Mongolian script

File:Hermitage hall 366 - 06.jpg, with the earliest known inscription in the Mongolian script.{{Rp|page=33}}]]

The Mongolian vertical script developed as an adaptation of the Old Uyghur alphabet for the Mongolian language.{{Cite book |last1=Daniels |first1=Peter T. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ospMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA545 |title=The World's Writing Systems |last2=Bright |first2=William |year=1996 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-507993-7 |language=en}}{{Rp|page=545}} Tata-tonga, a 13th-century Uyghur scribe captured by Genghis Khan, was responsible for bringing the Old Uyghur alphabet to the Mongolian Plateau and adapting it to the form of the Mongolian script.{{cite book |last=Christian |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YLQW5lUajgkC&pg=PA398 |title=A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia: Inner Eurasia from Prehistory to the Mongol Empire |publisher=Wiley |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-631-20814-3 |page=398 |authorlink=David Christian (historian)}}

From the seventh and eighth to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the Mongolian language separated into southern, eastern and western dialects. The principal documents from the period of the Middle Mongol language are: in the eastern dialect, the famous text The Secret History of the Mongols, monuments in the Square script, materials of the Chinese–Mongolian glossary of the fourteenth century and materials of the Mongolian language of the middle period in Chinese transcription, etc.; in the western dialect, materials of the Arab–Mongolian and Persian–Mongolian dictionaries, Mongolian texts in Arabic transcription, etc.{{Rp|pages=1–2}} The main features of the period are that the vowels ï and i had lost their phonemic significance, creating the i phoneme (in the Chakhar dialect, the Standard Mongolian in Inner Mongolia, these vowels are still distinct); inter-vocal consonants ɣ/g, b/w had disappeared and the preliminary process of the formation of Mongolian long vowels had begun; the initial h was preserved in many words; grammatical categories were partially absent, etc. The development over this period explains why the Mongolian script looks like a vertical Arabic script (in particular the presence of the dot system).{{Rp|pages=1–2}}

Eventually, minor concessions were made to the differences between the Uyghur and Mongol languages: In the 17th and 18th centuries, smoother and more angular versions of the letter tsadi became associated with {{IPAslink|dʒ}} and {{IPAslink|tʃ}} respectively, and in the 19th century, the Manchu hooked yodh was adopted for initial {{IPAslink|j}}. Zain was dropped as it was redundant for {{IPAslink|s}}. Various schools of orthography, some using diacritics, were developed to avoid ambiguity.{{Rp|page=545}}

Words are written vertically from top to bottom, flowing in lines from left to right. The Old Uyghur script and its descendants, of which traditional Mongolian is one among Oirat Clear, Manchu, and Buryat are the only known vertical scripts written from left to right. This developed because the Uyghurs rotated their Sogdian-derived script, originally written right to left, 90 degrees counterclockwise to emulate Chinese writing, but without changing the relative orientation of the letters.György Kara, "Aramaic Scripts for Altaic Languages", in Daniels & Bright The World's Writing Systems, 1994.{{Rp|page=36}}

The reed pen was the writing instrument of choice until the 18th century, when the brush took its place under Chinese influence.{{Cite book |last=Shepherd |first=Margaret |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UZhGza8C77kC&pg=PT419 |title=Learn World Calligraphy: Discover African, Arabic, Chinese, Ethiopic, Greek, Hebrew, Indian, Japanese, Korean, Mongolian, Russian, Thai, Tibetan Calligraphy, and Beyond |date=2013-07-03 |publisher=Clarkson Potter/Ten Speed |isbn=978-0-8230-8230-8 |language=en}}{{Rp|page=422}} Pens were also historically made of wood, bamboo, bone, bronze, or iron. Ink used was black or cinnabar red, and written with on birch bark, paper, cloths made of silk or cotton, and wooden or silver plates.{{Cite book |last1=Berkwitz |first1=Stephen C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KvsLBf3jISAC&pg=PA80 |title=Buddhist Manuscript Cultures: Knowledge, Ritual, and Art |last2=Schober |first2=Juliane |last3=Brown |first3=Claudia |date=2009-01-13 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-00242-9 |language=en}}{{Rp|pages=80–81}}

File:Kalam2.jpg|Reed pens

File:Pinceaux chinois.jpg|Ink brushes

File:Богд хааны бичгийн хэрэглэл.jpg|Writing implements of the Bogd Khan

Mongols learned their script as a syllabary, dividing the syllables into twelve different classes, based on the final phonemes of the syllables, all of which ended in vowels.Chinggeltei. (1963) A Grammar of the Mongol Language. New York, Frederick Ungar Publishing Co. p. 15.

The script remained in continuous use by Mongolian speakers in Inner Mongolia in the People's Republic of China. In the Mongolian People's Republic, it was largely replaced by the Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet, although the vertical script remained in limited use. In March 2020, the Mongolian government announced plans to increase the use of the traditional Mongolian script and to use both Cyrillic and Mongolian script in official documents by 2025.{{Cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/arts/2020-03/19/content_75834583.htm|title=Mongolia to promote usage of traditional script|website=China.org.cn (March 19, 2020)}}[https://www.montsame.mn/en/read/219358 Official documents to be recorded in both scripts from 2025], Montsame, 18 March 2020.[http://mongolia.gogo.mn/r/146942 Mongolian Language Law is effective from July 1st], Gogo, 1 July 2015. "Misinterpretation 1: Use of cyrillic is to be terminated and only Mongolian script to be used. There is no provision in the law that states the termination of use of cyrillic. It clearly states that Mongolian script is to be added to the current use of cyrillic. Mongolian script will be introduced in stages and state and local government is to conduct their correspondence in both cyrillic and Mongolian script. This provision is to be effective starting January 1st of 2025. ID, birth certificate, marriage certificate and education certificates are to be both in Mongolian cyrillic and Mongolian script and currently Mongolian script is being used in official letters of President, Prime Minister and Speaker of Parliament." However, due to the particularity of the traditional Mongolian script, a large part (40%{{cite journal |author1=藍美華 |title=近期內蒙古漢語教材抗爭事件觀察 |url=https://ws.mac.gov.tw/Download.ashx?u=LzAwMS9VcGxvYWQvMjk1L2NrZmlsZS85ZDc1NjVlMi00NGY0LTRhNDgtYjkwZC1iMWVmMDAzN2U2YjcucGRm&n=5Zub44CB6JeN576O6I%2BvLS3ov5HmnJ%2Flhafokpnlj6TmvKLoqp7mlZnmnZDmipfniK3kuovku7bop4Dlr58ucGRm |publisher=Mainland Affairs Council |access-date=2023-01-19 |archive-date=2021-03-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210312215123/https://ws.mac.gov.tw/Download.ashx?u=LzAwMS9VcGxvYWQvMjk1L2NrZmlsZS85ZDc1NjVlMi00NGY0LTRhNDgtYjkwZC1iMWVmMDAzN2U2YjcucGRm&n=5Zub44CB6JeN576O6I%2BvLS3ov5HmnJ%2Flhafokpnlj6TmvKLoqp7mlZnmnZDmipfniK3kuovku7bop4Dlr58ucGRm |website=ws.mac.gov.tw}}) of the Sinicized Mongols in China are unable to read or write this script, and in many cases the script is only used symbolically on plaques in many cities.{{cite journal |author1=Caodaobateer |title=The Use and Development of Mongol and its Writing Systems in China |journal=Language Policy in the People's Republic of China |series=Language Policy |year=2004 |volume=4 |pages=289–302 |location=Dordrecht |doi=10.1007/1-4020-8039-5_16 |isbn=1-4020-8038-7 |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/1-4020-8039-5_16}}{{cite web |author1=Hsiao-ting Lin |title=Ethnopolitics in modern China: the Nationalists, Muslims, and Mongols in wartime Alashaa Banner (1937–1945) |url=https://ru4.ilovetranslation.com/jhLk6JJ3SWl=d/ |publisher=Hoover Institution, Stanford University |location=Stanford, CA, US}}

The script is known by a wide variety of names. As it was derived from the Old Uyghur alphabet, the Mongol script is known as the Uighur(-)Mongol script.{{NoteTag|{{MongolUnicode|ᠤᠶᠢᠭᠤᠷᠵᠢᠨ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} {{Transliteration|Mong|uyiɣurǰin mongɣol bičig}} (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|уйгар/уйгаржин/уйгуржин монгол бичиг/үсэг}} {{Transliteration|khk|uigar/uigarjin/uigurjin mongol bichig/üseg}})}} From 1941 onwards, it became known as the Old Script,{{NoteTag|{{MongolUnicode|ᠬᠠᠭᠤᠴᠢᠨ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} {{Transliteration|Mong|qaɣučin bičig}} (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|хуучин бичиг}} {{Transliteration|khk|khuuchin bichig}})}} in contrast to the New Script,{{NoteTag|{{MongolUnicode|ᠰᠢᠨᠡ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}}/{{MongolUnicode|ᠰᠢᠨ{{mvs}}ᠡ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} {{Transliteration|Mong|sine/sin{{nbh}}e bičig}} (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|шинэ үсэг}} {{Transliteration|khk|shine üseg}})}} referring to Cyrillic. The Mongolian script is also known as the Hudum or 'not exact' script,{{NoteTag|{{MongolUnicode|ᠬᠤᠳᠤᠮ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} {{Transliteration|Mong|qudum mongɣol bičig}} (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|худам монгол бичиг}} {{Transliteration|khk|khudam mongol bichig}})}} in comparison with the Todo 'clear, exact' script,{{NoteTag|{{MongolUnicode|ᠲᠣᠳᠣ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}}/{{MongolUnicode|ᠦᠰᠦᠭ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} {{Transliteration|Mong|todo bičig/üsüg}} (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|тод бичиг/үсэг}} {{Transliteration|khk|tod bichig/üseg}})}} and also as 'vertical script'.{{NoteTag|{{MongolUnicode|ᠪᠣᠱᠤᠭ{{mvs}}ᠠ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} {{Transliteration|Mong|bošuɣ-a bičig}} (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|босоо бичиг}} {{Transliteration|khk|bosoo bichig}})}}{{Cite book |last1=Hersch |first1=Roger |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bo453EDNBp4C&pg=PA308 |title=EP '98 |last2=Andre |first2=Jacques |last3=Brown |first3=Heather |date=1998-03-18 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-3-540-64298-5 |language=en}}{{Rp|page=308}}{{Rp|pages=30–32, 38–39}}{{Cite book |last=Sanders |first=Alan J. K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5JN83EDDLl4C |title=Historical Dictionary of Mongolia |date=2010-05-20 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-7452-7 |language=en}}{{Rp|page=640}}{{Rp|page=7}}{{Cite book |last=Bawden |first=Charles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cULYAQAAQBAJ |title=Mongolian English Dictionary |date=2013-10-28 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-15588-8 |language=en}}{{Rp|page=206}}{{Cite book |last=Marzluf |first=Phillip P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2To8DwAAQBAJ |title=Language, Literacy, and Social Change in Mongolia: Traditionalist, Socialist, and Post-Socialist Identities |date=2017-11-22 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-1-4985-3486-4 |language=en}}{{Rp|page=27}}

The traditional or classical Mongolian alphabet, sometimes called Hudum 'traditional' in Oirat in contrast to the Clear script (Todo 'exact'), is the original form of the Mongolian script used to write the Mongolian language. It does not distinguish several vowels ({{Transliteration|Mong|o}}/{{Transliteration|Mong|u}}, {{Transliteration|Mong|ö}}/{{Transliteration|Mong|ü}}, final {{Transliteration|Mong|a}}/{{Transliteration|Mong|e}}) and consonants (syllable-initial {{Transliteration|Mong|t}}/{{Transliteration|Mong|d}} and {{Transliteration|Mong|k}}/{{Transliteration|Mong|g}}, sometimes {{Transliteration|Mong|ǰ}}/{{Transliteration|Mong|y}}) that were not required for Uyghur, which was the source of the Mongol (or Uyghur-Mongol) script. The result is somewhat comparable to the situation of English, which must represent ten or more vowels with only five letters and uses the digraph th for two distinct sounds. Ambiguity is sometimes prevented by context, as the requirements of vowel harmony and syllable sequence usually indicate the correct sound. Moreover, as there are few words with an exactly identical spelling, actual ambiguities are rare for a reader who knows the orthography.

Letters have different forms depending on their position in a word: initial, medial, or final. In some cases, additional graphic variants are selected for visual harmony with the subsequent character.

The rules for writing below apply specifically for the Mongolian language, unless stated otherwise.

Mongolian vowel harmony separates the vowels of words into three groups – two mutually exclusive and one neutral:

• The back, male, masculine,by Manchu convention hard, or yangin Inner Mongolia. vowels {{Transliteration|Mong|a}}, {{Transliteration|Mong|o}}, and {{Transliteration|Mong|u}}.
• The front, female, feminine, soft, or yin vowels {{Transliteration|Mong|e}}, {{Transliteration|Mong|ö}}, and {{Transliteration|Mong|ü}}.
• The neutral vowel {{Transliteration|Mong|i}}, able to appear in all words.

Any Mongolian word can contain the neutral vowel {{Transliteration|Mong|i}}, but only vowels from either of the other two groups. The vowel qualities of visually separated vowels and suffixes must likewise harmonize with those of the preceding word stem. Such suffixes are written with front or neutral vowels when preceded by a word stem containing only neutral vowels. Any of these rules might not apply for foreign words however.{{Rp|pages=11, 35, 39}}{{Cite book |last1=Grønbech |first1=Kaare |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YanEBJXGRMC |title=An Introduction to Classical (literary) Mongolian: Introduction, Grammar, Reader, Glossary |last2=Krueger |first2=John Richard |year=1993 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3-447-03298-8 |language=en}}{{Rp|page=10}}{{Refn|name=Bilig2011|{{Cite web|url=http://w.colips.org/journals/volume21/21.1.3-Biligsaikhan.pdf|title=A Study of Traditional Mongolian Script Encodings and Rendering: Use of Unicode in OpenType fonts|website=w.colips.org|access-date=9 November 2017}}}}{{Rp|page=4}}{{Cite web|url=http://cjvlang.com/Writing/writmongol/index.html|title=Mongolian Traditional Script|website=cjvlang.com|access-date=2017-12-07}}

A separated final form of vowels {{Transliteration|Mong|a}} or {{Transliteration|Mong|e}} ({{Nowrap|{{MongolUnicode|{{mvs}}ᠠ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}}#Unicode}} {{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}a/{{nbh}}e}}) is common, and can appear at the end of a word stem, or suffix. This form requires a final-shaped preceding letter, and an word-internal gap in between. This gap can be transliterated with a hyphen.{{NoteTag|In digital typesetting, this shaping is achieved by inserting a {{Unichar|180E|MONGOLIAN VOWEL SEPARATOR|html=|note=MVS}} between the separated letters.}}{{Cite book |last=Poppe |first=Nicholas |url=https://archive.org/details/poppegrammarofwrittenmongolian1974/page/n1/mode/1up |title=Grammar of Written Mongolian |year=1974 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3-447-00684-2 |language=en}}{{Rp|pages=30, 77}}{{Cite book |last1=Svantesson |first1=Jan-Olof |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hQVREAAAQBAJ |title=The Phonology of Mongolian |last2=Tsendina |first2=Anna |last3=Karlsson |first3=Anastasia |last4=Franzen |first4=Vivan |date=2005-02-10 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-151461-6 |language=en}}{{Rp|page=42}}{{Cite book |last=Janhunen |first=Juha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DuCRAgAAQBAJ |title=The Mongolic Languages |date=2006-01-27 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-79690-7 |language=en}}{{Rp|pages=38–39}}{{Rp|page=27}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode10.0.0/ch13.pdf|title=The Unicode® Standard Version 10.0 – Core Specification: South and Central Asia-II|website=Unicode.org|access-date=3 December 2017}}{{Rp|pages=534–535}}

File:Mongolia police patch 03.tif}} and the final vowel {{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}a}} ({{Nowrap|{{MongolUnicode|{{nnbsp}}ᠠ|lang=mn|valign=middle}})#Unicode}}]]

The presence or lack of a separated {{Transliteration|Mong|a}} or {{Transliteration|Mong|e}} can also indicate differences in meaning between different words (compare {{Nowrap|{{MongolUnicode|ᠬᠠᠷ{{mvs}}ᠠ|lang=mn|valign=middle}}#Unicode}} {{Transliteration|Mong|qar{{nbh}}a}} 'black' with {{MongolUnicode|ᠬᠠᠷᠠ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} {{Transliteration|Mong|qara}} 'to look').{{Cite web|url=https://www.eki.ee/knab/lat/kblcmg2.pdf|title=Mongolian / ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ Moŋġol|website=www.eki.ee|access-date=2017-11-18}}{{Rp|page=3}}{{Rp|page=535}}

It has the same shape as the traditional dative-locative suffix {{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}a/{{nbh}}e}} exemplified in the next section. This form of the suffix is, however, more commonly found in older texts, and is restricted in its Post-Classical use.{{Rp|page=15}}{{Cite web|url=http://www.linguamongolia.com/gram1.html|title=Lingua Mongolia – Mongolian Grammar|last=Viklund|first=Andreas|website=www.linguamongolia.com|language=en|access-date=2017-12-13|archive-date=2017-12-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171222230456/http://www.linguamongolia.com/gram1.html|url-status=dead}}{{Rp|page=46}}

File:Буряад-Монголон унэн 1925.jpeg' with the suffix {{Nowrap|{{MongolUnicode|{{nnbsp}}ᠤᠨ|lang=mn|valign=middle}}#Unicode}} {{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}un}}.]]

All case suffixes, as well as any plural suffixes consisting of one or two syllables, are likewise separated by a preceding and hyphen-transliterated gap.{{NoteTag|In digital typesetting, this shaping is achieved by inserting a {{Unichar|202f|NARROW NO-BREAK SPACE|nlink=Non-breaking space#Width variation|html=|note=NNBSP}} between the separated letters.}} A maximum of two case suffixes can be added to a stem.{{Rp|pages=30, 73}}{{Rp|page=12}}{{Refn|name=Suffixes|{{Cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2017/17036-mongolian-suffix.pdf|title=PROPOSAL Encode Mongolian Suffix Connector (U+180F) To Replace Narrow Non-Breaking Space (U+202F)|website=Unicode.org|access-date=23 August 2017}}}}{{Rp|page=28}}{{Rp|page=534}}

Such single-letter vowel suffixes appear with the final-shaped forms of {{Transliteration|Mong|a}}/{{Transliteration|Mong|e}}, {{Transliteration|Mong|i}}, or {{Transliteration|Mong|u}}/{{Transliteration|Mong|ü}},{{Rp|page=30}} as in {{Nowrap|{{MongolUnicode|ᠭᠠᠵᠠᠷ{{nnbsp}}ᠠ|lang=mn|valign=middle}}#Unicode}} {{Transliteration|Mong|ɣaǰar{{nbh}}a}} 'to the country' and {{Nowrap|{{MongolUnicode|ᠡᠳᠦᠷ{{nnbsp}}ᠡ|lang=mn|valign=middle}}#Unicode}} {{Transliteration|Mong|edür{{nbh}}e}} 'on the day',{{Rp|page=39}} or {{Nowrap|{{MongolUnicode|ᠤᠯᠤᠰ{{nnbsp}}ᠢ|lang=mn|valign=middle}}#Unicode}} {{Transliteration|Mong|ulus{{nbh}}i}} 'the state' etc.{{Rp|page=23}} Multi-letter suffixes most often start with an initial- (consonants), medial- (vowels), or variant-shaped form. Medial-shaped {{Transliteration|Mong|u}} in the two-letter suffix {{Nowrap|{{MongolUnicode|{{nnbsp}}ᠤᠨ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}}#Unicode}} {{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}un}}/{{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}ün}} is exemplified in the adjacent newspaper logo.{{Rp|page=30}}{{Rp|page=27}}

Two medial consonants are the most that can come together in original Mongolian words. There are however, a few loanwords that can begin or end with two or more.{{NoteTag|Examples of such include: (dotless {{Transliteration|Mong|š}}) {{Transliteration|Mong|gšan}} 'moment' {{Nowrap|(File:Block-printed gshan.svg)}}, {{Transliteration|Mong|gkir}} 'dirt' {{Nowrap|(File:Block-printed gkir.svg)}}, or {{Transliteration|Mong|bodisdv}} 'Bodhisattva' {{Nowrap|(File:Block-printed bodisdv.svg)}}.{{Rp|pages=15, 32}}{{Rp|page=9}}{{Rp|page=385}}}}

In the modern language, proper names can usually join two words into graphic compounds (such as those of {{MongolUnicode|ᠬᠠᠰᠡᠷᠳᠡᠨᠢ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} {{Transliteration|Mong|Qas'erdeni}} 'Jasper-jewel' or {{MongolUnicode|ᠬᠥᠬᠡᠬᠣᠲᠠ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} {{Transliteration|Mong|Kökeqota}} – the city of Hohhot; as opposed to other compound words). This also allows components of different harmonic classes to be joined together, and vowels of an added suffix will harmonize with those of the latter part of the compound. Orthographic peculiarities are most often retained, as with the short and long teeth of an initial-shaped {{Nowrap|{{Angbr|{{MongolUnicode|ᠥ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}}→{{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠥ{{fvs|2}}{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}}}}}} {{Transliteration|Mong|ö}} in {{MongolUnicode|ᠮᠤᠤ{{zwj}}{{overline|{{zwj}}ᠥ{{fvs|2}}{{zwj}}}}{{zwj}}ᠬᠢᠨ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} {{Transliteration|Mong|Muu'ökin}} 'Bad Girl' (protective name). Medial {{Transliteration|Mong|t}} and {{Transliteration|Mong|d}}, in contrast, are not affected in this way.{{Rp|page=30}}{{Cite book |last=Kara |first=György |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cSlkAAAAMAAJ |title=Books of the Mongolian Nomads: More Than Eight Centuries of Writing Mongolian |year=2005 |publisher=Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies |isbn=978-0-933070-52-3 |language=en}}{{Rp|page=92}}{{Rp|page=44}}{{Cite book |last=Janhunen |first=Juha A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SAlwcg9ioPMC |title=Mongolian |year=2012 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing |isbn=978-90-272-3820-7 |language=en}}{{Rp|page=88}}

Isolate citation forms for syllables containing {{Transliteration|Mong|o}}, {{Transliteration|Mong|u}}, {{Transliteration|Mong|ö}}, and {{Transliteration|Mong|ü}} may in dictionaries appear without a final tail as in {{Nowrap|{{Angbr|{{MongolUnicode|ᠪᠣ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}}}}}} {{Transliteration|Mong|bo}}/{{Transliteration|Mong|bu}} or {{Nowrap|{{Angbr|{{MongolUnicode|ᠮᠣ{{fvs|1}}|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}}}}}} {{Transliteration|Mong|mo}}/{{Transliteration|Mong|mu}}, and with a vertical tail as in {{Nowrap|{{Angbr|{{MongolUnicode|ᠪᠥ{{fvs|1}}|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}}}}}} {{Transliteration|Mong|bö}}/{{Transliteration|Mong|bü}} or {{Nowrap|{{Angbr|{{MongolUnicode|ᠮᠥ{{fvs|1}}|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}}}}}} {{Transliteration|Mong|mö}}/{{Transliteration|Mong|mü}} (as well as in transcriptions of Chinese syllables).{{Rp|page=39}}

Only in a late form can a definite order of signs be established for the alphabet, but can likely be traced back to an earlier Uyghur model.{{Rp|page=31}}

{{Further|Mongolian script multigraphs}}

File:19th century Mongolian alphabet and syllabary - 3.jpg

{{Main|Galik alphabet}}

In 1587, the translator and scholar Ayuush Güüsh created the Galik alphabet ({{Lang|mn-Cyrl|Али-гали}} {{Lang|mn-Latn|Ali-gali}}), inspired by the third Dalai Lama, Sonam Gyatso. It primarily added extra characters for transcribing Tibetan and Sanskrit terms when translating religious texts, and later also from Chinese. Some of those characters are still in use today for writing foreign names (as listed below).{{Cite book |last=Chuluunbaatar |first=Otgonbayar |title=Einführung in die mongolischen Schriften |year=2008 |publisher=Buske |isbn=978-3-87548-500-4 |language=de}}

In 1917, the politician and linguist Bayantömöriin Khaisan published the rime dictionary Mongolian-Han Bilingual Original Sounds of the Five Regions,{{efn|{{lang-zh|s=《蒙汉合璧五方元音》|t=《蒙漢合璧五方元音》}}}} a bilingual edition of the earlier Original Sounds of the Five Regions,{{efn|{{lang-zh|《五方元音》}}}} to aid Mongolian speakers in learning Mandarin Chinese. To that end, he included transliterations of Mandarin using the Mongolian script, and repurposed three Galik letters to represent the Mandarin retroflex consonants. These letters remain in use in Inner Mongolia for the purpose of transcribing Chinese.{{cite book|year=2022|last=Wu|first=Jiaye|editor=Nicola McLelland and Hui Zhao|title=Language Standardization and Language Variation in Multilingual Contexts|chapter=Teaching Mandarin Pronunciation to Mongolian Learners in Early Republican Period China: The Case of the Mongolian Han Original Sounds of the Five Regions|publisher=Multilingual Matters |isbn=978-1-80041-155-5}}

File:Mongolian tibetan scripts primer.jpg, Lantsa, Tibetan, Mongolian, Chinese and Cyrillic, from 1903 or earlier]]

{{Notelist}}

{{Further|Mongolian Supplement (Unicode block)}}

File:Pen-written intra-word break.svg', 1604 manuscript]]

{{CSS image crop |Image=Stamp Mongolia 1932 1t.jpg |bSize=800 |cWidth=51 |cHeight=85 |oTop=140 |oLeft=150 |Location = right |Description= Abbreviation exemplified with the initial syllable of the Mongolian tögrög {{Nowrap|({{MongolUnicode|ᠲᠥ{{zwj}}᠂|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}})}}}}

When written between words, punctuation marks use space on both sides of them. They can also appear at the very end of a line, regardless of where the preceding word ends.{{Rp|page=99}} Red (cinnabar) ink is used in many manuscripts, to either symbolize emphasis or respect.{{Rp|page=241}} Modern punctuation incorporates Western marks: parentheses; quotation, question, and exclamation marks; including precomposed {{Big|⁈}} and {{Big|⁉}}.{{Rp|pages=535–536}}

{{Main|Mongolian numerals}}

Mongolian numerals are either written from left to right, or from top to bottom.{{Rp|page=54}}{{Rp|page=9}} For typographical reasons, they are rotated 90° in modern books to fit on the line.{{Rp|page=56}}

Listed in the table below are letter components (graphemes){{NoteTag|Mongolian: {{Nowrap|{{MongolUnicode|ᠵᠢᠷᠤᠯᠭ{{mvs}}ᠠ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}}#Unicode}} {{Transliteration|Mong|ǰirulɣ{{nbh}}a}} / Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|зурлага}} {{Transliteration|khk|zurlaga}}}} commonly used across the script. Some of these are used with several letters, and others to contrast between them. As their forms and usage may differ between writing styles, however, examples of these can be found under this section below.

As exemplified in this section, the shapes of glyphs may vary widely between different styles of writing and choice of medium with which to produce them. The development of written Mongolian can be divided into the three periods of pre-classical (beginning – 17th century), classical (16/17th century – 20th century), and modern (20th century onward):{{Refn|name=Lessing1960}}{{Rp|pages=2–3, 17, 23, 25–26}}{{Rp|pages=58–59}}{{Rp|pages=539–540, 545–546}}{{Rp|pages=62–63}}{{Rp|pages=111, 113–114}}{{Rp|pages=40–42, 100–101, 117}}{{Rp|pages=34–37}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.manuscript-cultures.uni-hamburg.de/cal-details/images/Exploring_Mongolian_Manuscript_Collections_in_Russia_and_Beyond.pdf|title=Exploring Mongolian Manuscript Collections in Russia and Beyond|website=www.manuscript-cultures.uni-hamburg.de|access-date=2019-07-17}}{{Rp|pages=8–11}}{{Rp|pages=211–215}}

{{CSS image crop |Image = SanjufiniZij1.jpg |bSize = 1014 |cWidth = 60 |cHeight = 215 |oTop = 121 |oLeft = 919 |Location = right |Description = Cursive sample in (pre-classical) Middle Mongol: {{Transliteration|Mong|Uridu maqam{{nbh}}un qaǰiun medekü}}}}

• Rounded letterforms tend to be more prevalent with handwritten styles (compare printed and handwritten {{Transliteration|Mong|arban}} 'ten').

• Final letterforms with a right-pointing tail (such as those of {{Transliteration|Mong|a}}, {{Transliteration|Mong|e}}, {{Transliteration|Mong|n}}, {{Transliteration|Mong|q}}, {{Transliteration|Mong|ɣ}}, {{Transliteration|Mong|m}}, {{Transliteration|Mong|l}}, {{Transliteration|Mong|s}}, {{Transliteration|Mong|š}}, and {{Transliteration|Mong|d}}) may have the notch preceding it in printed form, written in a span between two extremes: from as a more or less tapered point, to a fully rounded curve in handwriting.
• The long final tails of {{Transliteration|Mong|a}}, {{Transliteration|Mong|e}}, {{Transliteration|Mong|n}}, and {{Transliteration|Mong|d}} in the texts of pre-classical Mongolian can become elongated vertically to fill up the remainder of a line. Such tails are used consistently for these letters in the earliest 13th to 15th century Uyghur Mongolian style of texts.

{{Multiple image

| width = 79

| image1 = Block-printed lengthened -daγan.svg

| image2 = Block-printed -daγan.svg

| footer = Examples of lengthened letterforms {{Transliteration|Mong|d}} and {{Transliteration|Mong|n}} in {{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}daɣan}} (left), and their regular equivalents (right)

}}

• A hooked form of yodh was borrowed from the Manchu alphabet in the 19th century to distinguish initial {{Transliteration|Mong|y}} from {{Transliteration|Mong|ǰ}}. The handwritten form of final-shaped yodh ({{Transliteration|Mong|i}}, {{Transliteration|Mong|ǰ}}, {{Transliteration|Mong|y}}), can be greatly shortened in comparison with its initial and medial forms.

• The definite status or function of diacritics was not established prior to classical Mongolian. As such, the dotted letters {{Transliteration|Mong|n}}, {{Transliteration|Mong|ɣ}}, and {{Transliteration|Mong|š}}, can be found sporadically dotted or altogether lacking them. Additionally, both {{Transliteration|Mong|q}} and {{Transliteration|Mong|ɣ}} could be (double-)dotted to identify them regardless of their sound values. Final dotted {{Transliteration|Mong|n}} is also found in modern Mongolian words. Any diacritical dots of {{Transliteration|Mong|ɣ}} and {{Transliteration|Mong|n}} can be offset downward from their respective letters {{Nowrap|(as in {{MongolUnicode|ᠭᠣᠣᠯ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} File:Brush-written γool 2.svg {{Transliteration|Mong|ɣool}} and {{MongolUnicode|ᠭᠦᠨ{{nnbsp}}ᠢ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}}#Unicode File:Brush-written gün-i 2.svg {{Transliteration|Mong|gün{{nbh}}i}}).}}

• When a bow-shaped consonant is followed by a vowel in Uyghur style text, said bow can be found to notably overlap it (see {{Transliteration|Mong|bi}}). A final {{Transliteration|Mong|b}} has, in its final pre-modern form, a bow-less final form as opposed to the common modern one:{{Rp|page=39}}

• As in {{Transliteration|Mong|kü}}, {{Transliteration|Mong|köke}}, {{Transliteration|Mong|ǰüg}} and separated {{Transliteration|Mong|a}}/{{Transliteration|Mong|e}}, two teeth can also make up the top-left part of a kaph ({{Transliteration|Mong|k}}/{{Transliteration|Mong|g}}) or aleph ({{Transliteration|Mong|a}}/{{Transliteration|Mong|e}}) in pre-classical texts. In back-vocalic words of Uyghur Mongolian, {{Transliteration|Mong|qi}} was used in place of {{Transliteration|Mong|ki}}, and can therefore be used to identify this stage of the written language. An example of this appears in the suffix {{Nowrap|File:Block-printed -taqi -daqi 2.svg {{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}taqi}}/{{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}daqi}}.{{Rp|pages=100, 117}}}}

• In pre-modern Mongolian, medial {{Transliteration|Mong|ml}} ({{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠮᠯ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}}) forms a ligature: File:Mongolian script ml ligature.svg.

File:Block-printed čiγšabd 2.svg

• A pre-modern variant form for final {{Transliteration|Mong|s}} appears in the shape of a short final {{Transliteration|Mong|n}} {{Nowrap|{{Angbr|{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠰ{{fvs|1}}|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}}}}}}, derived from Old Uyghur zayin ({{Lang|oui-Ougr|𐽴}}). It tended to be replaced by the mouth-shaped form and is no longer used. An early example of it is found in the name of Gengis Khan on the Stele of Yisüngge: {{Nowrap|{{MongolUnicode|ᠴᠢᠩᠭᠢᠰ{{fvs|1}}|lang=mn}}}} {{Transliteration|Mong|Činggis}}. A zayin-shaped final can also appear as part of final {{Transliteration|Mong|m}} and {{Transliteration|Mong|ɣ}}.

• Initial taw ({{Transliteration|Mong|t}}/{{Transliteration|Mong|d}}) can, akin to final mem ({{Transliteration|Mong|m}}), be found written quite explicitly loopy (as in {{Transliteration|Mong|nom}} 'book' and {{Transliteration|Mong|toli}} 'mirror'). The lamedh ({{Transliteration|Mong|t}} or {{Transliteration|Mong|d}}) may appear simply as an oval loop or looped shin, or as more angular, with an either closed or open counter (as in {{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}daki}}/{{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}deki}} or {{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}dur}}/{{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}dür}}). As in {{Transliteration|Mong|metü}}, a Uyghur style word-medial {{Transliteration|Mong|t}} can sometimes be written with the pre-consonantal form otherwise used for {{Transliteration|Mong|d}}. Taw was applied to both initial {{Transliteration|Mong|t}} and {{Transliteration|Mong|d}} from the outset of the script's adoption. This was done in imitation of Old Uyghur which, however, had lacked the phoneme {{Transliteration|Mong|d}} in this position.

• Following the late classical Mongolian orthography of the 17th and 18th centuries, a smooth and angular tsade ({{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠵ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} and {{MongolUnicode|ᠴ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}}) has come to represent {{Transliteration|Mong|ǰ}} and {{Transliteration|Mong|č}} respectively. The tsade before this was used for both these phonemes, regardless of graphical variants, as no {{Transliteration|Mong|ǰ}} had existed in Old Uyghur:

• As in {{Transliteration|Mong|sara}} and {{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}dur}}/{{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}dür}}, a resh (of {{Transliteration|Mong|r}}, and sometimes of {{Transliteration|Mong|l}}) can appear as two teeth or crossed shins; adjacent, angled, attached to a shin and/or overlapping.

Mongolia Biometric Ordinary Passport 2023.jpg|Decorative 'wrapped/folded' letters on a 2023 passport.{{Rp|page=159}}{{Rp|page=160}}|alt=Decorative 'wrapped/folded' letters on a 2023 passport.: 159 : 160

File:Mongolian Calligraphy (2).jpg|Mongolian calligraphy of the 13th century work Оюун Түлхүүр (Key of Intelligence)

File:Imperial Seal of Bogd Khan.jpg|Imperial seal of the Bogd Khan, ca 1911.

File:Inner Mongolia Museum horse-riding paizi.jpg|Mixed Manchu–Mongolian text on a Paiza.

File:Čoyijod Dagini manuscript 01.jpg|Brush-written {{Transliteration|Mong|Čoyijod Dagini}} manuscript, 19th century

File:Book of Jeremiah in Mongolian Script, 1840.jpg|Book of Jeremiah, printed 1840 at Khodon in Siberia.

The Mongolian script was added to the Unicode standard in September 1999 with the release of version 3.0. However, several design issues have been pointed out.{{Cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/~lisa/mongoliandocs/mwg2-12Currentproblems-LiangHai.pdf|title=Current problems in the Mongolian encoding|last=Liang|first=Hai|date=23 Sep 2017|website=Unicode|access-date=4 June 2019|archive-date=15 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190615151834/https://www.unicode.org/~lisa/mongoliandocs/mwg2-12Currentproblems-LiangHai.pdf}}

• The 1999 Mongolian script Unicode codes are duplicated and not searchable.
• The 1999 Mongolian script Unicode model has multiple layers of FVS (free variation selectors), MVS, ZWJ, NNBSP, and those variation selections conflict with each other, which create incorrect results.{{Cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2018/18314-mongolian-ad-hoc.pdf|title=Mongolian Ad Hoc meeting summary|last=Anderson|first=Debbie|date=22 Sep 2018|website=Unicode}} Furthermore, different vendors understood the definition of each FVS differently, and developed multiple applications in different standards.{{Cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/~lisa/mongolianwg3docs/mwg3-13SummaryOfMWG2GoalsForMWG3R3.pdf|title=Summary of MWG2 Outcomes and Goals for MWG3 Meeting|last=Moore|first=Lisa|date=27 Mar 2019|website=Unicode.Org}}
• The characters themselves are typed left to right, instead of the correct up to down.

{{Main|Mongolian (Unicode block) | Mongolian Supplement | l2 = Mongolian Supplement (Unicode block)}}

The Unicode block for Mongolian is U+1800–U+18AF. It includes letters, digits and various punctuation marks for Hudum Mongolian, Todo Mongolian, Xibe (Manchu), Manchu proper, and Ali Gali, as well as extensions for transcribing Sanskrit and Tibetan.

{{Unicode chart Mongolian}}

The Mongolian Supplement block (U+11660–U+1167F) was added to the Unicode Standard in June 2016 with the release of version 9.0:

{{Unicode chart Mongolian Supplement}}

The Windows Mongolian traditional script keyboard layout for personal computers is as follows:{{Cite web |last=jowilco |title=Windows keyboard layouts - Globalization |url=https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/globalization/windows-keyboard-layouts |access-date=2023-09-02 |website=Windows keyboard layouts |date=22 June 2023 |language=en-us}}

{{Portal|Language}}

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• Soyombo script
• Mongolian Latin alphabet
• SASM/GNC romanization § Mongolian
• Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet
• Mongolian transliteration of Chinese characters
• {{Ill|Sino–Mongolian Transliterations|zh|中蒙联合转写}}
• Mongolian Braille
• Mongolian Sign Language
• Mongolian name

{{NoteFoot|20em}}

{{Reflist}}

{{Commons category|Mongolian script}}

• [https://www.lexilogos.com/keyboard/mongolian_bichig.htm Lexilogos]
• [https://www.typingbaba.com/keyboard/online-mongolian-keyboard.php Typingbaba]
• [https://www.branah.com/mongolian Branah.com]

• [https://www.istb.univie.ac.at/mongol/grammar/poppe/popindex.htm University of Vienna: Grammar of Written Mongolian by Nicholas POPPE Index]
• [http://www.cjvlang.com/Writing/writmongol/mongolalpha.html CJVlang: Making Sense of the Traditional Mongolian Script]
• [http://www.studymongolian.net/lessons/basics/writing/ StudyMongolian: Written forms with audio pronunciation]
• [http://www.viahistoria.com/SilverHorde/main.html?research/MongolScripts.html The Silver Horde: Mongol Scripts]
• [http://www.linguamongolia.com/ Lingua Mongolia: Uighur-script Mongolian Resources] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319200601/http://www.linguamongolia.com/ |date=2022-03-19 }}
• [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/mongolian.htm Omniglot: Mongolian Alphabet] (contains several table inaccuracies regarding glyphs and transliterations)

• (fr) Rémusat, Abel [https://books.google.com/books?id=aG5nAAAAcAAJ Récherches sur les langues tartares], Paris, 1820

• (ru) Schmidt, Isaak Jakob, [https://archive.org/details/grammatikamongol00schm/page/n5/mode/2up Грамматика монгольскaго языка (Grammatika mongolʹskago i︠a︡zyka)], Saint-Petersburg, 1832
• (ru) Bobrovnikov, Aleksieĭ Aleksandrovich [https://books.google.com/books?id=H7c9AAAAYAAJ Грамматика монгольско-калмыцкого языка (Grammatika mongolʹsko-kalmyt͡skago i͡azyka)], Kazan, 1849
• (de) Schmidt, Isaak Jakob, [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_qtMzxWTKkeQC/page/n5/mode/2upGrammatik der mongolischen Sprache], St. Petersburg, 1831
• (fr) Soulié, Charles Georges, [https://archive.org/details/lmentsdegrammai00soulgoog/page/n9/mode/2up Éléments de grammaire mongole (dialecte ordoss)], Paris, 1903
• (it) Puini, Carlo, [https://archive.org/details/puini-elementi-della-grammatica-mongolica-1878/page/n7/mode/2up Elementi della grammatica mongolica], Firenze, 1878

• (fr, ru) Kovalevskiĭ, Osip Mikhaĭlovich, [https://www.google.it/search?hl=it&tbo=p&tbm=bks&q=bibliogroup:%22Dictionnaire+mongol-russe-franca%CC%A7is%22 Dictionnaire Mongol-Russe-Franca̧is], Volumes 1–3, Kazan 1844-46-49
• [http://www.bolor-toli.com/ Bolor Dictionary] (sometimes uses galik characters for rendering purposes)
• [https://mongoltoli.mn/dictionary/ Mongol toli dictionary: state dictionary of Mongolia]

• [https://collab.its.virginia.edu/wiki/tibetan-script/Transliteration%20Schemes%20for%20Mongolian%20Vertical%20Script.html University of Virginia: Transliteration Schemes For Mongolian Vertical Script]
• [http://www.ushuaia.pl/transliterate/?ln=en Online tool for Mongolian script transliteration]
• [http://trans.mglip.com/EnglishC2T.aspx Automatic converter for Traditional Mongolian and Cyrillic Mongolian by the Computer College of Inner Mongolia University]

• [http://www.eurasia.city.yokohama.jp/olonsume/index-E.html Mongolian Manuscripts from Olon Süme – Yokohama Museum of EurAsian Cultures]
• [http://www.kb.dk/en/nb/samling/os/central/digcentral.html Digitised Mongolian manuscripts – The Royal Library], National Library of Denmark
• [http://turfan.bbaw.de/dta/monght/dta_monght_index.htm Mongolian texts – Digitales Turfan-Archiv], the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities
• [https://eap.bl.uk/project/EAP890 Preservation of unique and historic newspapers printed in traditional Mongolian script between 1936–1945 – Endangered Archives Programme, British Library]

• [http://mongol.people.com.cn/ Official Mongolian script version of the People's Daily Online]
• [https://president.mn/mng/ Office of the President of Mongolia] website in Mongolian script
• {{cite web |url = https://www.thetimes.com/world/russia-ukraine-war/article/mongolia-abandons-soviet-past-by-restoring-alphabet-rsvcgqmxd |title = Mongolia abandons Soviet past by restoring alphabet |first = Didi |last = Tang |date = 20 March 2020 |website = The Times |access-date = 21 March 2020 }}

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