutheran church, to which 86,030 people (or 7.7% of the population) still belong, according to self-reported data of the 2021 census.{{cite web|url= https://andmed.stat.ee/et/stat/rahvaloendus__rel2021__rahvastiku-demograafilised-ja-etno-kultuurilised-naitajad__usk|title= PC0454: at least 15-year-old persons by religion, sex, age group, ethnic nationality and county, 31 December 2021|date= 31 December 2021|access-date= 31 October 2024|publisher= Statistics Estonia}} However, since the 2011 census, Eastern Orthodoxy has surpassed Lutheranism in terms of church membership in Estonia. While not being a state church, the Estonian Evangelical Lutheran Church had historically been the national church. An agreement giving preferential status to the Lutheran church ended in 2023.{{Cite web |last=Kiisler |first=Indrek |date=2023-05-27 |title=Estonian government ends long-standing agreement with Lutheran Church |url=https://news.err.ee/1608990614/estonian-government-ends-long-standing-agreement-with-lutheran-church |access-date=2024-05-09 |website=ERR |language=en}} Before World War II, around 80% of the population of Estonian were Protestants, and the vast majority Lutheran,{{cite book|title=World and Its Peoples: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland|year=2010|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|isbn=9780761478966|page=1066|first1=Triin |last1=Edovald |first2=Michelle |last2=Felton |quote=It is usually said that Estonia is a Protestant country; however, the overwhelming majority of Estonians, some 72 percent, are nonreligious. This is in part, the result of Soviet actions and repression of religion. When the Soviet Union annexed Estonia in 1940, church property was confiscated, many theologians were deported to Siberia, ... religion was actively persecuted in Estonia under Soviet rule 1944 until 1989, when some measure of tolerance was introduced.}} followed by Baptists and other Protestant branches. Religious affiliation in Estonia has decreased substantially over the past century.{{cite web |url=http://www.country-studies.com/estonia/religion.html |title=Estonia – Religion |publisher=Country Studies |access-date=2 June 2010}}

Approximately 29% of Estonia's population identified with a religion according to data collected from the 2021 census. In contrast, 58% of Estonians reported having no religious affiliation. Among those who identify with a religion, 93% consider themselves Christians, a slight decrease from 97% in 2011. Other religions, including Islam, represent smaller but gradually growing segments; for instance, the Muslim population of Estonia grew from 0.1% to 0.5%.{{Cite web|url=https://www.postimees.ee/7639965/ligikaudu-60-protsenti-eesti-elanikest-ei-pea-omaks-uhtegi-usku|title=Ligikaudu 60 protsenti Eesti elanikest ei pea omaks ühtegi usku|date=2 November 2022|website=Postimees}}

A 2015 study by Pew Research found that the 45% of respondents who declared themselves to be religiously unaffiliated, were divided between 9% as atheists, 1% as agnostics, and 35% as believing in "nothing in particular".[http://www.pewforum.org/2017/05/10/religious-affiliation/ Religious Belief and National Belonging in Central and Eastern Europe: 1. Religious affiliation]; Pew Research Center, 10 May 2017

Eastern Orthodoxy is now the largest religious group, primarily observed by a minority within the Russian-speaking minority, as well as the Setos, a small ethnic Estonian group. The two largest Orthodox communities are the Estonian Orthodox Church of Moscow Patriarchate, and the Estonian Apostolic Orthodox Church of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople. Since the 17th century, a small community of Russian Orthodox Old Believers has resided by the coast of Lake Peipus.

{{main|Languages of Estonia}}

The official language, Estonian, is a Finnic language belonging to the Uralic language family.

The South Estonian dialects, which include Mulgi, Tartu, Võro and Seto, are spoken by nearly 100,000 people. Although they are distinct from "standard" (North) Estonian, they are typically regarded as dialects or regional forms of Estonian, rather than separate languages.{{cite book|last1=Laakso|first1=Johanna|last2=Sarhimaa|first2=Anneli|last3=Spiliopoulou Åkermark|first3=Sia|last4=Toivanen|first4=Reeta|title=Towards Openly Multilingual Policies and Practices: Assessing Minority Language Maintenance Across Europe|date=2016|publisher=Multilingual Matters|location=Bristol; Buffalo|isbn=9781783094950|edition=1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xQKkCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT76|access-date=23 December 2016}} This classification is a point of ongoing debate, with discussions centring on whether South Estonian should be recognised as a distinct language, multiple languages, or dialects. As most South Estonian speakers are fluent in standard Estonian, the chances for revitalisation and growth of these traditional dialects are limited.{{Cite web|url=https://lounapostimees.postimees.ee/7721442/sulev-iva-milleks-karta-voru-keelt|title=Sulev Iva: milleks karta võru keelt?|date=28 February 2023|website=Lõuna-Eesti Postimees}}

After English, Russian is now the second most widely spoken foreign language in Estonia. Most of the native Russian-speakers are first and second generation immigrants residing in the capital city Tallinn and several other industrial urban areas (most notably in Narva, where majority of the population are ethnic Russians). Due to its dominant role in the recent past (Russian language was a compulsory subject in all schools in Soviet-occupied Estonia), many Estonians, particularly those now aged 50 to 80, can still speak good Russian. By 2010, nearly two-thirds of the native Russian-speakers of Estonia had learnt to speak Estonian proficiently.[http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/dialog/varval.asp?ma=ML133&ti=POPULATION+AGED+15%2D74+BY+ETHNIC+NATIONALITY+AND+KNOWLEDGE+OF+LANGUAGES&path=../I_databas/Social_life/09Labour_market/02Education/02Educational_level/&search=LANGUAGE&lang=1 Table ML133, Eesti Statistika]. Retrieved 30 April 2011

Historically, Swedish-speaking communities lived in Estonia from the 13th century until the 20th century, particularly along the coast and on the islands. After the establishment of Estonian independence, these communities were officially recognised, with Swedish used as an administrative language in majority-Swedish municipalities. However, during World War II, most Swedish speakers fled to Sweden ahead of the Soviet occupation in 1944, leaving only a small number of elderly Swedish speakers in Estonia. Swedish influence is still evident, particularly in regions like Noarootsi Parish of Lääne County, where bilingual Estonian-Swedish place names and signs remain.{{cite web|url=http://www.eki.ee/knn/p2y.htm |title=Names of populated places changed with the reform of 1997 |publisher=Institute of the Estonian Language |date=29 September 1998 |access-date=12 August 2012}}{{cite web |url=http://www.noavv.ee/swe |title=Information about the bilingual Estonian/Swedish parish of Noarootsi |publisher=Noavv.ee |access-date=2 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120904104245/http://www.noavv.ee/swe |archive-date=4 September 2012 }}

The most common foreign languages learnt by Estonian students are English, Russian, German, and French.{{cite web|title=Estonian Foreign Languages Strategy 2009 – 2015|url=http://contactpoints.ecml.at/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=8lWNTiRd1A4%3D&tabid=1319&language=en-GB|publisher=Ministry of Education and Research|access-date=22 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303191208/http://contactpoints.ecml.at/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=8lWNTiRd1A4%3D&tabid=1319&language=en-GB|archive-date=3 March 2016|url-status=dead}} English is the most widely spoken foreign language in Estonia today. According to 2021 census data 76% of the population can speak a foreign language. In the 2021 census 17% of the native speakers of standard Estonian reported that they can also speak a dialect of Estonian.{{cite web |url=https://rahvaloendus.ee/en/news/results-population-census-have-been-published|title=The results of the 2021 population and housing census have been published|date=December 2022|publisher=Statistics Estonia (government agency at the area of administration of the Ministry of Finance)|access-date=11 July 2024}}

Estonian Sign Language, officially adopted in 2007 under the Estonian Language Act, is the primary sign language of Estonia and is used by an estimated 4,500 people.

{{Main|Education in Estonia}}

In education, Estonia ranks as one of the top-performing countries of the world. According to the 2018 PISA report, Estonian students placed 1st in Europe and globally ranked 5th in reading, 8th in mathematics, and 4th in sciences.{{Cite web|url=https://www.educationestonia.org/pisa-2018-estonian-students-rank-1st-in-europe/|title=PISA 2018: Estonian students rank 1st in Europe|date=28 May 2020 |website=Education Estonia}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.oecd.org/en/about/programmes/pisa.html|title=PISA: Programme for International Student Assessment|website=OECD}} Estonia also boasts one of the highest adult education levels in the developed world, with 89% of adults aged 25–64 having completed at least a high school degree.{{cite web|url=http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/countries/estonia/.|title=OECD Better Life Index|access-date=27 March 2015}} The University of Tartu, the nation's oldest university, has ranked 285th globally according to the QS World University Rankings.{{Cite web|url=https://www.topuniversities.com/universities/university-tartu|title=University of Tartu|website=www.topuniversities.com}}

The roots of formal education in Estonia can be traced back to the 13th and 14th centuries, with the establishment of the first monastic and cathedral schools.{{cite web|url=http://www.fl.ut.ee/368372 |title=Ajaloost: Koolihariduse algusest |publisher=University of Tartu |date=24 March 2010 |language=et |access-date=14 October 2013}} The publication of the first Estonian-language primer in 1575 further contributed to the development of education. The University of Tartu, founded in 1632 by Swedish King Gustavus Adolphus, played a central role in higher education, with courses offered in Estonian for the first time in 1919. Following the restoration of independence in the 1990s, Estonia offered free public education in Russian, but in 2024, the country began transitioning all public schools to Estonian-only instruction, underscoring a renewed focus on the national language and culture.{{cite web |title=Estonia: Action plan approved for transition to Estonian-language education |url=https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/news/estonia-action-plan-approved-transition-estonian-language-education |date=16 December 2022}}

The Estonian education system is structured into four levels: pre-school, basic, secondary, and higher education, with schools spanning general, vocational, and hobby-focused categories.{{cite web|url=http://www.hm.ee/index.php |title=Haridus- ja Teadusministeerium |publisher=Hm.ee |access-date=23 December 2010}} In addition to traditional state and municipal schools, the country supports a range of private and public educational institutions, totaling 514 schools as of 2023.{{Cite web|url=https://opleht.ee/2023/09/oppeaasta-arvudes/|title=Õppeaasta arvudes|first=Grete|last=Teearu|date=1 September 2023|website=Õpetajate Leht}} Estonia has been a pioneer in educational technology, launching the Tiigrihüpe programme to equip schools with computers and internet access, significantly advancing digital literacy and connectivity within the education sector.{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/w3ct1x41|title=BBC World Service – Witness History, Estonia's internet 'Tiger Leap'|website=BBC}}

Estonian higher education follows a three-tier structure of bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degrees, with some integrated programmes combining bachelor's and master's levels.{{cite web|url=https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/mwikis/eurydice/index.php/Estonia:Higher_Education|title=National summary sheets on education systems in Europe and ongoing reforms: Estonia|date=February 2009|publisher=Eurydice|access-date=19 September 2009|archive-date=16 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316213225/https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/mwikis/eurydice/index.php/Estonia:Higher_Education|url-status=dead}} Estonian public universities, such as the University of Tartu, Tallinn University of Technology, Tallinn University, and Estonian University of Life Sciences, enjoy considerable autonomy, including control over academic curricula, admissions criteria, budgets, and governance.{{cite web|url=http://www.bologna-berlin2003.de/en/national_reports/index.htm |title=Implementation of Bologna Declaration in Estonia |publisher=Bologna-berlin2003.de |access-date=2 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090709041912/http://www.bologna-berlin2003.de/en/national_reports/index.htm |archive-date= 9 July 2009 }} Estonia also has a mix of public and private universities, with the Estonian Business School standing as the country's largest private institution.

{{Very long section|date=January 2025}}

Estonian culture emphasizes indigenous practices and can be said to have a strong connection to the land and community. Contemporary Estonian society is marked by a strong commitment to individual liberty, advocating for the principles of limited government, and resistance to central power and corruption. The Protestant work ethic remains a cultural mainstay, stressing diligence and self-reliance. Education is highly valued in Estonia, with free access to schooling being a highly prized institution. According to a study, Estonians are among the top in the world in terms of book ownership per capita.{{Cite news |last=Zhou |first=Naaman |date=2018-10-12 |title=Novel news: world's biggest bookworms revealed in study |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2018/oct/12/the-more-books-in-a-house-the-brighter-your-childs-future-study-finds |access-date=2025-03-25 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}

The cultural framework of Estonia reflects the egalitarian ethos found in the Nordic countries, emerging from practical considerations such as everyman's right and universal suffrage, while also embodying ideals of closeness to nature.

As of 2023, Estonia boasted 170 museums, whose collections collectively hold over 10 million artefacts.[https://www.stat.ee/et/avasta-statistikat/valdkonnad/kultuur/muuseumid Muuseumid]. Statistikaamet. (in Estonian)

One significant cultural tradition in Estonia is the sauna, along with its accompanying rituals. The smoke sauna tradition of Võru County, distinguished by its lack of a chimney and the use of smoke in the heating process, was included in the UNESCO list of intangible cultural heritage in 2014.{{Cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/smoke-sauna-tradition-in-voromaa-00951|title=UNESCO - Smoke sauna tradition in Võromaa|website=ich.unesco.org}}

Estonia observes 11 public holidays public holidays with mandatory days off and celebrates 12 additional national holidays each year.{{cite web|title=Pühade ja tähtpäevade seadus|url=https://www.riigiteataja.ee/akt/13276841|publisher=Riigi Teataja|access-date=30 October 2024|language=et}} The Estonian National Day is the Independence Day, observed on 24 February to commemorate the 1918 Estonian Declaration of Independence. Another pivotal holiday, Võidupüha, is celebrated on 23 June in remembrance of the Estonian victory in the 1918–1920 War of Independence. This holiday merges with the Jaanipäev (Midsummer Day) on 24 June, one of the oldest and most widely celebrated events. On Midsummer Eve, Estonians traditionally gather around bonfires near the village swing to enjoy dancing, singing, and other festivities. Christmas (jõulud) is also deeply cherished in Estonia, its traditions blending ancient winter solstice customs with Christian and modern holiday practices.{{Cite web|url=https://epl.delfi.ee/artikkel/51071285/mall-hiiemae-rahvakultuuri-uurijana-imetlen-muidugi-iseenese-naba|title=Mall Hiiemäe: rahvakultuuri uurijana imetlen muidugi iseenese naba|website=Eesti Päevaleht}}

Music of Estonia has a rich history that traces back to early mentions in medieval chronicles, with the first known reference appearing in Saxo Grammaticus' {{lang|la|Gesta Danorum}} around 1179.{{cite book|author1=Sir George Grove|first2=Stanley|last2=Sadie|title=The New Grove dictionary of music and musicians|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8I4YAAAAIAAJ|date= 1980|publisher=Macmillan Publishers|isbn=978-0-333-23111-1|page=358}} The oldest form of folk songs in Estonia, known as regilaulud (runic songs), followed a distinct poetic metre shared with other Baltic Finns.{{cite book |last1=Ross |first1=Jan |last2=Lehiste |first2=Ilse |title=The Temporal Structure of Estonian Runic Songs |orig-year=2002 |publisher=DeGruyter Mouton |location=Berlin |isbn=9783110170320 |page=9 |doi=10.1515/9783110885996 |year= 2015 |url=https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110885996 |access-date=9 May 2022}}

Estonian folk music also has a strong tradition of instrumental accompaniment, featuring the kannel, a zither-like instrument, along with the torupill, an Estonian bagpipe. The torupill was primarily used for dance music.Margus Haav [http://wwx.postimees.ee/270308/esileht/kultuur/319974.php Pärimusmuusika ait lööb uksed valla (Estonian Native Music Preserving Centre is opened)] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120912151814/http://wwx.postimees.ee/270308/esileht/kultuur/319974.php |date=12 September 2012}}. Postimees. 27 March 2008 (in Estonian) Other instruments, such as the fiddle, concertina, and accordion, also contribute to the folk music repertoire, particularly for traditional dances. Medieval Estonian music reflects the influence of church music, with surviving liturgical manuscripts showcasing early musical notation. By the 14th century, organs were common in Estonian churches, while secular musicians played instruments like the torupill and drums at community gatherings.Hugo Lepnurm. Oreli ja orelimuusika ajaloost. Kirjastus Muusika 1994.

File:Laulupidu 07072019.jpg is one of the UNESCO Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity (XXVII Song Festival in 2019).]]

First held in 1869, the nationwide Estonian Song Festival is the country's most notable musical traditions. Held every five years at the Tallinn Song Festival Grounds, the festival regularly draws up to 100,000 participants.[http://sa.laulupidu.ee/en/ The 12th Estonian youth song and dance celebration] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170706073054/http://sa.laulupidu.ee/en/ |date=6 July 2017}}. Estonian Song and Dance Celebration Foundation

Estonian composer Arvo Pärt has achieved global acclaim for his minimalist, deeply spiritual works. Pärt became the world's most performed living composer from 2010 to 2018.{{cite web|url=http://bachtrack.com/top-ten-statistics-classical-music-2014 |title=2014 Classical music statistics: Lis(z)tmania |publisher=Bachtrack.com |date=8 January 2015 |access-date=31 March 2016}}

Estonian rock and pop music emerged in the mid-1960s, with early bands performing in underground scenes to avoid scrutiny by Soviet occupation authorities. After regaining independence, Estonia won the Eurovision Song Contest in 2001 with "Everybody" (performed by Tanel Padar and Dave Benton).

Estonian folk dance is characterised by repetitive motifs and simple movement patterns. Earliest written records of Estonian folk dance date to the 12th century. Elements from these ancient ritual dances are preserved in circle and chain dances, some of the oldest forms in Estonian dance.{{cite web | url=http://www.gabriele.ee/eesti-rahvatantsude-vormid-ja-traditsioonid/ | title=Pärnu tantsib - Gabriele | work=Gabriele | date=8 February 2022 }}{{Cite web|url=http://www.estonica.org/en/Culture/The_art_of_dance/Folk_dance/|title=Estonica.org - Folk dance|website=www.estonica.org}} The nationwide Estonian Dance Festival is held once every four years in Tallinn."75 aastat Eesti tantsupidusid", Tallinn: Varrak, 2009. Lk 7–8, 19.

File:Kalevipoja sõit Põhjamaale 1935 Raud.jpg, Journey of Kalevipoeg to the North, 1935, Estonian Art Museum]]

The Estonian folklore and mythology are believed to be rooted in pre-Christian beliefs.{{cite book|title=Tiidu the Piper|date=2014|publisher=Collegium Basilea|location=Basel|isbn=9781500941437}} While much of Estonia's ancient mythology is scattered across fragments of oral tradition, some of the oldest myths are believed to have survived in traditional runic songs. One such song narrates the birth of the world, where a bird lays three eggs, from which emerge the Sun, the Moon, and the Earth.{{cite web |url=http://www.folklore.ee/folklore/vol23/echoes.pdf |title=ECHOES OF ANCIENT CATACLYSMS IN THE BALTIC SEA |access-date=2008-10-26 |last=Haas |first=Ain |author2=Andres Peekna |author3=Robert E. Walker |publisher=Electronic Journal of Folklore }}

The mythical heroes and giants, such as Kalevipoeg and Suur Tõll, are central to Estonian folklore. Kalevipoeg, a mythological giant hero, is often portrayed defending the land from invaders, and many natural landmarks are said to be traces of his deeds. "The Dawn and Dusk" (Koit ja Hämarik) is considered one of the most beautiful Estonian myths with authentic origin.[https://et.wikisource.org/wiki/Lehek%C3%BClg:Eesti_m%C3%BCtoloogia_I_Eisen.djvu/197 Lehekülg:Eesti mütoloogia I Eisen.djvu/197] Vikitekstid Jakob Hurt launched a nationwide folklore collection campaign in the 1880s, thanks to which 12,400 pages of folklore were collected by volunteers. Inspired by Hurt, Matthias Johann Eisen amassed a monumental 90,000 pages of folklore by the early 20th century. These collections are preserved by the Estonian Folklore Archives, one of the largest such institutions in the world.{{Cite journal|last1=Oras|first1=Janika|last2=Västrik|first2=Ergo-Hart|date=2002|title=Estonian Folklore Archives of the Estonian Literary Museum|journal=The World of Music|volume=44|issue=3|pages=153–156}}{{Cite journal|last=Järv|first=Risto|date=2013|title=Estonian Folklore Archives|url=https://journal.oraltradition.org/wp-content/uploads/files/articles/28ii/14_28.2.pdf|journal=Oral Tradition|volume=28|issue=2|pages=291–298|doi=10.1353/ort.2013.0022|doi-access=free}}

{{Main|Literature of Estonia|Estonian poetry}}

File:Anton Hansen Tammsaare, 000290.jpg (1878-1940) whose pentalogy Truth and Justice is considered "The Estonian Novel"]]

The oldest records of written Estonian date from the 13th century.{{cite book|first=George|last=Kurman|title=The development of written Estonian|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZmxkAAAAMAAJ|year=1968|publisher=Indiana University|isbn=9780877500360 }} Written Estonian poetry emerged during 17th–18th centuries, with authors such as Reiner Brockmann and Käsu Hans. Despite this, few notable works of literature were written until the 19th century and the beginning of an Estonian national awakening. Kristjan Jaak Peterson, the first renowned Estonian poet, emerged in the early 19th century, inspiring figures such as Friedrich Robert Faehlmann and Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald to preserve Estonian folk poetry and produce the Kalevipoeg, the Estonian national epic.Lepik, Mart. Mõnda Kristian Jaak Petersonist. - Keel ja Kirjandus 1972, nr 8, pp. 459–466. It is written in the Kalevala tetrameter, a largely lyrical form of folk poetry based on syllabic quantity.Felix Oinas. Surematu Kalevipoeg. Tallinn, 1994. The national awakening also spurred the rise of national romantic poetry, with Lydia Koidula as its foremost figure.Puhvel, Madli. Lydia Koidula: elu ja aeg. – Tallinn: Ekspress Meedia, 2017. {{ISBN|9789949989768}}

The end of 1800s saw a rise of many poets and novelists who wrote in Estonian, notably Juhan Liiv, August Kitzberg and Eduard Vilde. Around 1905, a neo-romantic literary movement Young Estonia (Noor-Eesti) led by poet Gustav Suits and including writers Friedebert Tuglas, Villem Grünthal-Ridala, and Johannes Aavik amongst others, had an aesthetic programme that followed the trends of Finnish, French, German, Scandinavian and Italian literature of the time, comprising elements of Impressionism, Symbolism and Expressionism. Oskar Luts was an early 20th century prose writer whose works, especially the lyrical school novel Kevade (Spring), remain popular to this day.[http://www.estonica.org/en/Culture/Literature/Seeking_the_contours_of_a_%E2%80%98truly%E2%80%99_Estonian_literature/ Seeking the contours of a 'truly' Estonian literature] Estonica.org In the early 20th century, Estonian poetry gained new depth with the Siuru group, a literary movement embracing modernism and sensuality; its members included Marie Under, Henrik Visnapuu, and Friedebert Tuglas. The 1930s saw the emergence of Arbujad, a group of poets known for their new, introspective and philosophical style.Jürgen Rooste. [https://kultuur.err.ee/595902/jurgen-rooste-luhike-eesti-luulelugu Lühike Eesti luulelugu]

In the independent Estonia of 1920s and 1930s, literature flourished, with highly regarded prose works by authors like A. H. Tammsaare and Karl Ristikivi shaping the era. Tammsaare's social epic and psychological realist pentalogy, Truth and Justice, captured the evolution of Estonian society from a poor farmer community to an independent nation while following man's everlasting struggle with existential questions.[http://www.estonica.org/en/Culture/Literature/Literature_and_an_independent_Estonia/ Literature and an independent Estonia ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181121155209/http://www.estonica.org/en/Culture/Literature/Literature_and_an_independent_Estonia/ |date=21 November 2018 }} Estonica.org{{cite web|url=http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/tammsaar.htm |title=Anton Tammsaare |website=Books and Writers (kirjasto.sci.fi) |first=Petri |last=Liukkonen |publisher=Kuusankoski Public Library |location=Finland |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071005054341/http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/tammsaar.htm |archive-date= 5 October 2007 |url-status=dead }} Many writers fled Estonia in 1944 from Soviet rule. Between 1944 and 1990, exiled writers published 267 novels, 181 poetry collections, and 155 memoirs, reflecting their determination to preserve national identity through art and literature.Eesti kirjandus paguluses XX sajandil. Tallinn 2008.

During the Soviet occupation, Jaan Kross became Estonia's best-known and most-translated writer, as he skillfully used historical allegory to convey the resilience of Estonian identity.Enn Nõu. [https://www.sirp.ee/s1-artiklid/c7-kirjandus/kone-jaan-krossi-kirjandusauhinna-vastuvotmisel/ Kõne Jaan Krossi kirjandusauhinna vastuvõtmisel].{{Cite web|url=https://kultuur.postimees.ee/2970047/peaaegu-kogu-jaan-kross-soome-keeles|title=Peaaegu kogu Jaan Kross soome keeles|date=28 October 2014|website=Kultuur}} Jaan Kaplinski and Mats Traat also held a significant place in then Estonian literature.Mart Velsker. [https://keeljakirjandus.ee/ee/archives/24393 Palanumäe keele ja meele lugu]. Keel ja Kirjandus.

Among the most popular writers of the late 20th and early 21st centuries are Tõnu Õnnepalu and Andrus Kivirähk, who uses elements of Estonian folklore and mythology, deforming them into the absurd and grotesque.[http://www.estlit.ee/?id=11665&author=10876&tpl=1063&c_tpl=1071 Andrus Kivirähk. The Old Barny (novel)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110504012509/http://www.estlit.ee/?id=11665&author=10876&tpl=1063&c_tpl=1071 |date=4 May 2011}} Estonian Literature Centre

Estonian philosophy can be said to encompass a distinct form of philosophy shaped by the nuances of Estonian language and culture. In the narrower, culturally specific sense, Estonian philosophy reflects a unique worldview and national identity, accentuating interpretations grounded in original Estonian terms rather than Latin or Germanic loanwords. This approach is based on the idea, championed by Estonian thinkers like Uku Masing, that philosophical concepts derive meaning from their etymology and cultural context. Additionally, Estonian philosophy incorporates semiotic elements, influenced by the works of Jakob von Uexküll and Juri Lotman, focusing the study of signs and meaning within cultural contexts.{{Cite web|url=http://www.fl.ut.ee/335145|title=Konverents "Eesti filosoofia juured, võrsed ja õied"}}[http://www.spe.ut.ee/ojs/index.php/spe Studia Philosophica Estonica], e-ajakiriMargit Sutrop [http://www.spe.ut.ee/ojs/index.php/spe/article/view/253 What is Estonian Philosophy?] Studia Philosophica Estonica, Vol. 8.2 (2015)

{{Main|Estonian art}}

File:Eesti pruut (Eesti mõrsja), Gustav Adolf Hippius, EKM j 153-47 M 41.jpg, An Estonian bride, 1852, Art Museum of Estonia, Tallinn]]

Traces of Estonian artistry date back to the Stone Age, with decorated bone artefacts, amber pendants, and early figurines. During the Middle Ages, Gothic art became prominent, visible in the medieval churches of Saaremaa and exemplified by Bernt Notke's Danse Macabre in St. Nicholas Church, Tallinn.{{Cite web|url=https://nigulistemuuseum.ekm.ee/surmatants/|title=Surmatants|website=Niguliste muuseum}} Renaissance painter Michael Sittow, trained in the Early Netherlandish style, was Estonia's first internationally recognised artist, known for his masterful portraiture in European courts.{{Cite web|url=https://ekspress.delfi.ee/artikkel/69010563/michel-sittow-meie-esimene-eurooplane|title=Michel Sittow - meie esimene eurooplane|website=Eesti Ekspress}}

In the Neoclassical period, landscape painting gained prominence among Estonian artists, both at home and abroad. This era also saw the emergence of other genres like mural painting, miniature painting, glass painting, and watercolours, often featuring antique themes or Estonian nature scenes. Famous painters of this era include Gustav Adolf Hippius, Karl August Senff and Julie Wilhelmine Hagen-Schwarz.{{Cite web|url=https://digikogu.ekm.ee/ekm/artiklid/aid-168/Baltisaksa-kunst|title=EKM Digitaalkogu|website=digikogu.ekm.ee}}{{Cite web|url=https://haus.ee/?l=et|title=Avaleht|date=4 February 2025|website=HAUS galerii}} The 19th and early 20th centuries saw also a rise in national themes, led by painters like Johann Köler, who embraced Estonian landscapes and traditions.

During the 1918–1940 period of independent Estonia, artists increasingly integrated contemporary European avant-garde influences. The founding of the Pallas Art School (1919–1940) in Tartu marked a turning point, giving rise to a generation of artists including Konrad Mägi, Nikolai Triik, Kristjan Raud, and printmaker Eduard Wiiralt, whose works captured both the avant-garde spirit and uniquely Estonian sensibilities.Pallas 100. Kunstikool ja kultus = Pallas 100. The art school and its legend / [tekstide autorid: Tiina Abel, Joanna Hoffmann, Hanna-Liis Kont. .. jt. ; koostajad, toimetajad: Joanna Hoffmann, Hanna-Liis Kont]. – Tartu : Tartu Kunstimuuseum, 2019. {{ISBN|9789949722594}}

When the Soviet army occupied Estonia in 1944, many Estonian artists fled westwards. Under the Stalinist regime, art was heavily regulated, with Socialist Realism promoted as the official style, while Western influences were discouraged. However, by the 1960s, restrictions began to be relaxed. A breakthrough came with the formation of the ANK '64 collective, a group of artists who broke from Soviet themes and embraced personal, fantastical worlds. Leading figures such as Jüri Arrak and Tõnis Vint explored modernist aesthetics, emphasising individual expression and imaginative realism. In 1966, first Estonian modernist art works got the official permission from the Soviet authorities to be displayed in public exhibitions. By the 1970s, Estonian art had grown distinct from Moscow's official styles, embracing a modernism that highlighted personal vision and cultural identity.Leonhard Lapin. ANKiga-ANKita, Eesti Ekspress, 21 April1995

Since the 1990s, Estonian art has diversified significantly with the rise of photography, video, and conceptual art. This period saw the decline of centralised art funding and management, alongside the establishment of new media centres at the Estonian Academy of Arts. Artists such as Toomas Vint became known internationally, and Estonian video artists gained exposure in venues like the São Paulo and Venice Biennales. Today, Estonia's art scene is active, with contemporary galleries and exhibitions across major cities showcasing a blend of traditional influences and modern innovation.{{Cite web|url=https://www.postimees.ee/1407727/toomas-vint-elab-kunsti-sees|title=Toomas Vint elab kunsti sees|date=10 April 2004|website=Postimees}}

August Weizenberg is considered one of the founders of Estonian sculpture. His eclectic style, primarily based on classicism, favoured marble and encompassed a variety of themes, including portraits, mythological figures, and allegorical works. Another Estonian sculptor, Amandus Adamson, shifted towards a more relaxed style that incorporated elements of realism. Anton Starkopf, a prominent sculptor of the 1930s, developed a unique style using granite and explored diverse themes, including erotic undertones. The Soviet occupation halted the progress of sculpture in the 1940s, as artists faced severe restrictions and a lack of resources. However, since the 1960s Estonian sculpture was able to increase output and use innovative approaches again.{{Cite web|url=https://www.sirp.ee/s1-artiklid/c6-kunst/eesti-skulptuuri-viimane-kuldaeg/|title=Eesti skulptuuri viimane kuldaeg|date=17 October 2014 }}

{{Main|Architecture of Estonia}}

File:Musée de plein air (Tallinn) (7644656256).jpg]]

The architecture of Estonia reflects a blend of northern European styles shaped by local traditions and materials. The Estonian traditional rural architecture is distinguished by single farms set within open landscapes, typically including a separate sauna building. timber and boulders have been used extensively in traditional Estonian structures. The rehielamu was a typical farmhouse style until the 19th century, a few examples of it still remain in some Estonian villages. Estonia is also home to many hill forts from pre-Christian times,{{cite web |title=Pada hill forts |url=https://www.visitestonia.com/en/pada-hill-forts |website=VisitEstonia.com |access-date=12 September 2022}}{{cite web |title=Varbola hill fort |url=https://www.visitestonia.com/en/varbola-hill-fort |website=VisitEstonia.com |access-date=12 September 2022}} medieval castles, churches, and countryside structures such as manor houses, mills, and inns.{{cite web |title=Churches |url=https://www.visitestonia.com/en/what-to-see-do/history-culture/churches |website=VisitEstonia.com |access-date=12 September 2022 |language=en}}

Towns in medieval Estonia developed around central marketplaces with street networks forming cohesive "old towns". The earliest significant architectural trend was Romanesque in the 12th–13th centuries, evident in a few surviving examples, e.g Valjala Church in Saaremaa.Alttoa, K. (2003). Mõningaid Valjala ja Kaarma kiriku ehitusloo probleeme. Saaremaa Muuseum, kaheaastaraamat 2001–2002 (3−27). Kuressaare: Saaremaa Muuseum. Gothic architecture beginning in the 13th century defined Estonia's medieval style, as seen in the Kuressaare Castle, Hermann Castle (Narva), St. Mary's Cathedral, Tallinn, and the Tartu Cathedral. Geological differences influenced regional styles: South Estonia embraced red brick Gothic, while white limestone dominated in Tallinn. The medieval Tallinn Old Town is the country's most important architectural ensemble to this day.

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, National Romantic style emerged, seeking inspiration from traditional Estonian architecture. After 1918, the newly independent Estonia sought to express its identity through new buildings. The Estonian parliament building at Toompea, designed by architects Eugen Habermann and Herbert Johanson and completed in 1922,{{cite book | last = Viirand| first = Tiiu| title = Estonia. Cultural Tourism | publisher = Kunst Publishers | year = 2004 | page = 107 | isbn = 9949-407-18-4 }} combines a traditionalist exterior with a unique Expressionist interior, making it the world's only Expressionist parliament building.{{cite web |url= http://www.riigikogu.ee/?id=37659|title= Toompea Castle|author= |publisher= Riigikogu (Parliament of Estonia)|access-date=10 September 2013}} During the 1930s, Estonia saw the development of a distinctive style of stripped Classicism, influenced by architects such as Alar Kotli and Edgar Johan Kuusik. Meanwhile, Functionalism gained popularity in Nõmme and Pärnu, particularly through the work of Olev Siinmaa.Mart Kalm. Eesti 20. sajandi arhitektuur = Estonian 20th century architecture – Tallinn : Sild, 2002. {{ISBN|9985939816}}

Under the 1944-1991 Soviet occupation, the architecture was heavily influenced by Soviet urban planning. The 1980s marked a resurgence of Estonian architectural identity, with postmodernist architects drawing from 1930s styles. Since regaining independence, Estonia has embraced diverse architectural trends, especially in Tallinn's business districts. Architect Vilen Künnapu has emerged as a leading figure.{{Cite web|url=https://vilenkunnapu.pri.ee/et/tekstid/preester-arhitekt/|title=Neofunktsionalistist Lemuuria preester-arhitektiks – Vilen Künnapu}}

{{Main|Theatre of Estonia|Cinema of Estonia}}

{{See also|List of Estonian films}}

File:Tallinn asv2022-04 img41 National Opera.jpg, constructed in 1913 in Tallinn, now houses the National Opera and Symphony Orchestra.]]

Estonian theatre has a long and evolving history, with the earliest recorded performances dating back to the 16th century. By 1784, the German playwright August von Kotzebue helped establish an amateur theatre in Tallinn, and five years later, the Estonian language made its debut on stage in Kotzebue's play The Father's Expectation. The Tallinn City Theatre, opened in 1809, became Estonia's first professional theatre, performing German but also some Estonian-language works.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IpR0-OrrwssC|title=Culture and Customs of the Baltic States|first=Kevin|last=O'Connor|date=30 March 2006|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-0-313-01484-0 |via=Google Books}} However, a distinctly Estonian theatre culture began to take shape with the development of song and drama societies, including the landmark 1870 performance of Lydia Koidula's Cousin from Saaremaa by the Vanemuine Cultural Society, which marked the birth of Estonian national theatre.{{Cite web|url=https://opleht.ee/2020/02/sajast-vakast-tangusoolast-saja-viiekumne-aastase-teatrini-kohtumine-eestikeelse-teatri-grand-old-lady-lydia-koidulaga/|title=Sajast vakast tangusoolast saja viiekümne aastase teatrini. Kohtumine eestikeelse teatri grand old lady Lydia Koidulaga|first=Grete|last=Teearu|date=7 February 2020|website=Õpetajate Leht}}

The early 20th century saw the professionalisation of Estonian theatre, with the Vanemuine in Tartu and the Estonia Theatre in Tallinn formally becoming professional institutions in 1906. Led by director Karl Menning, Vanemuine began to stage high-quality productions that emphasised naturalism and ensemble performance. Plays by Estonian writers August Kitzberg, Oskar Luts and Eduard Vilde were staged among world classics. Estonia Theatre, meanwhile, became known for its star actors, including Theodor Altermann, Paul Pinna, and Erna Villmer, as well as for its pioneering work in opera and operetta from 1908 onwards. The 1920s and 1930s brought further diversity to the theatre scene with the establishment of the Workers' Theatre in Tallinn, known for its social critique, and the experimental Morning Theatre, which explored expressionism. New regional theatres also appeared in Viljandi and Narva. A vibrant and multifaceted theatre tradition has continued through the period of Soviet control and into the modern era.{{Cite web|url=https://eestinoorsooteater.ee/et/eesti-noorsooteatrite-ajalootaust|title=Eesti noorsooteatrite ajalootaust|date=21 May 2020|website=EESTI NOORSOOTEATER}}

The history of cinematographic film production in Estonia started in 1908 with a newsreel documenting a visit to Tallinn by then King Gustav V of Sweden.{{cite web |url=http://www.estinst.ee/publications/kultuur/cinema.html |title=Cinema of Estonia |publisher=Einst.ee |access-date=2 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807061344/http://www.estinst.ee/publications/kultuur/cinema.html |archive-date=7 August 2011 }} Narrative filmmaking soon followed, with early works such as Laenatud naene (1913) and Karujaht Pärnumaal (1914) by Johannes Pääsuke. Modern Estonian cinema often adapts major Estonian literary works, as seen in Truth and Justice, November, The Heart of the Bear, Names in Marble, and Autumn Ball. Estonian cinema has gained international recognition, with Tangerines (2013) receiving nominations for both the Academy Awards and Golden Globes.{{cite news |url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/oscars-balkans-baltics-choose-submissions-729441 |title=Croatia, Serbia, Finland and Estonia have announced their nominations for the category |work=The Hollywood Reporter |accessdate=2 September 2014}}{{cite news |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2015/01/15/oscar-nominations-2015_n_6473542.html |title=Oscar Nominations 2015: See The Full List |work=The Huffington Post |accessdate=15 January 2015}} Notable foreign films shot in Estonia include Stalker and Tenet.{{cite web |last=Whyte |first=Andrew |date=June 7, 2019 |url=https://news.err.ee/950253/tartu-keen-on-nolan-movie-filming-should-tallinn-fall-through |title=Tartu keen on Nolan movie filming should Tallinn fall through |website=ERR |archive-url=https://archive.today/20190608231857/https://news.err.ee/950253/tartu-keen-on-nolan-movie-filming-should-tallinn-fall-through |archive-date=June 8, 2019 |access-date=December 28, 2020 |url-status=live}}{{cite web |last=Vahtla |first=Aili |date=June 11, 2019 |url=https://news.err.ee/951234/gallery-christopher-nolan-john-david-washington-arrive-in-tallinn |title=Gallery: Christopher Nolan, John David Washington arrive in Tallinn |website=ERR |archive-url=https://archive.today/20190614133043/https://news.err.ee/951234/gallery-christopher-nolan-john-david-washington-arrive-in-tallinn |archive-date=June 14, 2019 |access-date=December 28, 2020 |url-status=live}}

Estonian animation began in the 1930s with Adventures of Juku the Dog, a short film by Voldemar Päts. Animator Priit Pärn, celebrated for his surreal and satirical style, gained international recognition with Breakfast on the Grass (1987), a profound critique of totalitarian society, and won the Grand Prize at the Ottawa International Animation Festival in 1998. More recently, Estonian studios and notable directors Janno Põldma and Heiki Ernits have remained highly regarded in the global animation industry.{{Cite web|url=https://www.filmi.ee/filmid/eesti-filmiajalugu|title=Eesti filmiajalugu|website=www.filmi.ee}}

The media of Estonia is characterised by a diverse array of outlets and notable press freedom. Media landscape includes numerous weekly newspapers and magazines, along with nine domestic television channels, and a variety of radio stations. Estonia consistently ranks among the top nations for press freedom, achieving 6th place on the Press Freedom Index globally in 2024 and 8th place in 2023, according to Reporters Without Borders.{{cite web|url=http://en.rsf.org/press-freedom-index-2011-2012,1043.html |title=Press Freedom Index 2011–2012 – Reporters Without Borders |access-date=27 March 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303230901/http://en.rsf.org/press-freedom-index-2011-2012%2C1043.html |archive-date= 3 March 2016 }}{{cite web | url=https://rsf.org/en/index | title=Index | RSF }}{{cite web | url=https://rsf.org/en/country/estonia | title=Estonia | RSF | date=24 July 2024 }} Two main news agencies operate in Estonia: the Baltic News Service (BNS), a private news agency established in 1990 that covers the Baltic states, and ETV24, part of Eesti Rahvusringhääling, Estonia's publicly funded broadcaster. Established in 2007, Eesti Rahvusringhääling consolidates radio and television services previously provided by Eesti Raadio and Eesti Televisioon under the Estonian National Broadcasting Act.{{cite book|title=Europe on a Shoestring|last=Johnstone|first=Sarah|year=2007|publisher=Lonely Planet|page=325|isbn=978-1-74104-591-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_xvS1r8Ql0AC&pg=PA325}}{{cite book|title=Campaigning in Europe|last=Maier|first=Michaela|year=2006|publisher=LIT Verlag Berlin-Hamburg-Münster|isbn=978-3-8258-9322-4|page=398|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j9NjsybIcgoC&pg=PA398}}

Estonia issued its first private TV licences in 1992 and launched its first private radio station in 1990. This shift catalysed a dynamic entertainment scene, particularly in television drama and satire. Õnne 13, Estonia's longest-running television series since its debut in 1993, portrays everyday lives of Estonian families through changing societal landscapes, remaining the most popular TV show in Estonia.{{Cite web|url=https://eeter.err.ee/1609140197/raivo-suviste-onne-13-fenomen-peitub-hasti-laotud-vundamendis|title=Raivo Suviste: "Õnne 13" fenomen peitub hästi laotud vundamendis|first=Annika Remmel |last=ERR|date=28 October 2023|website=ERR}} Estonian television and entertainment is marked by a unique blend of satire and cultural critique, dark humour and social commentary, often pushing the boundaries of what is considered acceptable.

{{Main|Estonian cuisine}}

File:Räim.JPG {{lang|et|räim}} was elected the national fish of Estonia in 2007.]]

Traditionally, Estonian food was based on what was available from local farms and the sea, a custom still evident in modern Estonian dishes. For centuries, hunting and fishing were integral to Estonian food culture, and while these are now enjoyed more as hobbies, locally sourced meats and fish remain central to traditional Estonian meals. Most common staples include rye bread, pork, potatoes, and dairy products. Estonians especially value fresh ingredients in spring and summer, incorporating berries, herbs, and vegetables, while winter meals often feature preserved jams, pickles, and mushrooms. Fish plays a significant role: Baltic herring (räim), along with sprat (kilu), are well-loved and often served in spiced forms as appetisers or open sandwiches, such as the popular kiluvõileib, an open sandwich with sprats on black bread.{{cite web|url=http://www.eestitoit.ee/pages.php/010201,8 |title=Estonian Food Inforserver |access-date=24 September 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071217022649/http://www.eestitoit.ee/pages.php/010201%2C8 |archive-date=17 December 2007 }} (in Estonian)

A hallmark of Estonian meals is black bread made from rye, acclaimed for its rich flavour and dense texture, and served with almost every meal as an open sandwich base or an accompaniment to soups and main dishes. Cow dairy products hold an important place in Estonian cuisine, with milk, and its derivatives valued both as beverages and culinary ingredients.

Alcoholic beverages in Estonia are traditionally beer-based, with locally brewed beers being the preferred drink to accompany meals. Estonian fruit wines made from apples and berries are also enjoyed alongside vodka (viin) and other distilled spirits.{{Cite web|url=https://tai.ee/et/valjaanded/alkoholi-turg-tarbimine-ja-kahjud-eestis-aastaraamat-2022-alcohol-market-consumption-and|title=Alkoholi turg, tarbimine ja kahjud Eestis Aastaraamat 2022, Alcohol market, consumption and harms in Estonia Yearbook 2022 | Tervise Arengu Instituut|website=tai.ee}}

{{Main|Sport in Estonia}}

Since 1920, Estonia has participated at the Olympic Games and earned medals in athletics, cross-country and freestyle skiing, weightlifting, wrestling, rowing, fencing, cycling and other sports. Estonia's best Olympic rankings were 12th at the 2006 Winter Olympics and 14th at the 1936 Summer Olympics. With the total number of all-time Olympic medals won (44) in relation to its population (1.4 million) as of 2025, Estonia is the 12th most successful country in the world in terms of accumulated Olympic medals per capita.{{cite web |last1=Tambur |first1=Silver |title=Estonia at the Olympics |url=https://estonianworld.com/life/estonia-at-the-olympics/ |website=EstonianWorld.com |access-date=1 October 2022 |date=23 July 2021}}

Estonia maintains extensive indoor and outdoor facilities for a range of sports.{{cite web |title=Sports and games |url=https://www.visitestonia.com/en/what-to-see-do/activities-adventure/sports-games |website=VisitEstonia.com |access-date=1 October 2022 |language=en}} Popular team sports include basketball, volleyball, and football.

A unique contribution to global sports from Estonia is kiiking. This sport uses a modified swing, where the goal is to complete a full 360-degree rotation.{{Cite web |title=A wild sport invented in Estonia - kiiking {{!}} Visit Estonia |url=https://www.visitestonia.com/en/why-estonia/kiiking-a-wild-sport-invented-in-estonia |access-date=2023-08-11 |website=Visitestonia.com |language=en}}

{{Portal|Estonia|Europe}}

• Outline of Estonia
• Index of Estonia-related articles

{{notelist}}

{{Reflist}}

{{refbegin}}

• {{Cite book|last1=Hiden|first1=John|first2=Patrick|last2=Salmon|title=The Baltic Nations and Europe: Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania in the Twentieth Century|year=1991|publisher=Longman|location=London|isbn=0-582-08246-3}}
• {{cite book|last=Kangilaski|first=Jaak|display-authors=etal |year=2005 |title=Valge raamat: eesti rahva kaotustest okupatsioonide läbi; 1940-1991 |language=et |publisher=Justiitsministeerium |isbn=9985-70-194-1 |url=http://www.riigikogu.ee/public/Riigikogu/ValgeRaamat.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2011-05-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110503200228/http://www.riigikogu.ee/public/Riigikogu/ValgeRaamat.pdf}}
• {{Cite book|last=Laar|first=Mart|author-link=Mart Laar|title=War in the Woods: Estonia's Struggle for Survival, 1944–1956|year=1992|translator=Tiina Ets|publisher=Compass Press|location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=0-929590-08-2}}
• {{Cite book|last=Lieven|first=Anatol|author-link=Anatol Lieven|title=The Baltic Revolution: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and the Path to Independence|year=1993|publisher=Yale University Press|location=New Haven|isbn=0-300-05552-8}}
• {{Cite book|last=Raun|first=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians|year=1987|publisher=Hoover Institution Press, Stanford University|location=Stanford, Calif.|isbn=0-8179-8511-5}}
• {{Cite book|last=Smith|first=David J.|title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration|year=2001|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=0-415-26728-5}}
• {{Cite book|editor-last=Smith|editor-first=Graham|title=The Baltic States: The National Self-determination of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania|year=1994|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|isbn=0-312-12060-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/balticstates00grah}}
• {{Cite book|editor-last=Subrenat|editor-first=Jean-Jacques |editor-link=Jean-Jacques Subrenat|year=2004 |title=Estonia, identity and independence|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=90-420-0890-3|place=Amsterdam & New York}}
• {{Cite book|last=Taagepera|first=Rein|author-link=Rein Taagepera|title=Estonia: Return to Independence|year=1993|publisher=Westview Press|location=Boulder, Colo.|isbn=0-8133-1199-3}}
• {{Cite book|last=Taylor|first=Neil|title=Estonia|year=2004|edition=4th|publisher=Bradt|location=Chalfont St. Peter|isbn=1-84162-095-5}}

{{refend}}

{{Sister project links|Estonia|s=Estonia OR Esthonia|cookbook=Cuisine of Estonia|voy=Estonia}}

• [http://www.president.ee/en/index.html The President of Estonia]
• [http://www.riigikogu.ee/?lang=en The Parliament of Estonia]
• [http://www.valitsus.ee/en/ Estonian Government]
• [http://www.vm.ee/?q=en Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs]
• [http://www.stat.ee/?lang=en Statistical Office of Estonia]

• [http://www.estonia.eu/ Official gateway to Estonia]
• [http://www.eesti.ee/eng/ E-Estonia Portal]
• [http://www.visitestonia.com/ VisitEstonia Portal]
• [http://www.estonica.org/ Encyclopedia Estonica]
• [http://www.estinst.ee/ Estonian Institute]
• [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/estonia/ Estonia]. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
• {{Wikiatlas|Estonia}}

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