Northern England#Transport

For government and statistical purposes, Northern England is defined as the area covered by the three northernmost statistical regions of England: North East England, North West England and Yorkshire and the Humber.{{sfn|IPPR North|2012|pages=20–22}} This area consists of the ceremonial counties of Cheshire, Cumbria, County Durham, East Riding of Yorkshire, Greater Manchester, Lancashire, Merseyside, Northumberland, North Yorkshire, South Yorkshire, Tyne and Wear and West Yorkshire, plus the unitary authority areas of North Lincolnshire and North East Lincolnshire within the ceremonial county Lincolnshire.

{{Multiple image

| image1 = Northern England-Historic counties.svg

| caption1 = Northern England (red) as defined along historic county boundaries against the rest of England. Cheshire (purple) is also often included.

| image2 = Northern England historic counties.png

| caption2 = Close-up labelled map of Northern England and its traditional counties.

}}

Other definitions use historic county boundaries, in which case the North is generally taken to comprise Cumberland, Northumberland, Westmorland, County Durham, Lancashire and Yorkshire, often supplemented by Cheshire.{{sfn|Wales|2006|pages=13–14}} The boundary is sometimes drawn without reference to human borders, using geographic features such as the River Mersey (the line between the Humber and Mersey estuaries being a common boundary) and River Trent.{{sfn|Russell|2004|pages=15–16}} The Isle of Man is occasionally included in broad geographical definitions of "the North" (for example, by the Survey of English Dialects, VisitBritain and BBC North West), although it is politically and culturally distinct from England.{{sfn|Wales|2006|pages=13–14}}

Some areas of Derbyshire, Lincolnshire, Nottinghamshire and Staffordshire have northern characteristics and include satellites of northern cities.{{sfn|Russell|2004|pages=15–16}} Towns in the High Peak borough of Derbyshire are included in the Greater Manchester Built-Up Area, as villages and hamlets there such as Tintwistle, Crowden and Woodhead were formerly in Cheshire before local government boundary changes in 1974,{{cite web|url=http://www.carlscam.com/gazet-m.htm|title=Gazetteer of Cheshire|website=Carlscam.com|access-date=22 December 2018}} due to their close proximity to the city of Manchester, and before this the borough was considered to be part of the Greater Manchester Statutory City Region. More recently, the Chesterfield, North East Derbyshire, Bolsover, and Derbyshire Dales districts have joined with districts of South Yorkshire to form the Sheffield City Region, along with the Bassetlaw District of Nottinghamshire, although for all other purposes these districts still remain in their respective East Midlands counties. Some parts of northern Derbyshire (including High Peak), Shropshire and Staffordshire are served by BBC North West. Some areas of Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire are served by BBC Yorkshire (formerly BBC North), whilst eastern Yorkshire shares its BBC region with Lincolnshire and small parts of Nottinghamshire and north west Norfolk.{{cite web |title=BBC nations and regions – overview map |url=https://ukfree.tv/maps/bbc |website=UK Free TV |access-date=20 June 2024}} The historic part of Lincolnshire known as Lindsey (in essence the northern half of the county) is considered by many to be northern, or at least a larger part of Lincolnshire than merely the north and northeast Lincolnshire districts. The geographer Danny Dorling includes most of the West Midlands and part of the East Midlands in his definition of the North, claiming that "ideas of a midlands region add more confusion than light".{{cite web |url=http://www.sasi.group.shef.ac.uk/maps/nsdivide/ |title=The North-South Divide – Where is the line? |year=2007 |website=University of Sheffield |access-date=3 March 2017 |first=Danny |last=Dorling |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104200115/http://www.sasi.group.shef.ac.uk/maps/nsdivide/ |archive-date=4 November 2016 }}

Conversely, more restrictive definitions of Northern England also exist. Some are based on the extent of the historical Northumbria, which excludes Cheshire and northern Lincolnshire, though the latter formed the Kingdom of Lindsey, which was periodically under Northumbrian rule. The Redcliffe-Maud Report (1969) proposed that southern Cheshire be grouped with north Staffordshire as part of a West Midlands province as opposed to a North West England one.{{cite web |title=Long shadows: 50 years of the Local Government Act 1972 |url=https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/long-shadows-50-years-of-the-local-government-act-1972/ |website=UK Parliament – House of Commons Library |date=26 October 2022 |access-date=25 June 2024 |last1=Sandford |first1=Mark }} Occasionally, "Northern England" may be used to describe England's northernmost reaches only, broadly the North East and Cumbria, excluding the entirety, or at least the majority, of Lancashire and Yorkshire. Some settlements, including Sheffield, located in the far south of what would typically be defined as "the North", have been referred to as being in the "North Midlands" as opposed to "the North".{{cite book |last=Turner |first=Graham |date=1967 |title=The North Country |location=London, UK |publisher=Eyre & Spottiswoode |page=15}}

{{Location map many

| float = left

| UK England

| caption = Various "gateways" to the North

| label1 = Watford Gap

| link1 = Watford Gap

| coordinates1= {{coord|52.306|-1.124}}

| label2 = Stoke-on-Trent

| link2 = Stoke-on-Trent

| coordinates2= {{coord|53|00|N|2|11|W}}

| label3 = Crewe

| link3 = Crewe

| position3 = left

| coordinates3= {{coord|53.099|-2.24}}

| label4 = Sheffield

| link4 = Sheffield

| coordinates4= {{coord|53|23|01|N|1|28|01|W}}

| label5 = Richmond

| link5 = Richmond, North Yorkshire

| coordinates5= {{coord|54.403|-1.737}}

}}

Personal definitions of the North vary greatly. When asked to draw a dividing line between North and South, Southerners tend to draw this line further south than Northerners do.{{cite book|year=2008|first1=Bernd|last1=Kortmann|first2=Clive|last2=Upton|title=The British Isles|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-020839-9|page=122}} From the Southern perspective, Northern England is sometimes defined jokingly as the area north of the Watford Gap between Northampton and Leicester{{efn|Not to be confused with the town of Watford on the northern edge of London, which is used to define the North only in London-centric jokes.{{sfn|Maconie|2007|page=31}}}} – a definition which would include much of the Midlands.{{cite book|title=Reading the Everyday|first=Joe|last=Moran|page=107|publisher=Taylor and Francis|year=2005|isbn=978-0-415-31709-2}} Various cities and towns have been described as or promoted themselves as the "gateway to the North", including Crewe,{{sfn|Maconie|2007|page=35}} Stoke-on-Trent,{{cite web |url=http://www.stokesentinel.co.uk/big-issue-alastair-campbell-asks-stoke-trent/story-28207957-detail/story.html |title=Big Issue: Alastair Campbell asks is Stoke-on-Trent in the Midlands or the North? |newspaper=Stoke Sentinel |date=20 November 2015 |access-date=15 March 2017 |first=Phil |last=Corrigan |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151121011659/http://www.stokesentinel.co.uk/Big-Issue-Alastair-Campbell-asks-Stoke-Trent/story-28207957-detail/story.html |archive-date=21 November 2015 }} and Sheffield.{{cite news|url=http://www.thestar.co.uk/news/what-could-the-great-exhibition-of-the-north-look-like-in-sheffield-1-8040932 |title=What could the Great Exhibition of the North look like in Sheffield? |date=29 July 2016 |access-date=3 March 2017 |first=Alex |last=Moore |newspaper=Sheffield Star |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908005946/http://www.thestar.co.uk/news/what-could-the-great-exhibition-of-the-north-look-like-in-sheffield-1-8040932 |archive-date= 8 September 2016 }} For some in the northernmost reaches of England, the North starts somewhere in North Yorkshire around the River Tees – the Yorkshire poet Simon Armitage suggests Thirsk, Northallerton or Richmond – and does not include cities like Manchester and Leeds, nor the majority of Yorkshire.{{cite book|title=All Points North|year=2009|author=Simon Armitage|publisher=Penguin|isbn=978-0-14-192397-0}}{{sfn|Wales|2006|page=12}} Northern England is not a homogeneous unit,{{sfn|Russell|2004|pages=18–19}} and some have entirely rejected the idea that the North exists as a coherent entity, claiming that considerable cultural differences across the area overwhelm any similarities.{{cite news|url=http://www.citymetric.com/politics/there-no-such-thing-north-why-devolution-must-be-regions-cities-1897 |title="There is no such thing as the North": why devolution must be to the region's cities |first=Ben |last=Harrison |date=8 March 2016 |access-date=3 March 2017 |newspaper=New Statesman |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160520152831/http://www.citymetric.com/politics/there-no-such-thing-north-why-devolution-must-be-regions-cities-1897 |archive-date=20 May 2016 }}{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/11331485/Will-the-Conservatives-ever-be-loved-in-the-North.html |title=Will the Conservatives ever be loved in the North? |first=James |last=Kirkup |date=8 January 2015 |access-date=3 March 2017 |newspaper=Daily Telegraph |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170304122243/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/11331485/Will-the-Conservatives-ever-be-loved-in-the-North.html |archive-date= 4 March 2017 }}

{{see also|Geography of England}}

File:Gaps through Pennine Mountains UK topographic map.gif of Northern England, showing the Pennines and river valleys.|alt=A relief map of the Pennines]]

The Pennines, an upland range sometimes referred to as "the backbone of England" run through most of the area defined as northern England, which stretches from the Tyne Gap to the Peak District. Other uplands in the North include the Lake District with England's highest mountains, the Cheviot Hills adjoining the border with Scotland, and the North York Moors near the North Sea coastline.{{cite book |title=A Nature Conservation Review |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YPQaFxH-AZYC&q=pennines+lake+district+north+york+moors+cheviots&pg=PA315 |publisher=Derek Ratcliffe |access-date=2 October 2018|isbn=9780521203296 |date=26 January 2012 }}

The geography of the North has been heavily shaped by the ice sheets of the Pleistocene era, which often reached as far south as the Midlands. Glaciers carved deep, craggy valleys in the central uplands, and, when they melted, deposited large quantities of fluvio-glacial material in lowland areas like the Cheshire and Solway Plains.{{cite web|url=http://research.historicengland.org.uk/redirect.aspx?id=5450%7CGeoarchaeology%20in%20Northern%20England%20I.%20The%20Landscape%20and%20Geography%20of%20Northern%20England|title=Geoarchaeology in Northern England I. The Landscape and Geography of Northern England|first=Maria Raimonda|last=Usai|year=2005|access-date=4 March 2017}} On the eastern side of the Pennines, a former glacial lake forms the Humberhead Levels: a large area of fenland which drains into the Humber and which is very fertile and productive farmland.

File:Scafell Pike.JPG

Much of the mountainous upland remains undeveloped, and of the ten national parks in England, five – the Peak District, the Lake District, the North York Moors, the Yorkshire Dales, and Northumberland National Park – are located partly or entirely in the North.{{efn|Part of the Peak District is located in the Midlands statistical regions.}} {{cite web|url=http://naturalengland.org.uk/ourwork/conservation/designations/nationalparks/default.aspx|archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20140605195638/http://naturalengland.org.uk/ourwork/conservation/designations/nationalparks/default.aspx|title=National Parks|archive-date=5 June 2014|access-date=5 March 2017|publisher=Natural England}}{{cite web|url=https://www.visitengland.com/northernengland/itineraries/nine-northern-englands-most-awe-inspiring-national-parks-and-aonbs#/ |title=9 of Northern England's most awe-inspiring national parks and AONBs |website=Visit England |access-date=5 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161021165040/https://www.visitengland.com/northernengland/itineraries/nine-northern-englands-most-awe-inspiring-national-parks-and-aonbs |archive-date=21 October 2016 |date=14 October 2015 }} The Lake District includes England's highest peak, Scafell Pike, which rises to {{cvt|978|metres}}, its largest lake, Windermere, and its deepest lake, Wastwater.{{cite web|url=http://www.lakedistrict.gov.uk/learning/factsandfigures |title=Facts and Figures |website=Lake District National Park |access-date=5 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161021142948/http://www.lakedistrict.gov.uk/learning/factsandfigures |archive-date=21 October 2016 |date=24 May 2005 }} Northern England is one of the most treeless areas in Europe, and to combat this the government plans to plant over 50 million trees in a new Northern Forest.{{cite news|last1=Harrabin|first1=Roger|title=Plan to grow new Northern Forest|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-42591494|date=7 January 2018|access-date=2 March 2018|work=BBC News}}

{{-}}

File:British Isles at night by VIIRS (cropped).jpg in the southern Pennines and north east coast is clearly visible in night-time imagery.]]Uniquely for such a large urban belt in Europe, the cities in this region are all as recent as the Industrial Revolution – most of them previously scattered villages.{{cite web |last=Caunce |first=Stephen |date=7 July 2015 |title=An economic history of the north of England. Part 1: Medieval failure and the "urban desert" |url=http://www.citymetric.com/skylines/economic-history-north-england-part-1-medieval-failure-and-urban-desert-1202 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160520093937/http://www.citymetric.com/skylines/economic-history-north-england-part-1-medieval-failure-and-urban-desert-1202 |archive-date=20 May 2016 |access-date=5 March 2017 |website=CityMetric}} Vast urban areas have emerged along the coasts and rivers, and they run almost contiguously into each other in places. Near the east coast, trade fuelled the growth of major ports and settlements (Kingston upon Hull, Newcastle upon Tyne,{{efn|Named "Hull" and "Newcastle" respectively throughout the rest of this article.}}, Middlesbrough and Sunderland) to create multiple urban areas.{{cite book |last=McCord |first=Norman |title=Issues of Regional Identity: In Honour of John Marshall |publisher=Manchester University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7190-5028-2 |editor=Edward Royle |pages=108–109 |chapter=North East England}} Inland needs of trade and industry produced an almost continuous urbanisation from the Wirral Peninsula to Doncaster, taking in the cities of Liverpool, Manchester, Leeds, and Sheffield, with a population of at least 7.6 million.{{cite web |date=27 May 2015 |title=Is the Liverpool-Manchester-Leeds-Sheffield corridor a single urban region? |url=http://www.citymetric.com/skylines/liverpool-manchester-leeds-sheffield-corridor-single-urban-region-1070 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160722150914/http://www.citymetric.com/skylines/liverpool-manchester-leeds-sheffield-corridor-single-urban-region-1070 |archive-date=22 July 2016 |access-date=5 March 2017 |website=CityMetric}}

Analysis by The Northern Way in 2006 found that 90% of the population of the North lived in and around: Liverpool, Central Lancashire, Manchester, Sheffield, Leeds, Hull and Humber Ports, Tees Valley and Tyne and Wear.{{cite web |title=The eight City Regions of the North |url=http://www.thenorthernway.co.uk/page.asp?id=51 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070209013854/http://www.thenorthernway.co.uk/page.asp?id=51 |archive-date=9 February 2007 |access-date=5 March 2017 |website=The Northern Way}} At the 2011 census, 86% of the Northern population lived in urban areas as defined by the Office for National Statistics, compared to 82% for England as a whole.{{cite web |date=22 November 2013 |title=2011 Census Analysis – Comparing Rural and Urban Areas of England and Wales |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/dcp171776_337939.pdf |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20160105160709/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/dcp171776_337939.pdf |archive-date=5 January 2016 |access-date=12 March 2017 |publisher=Office for National Statistics}}

{{Largest cities

| country = Northern England

| stat_ref = 2021 Census{{cite web|url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/visualisations/dvc2257a/fig1/datadownload.xlsx|title=Figure 1: Explore population characteristics of individual BUAs|access-date=7 August 2021}}

| list_by_pop =

| kind = cities and towns

| div_link = Counties of England{{!}}Counties

|img_1=Park Row - Leeds.jpg

|img_2= The Royal Liver Building, Liverpool - geograph.org.uk - 3892203.jpg

|img_3= A view of Charles Street, from Pinstone Street, Sheffield - geograph.org.uk - 1236310.jpg

|img_4= London Road, Manchester - geograph.org.uk - 1951741.jpg

|city_1 = Leeds

|div_1 = West Yorkshire

|pop_1 = 536,280

|city_2 = Liverpool

|div_2 = Merseyside

|pop_2 = 506,565

|city_3 = Sheffield

|div_3 = South Yorkshire

|pop_3 = 500,535

|city_4 = Manchester

|div_4 = Greater Manchester

|pop_4 = 470,405

|city_5 = Bradford

|div_5 = West Yorkshire

|pop_5 = 333,950

|city_6 = Newcastle-upon-Tyne

|div_6 = Tyne and Wear

|pop_6 = 286,445

|city_7 = Kingston upon Hull

|div_7 = East Riding of Yorkshire

|pop_7 = 270,810

|city_8 = Bolton

|div_8 = Greater Manchester

|pop_8 = 184,090

|city_9 = Warrington

|div_9 = Cheshire

|pop_9 = 174,970

|city_10 = Sunderland

|div_10 = Tyne and Wear

|pop_10 = 168,315

|city_11 = Blackpool

|div_11 = Lancashire

|pop_11 = 149,070

|city_12 = Middlesbrough

|div_12 = North Yorkshire

|pop_12 = 148,215

|city_13 = York

|div_13 = North Yorkshire

|pop_13 = 141,685

|city_14 = Huddersfield

|div_14 = West Yorkshire

|pop_14 = 141,675

|city_15 = Blackburn

|div_15 = Lancashire

|pop_15 = 124,955

|city_16 = Stockport

|div_16 = Greater Manchester

|pop_16 = 117,935

|city_17 = Gateshead

|div_17 = Tyne and Wear

|pop_17 = 115,280

|city_18 = Rochdale

|div_18 = Greater Manchester

|pop_18 = 111,255

|city_19 = Oldham

|div_19 = Greater Manchester

|pop_19 = 110,720

|city_20 = Salford

|div_20 = Greater Manchester

|pop_20 = 108,410

}}

Due to differing definitions and city limits, the list of largest towns and cities may be misleading. For example while Manchester is ranked fourth as a city, the greater urban area it leads (Greater Manchester Built-up Area) is the largest in the region and larger than Leeds's urban area (West Yorkshire Built-up Area) despite Leeds being the largest as a sole city.{{Cite web |last=jonnelledge |date=2019-10-07 |title=Which is England's second city? |url=https://www.citymonitor.ai/analysis/which-england-s-second-city-4805/ |access-date=2024-07-31 |website=CityMonitor |language=en-US}} The table below shows the urban areas in the region with a population of at least 250,000.

Peat is found in thick, plentiful layers across the Pennines and Scottish Borders, and there are many large coalfields, including the Great Northern, Lancashire and South Yorkshire Coalfields. Millstone grit, a distinctive coarse-grained rock used to make millstones, is widespread in the Pennines, and the variety of other rock types is reflected in the architecture of the region, such as the bright red sandstone seen in buildings in Chester, the cream-buff Yorkstone and the distinctive purple Doddington sandstone.{{cite book|title=Materials for Architects and Builders|first=Arthur|last=Lyons|page=326|year=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-66736-0}} These sandstones also mean that apart from the east coast, most of Northern England has very soft water, and this has influenced not just industry, but even the blends of tea enjoyed in the region.{{cite book|title=The First Industrial Revolution|first=P. M.|last=Deane|pages=93–95|isbn=978-0-521-29609-0|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1979}}{{cite book|title=An Introduction to Global Environmental Issues|first1=Kevin T.|last1=Pickering|first2=Lewis A.|last2=Owen|page=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontogl0002pick/page/167 167]|year=1997|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-14098-0|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontogl0002pick/page/167}}; {{cite web |url=http://www.waterwise.org.uk/pages/water-hardness.html |title=Water Hardness |website=Waterwise.org.uk |year=2006 |access-date=14 March 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170315085206/http://www.waterwise.org.uk/pages/water-hardness.html |archive-date=15 March 2017 }}; {{cite web |url=https://www.yorkshiretea.co.uk/brew-news/everything-you-ever-wanted-to-know-about-hard-water |title=Everything You Ever Wanted To Know About Hard Water... |date=9 February 2012 |access-date=14 March 2017 |website=Yorkshire Tea |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160730000419/https://www.yorkshiretea.co.uk/brew-news/everything-you-ever-wanted-to-know-about-hard-water |archive-date=30 July 2016 }}

Rich deposits of iron ore are found in Cumbria and the North East, and fluorspar and baryte are also plentiful in northern parts of the Pennines.{{cite journal|last1=Stone |first1=P. |last2=Millward |first2=D. |last3=Young |first3=B. |last4=Merritt |first4=J. W. |last5=Clarke |first5=S. M. |last6=McCormac |first6=M. |last7=Lawrence |first7=D. J. D. |year=2010 |title=British regional geology: Northern England |journal=British Geological Survey |url=http://earthwise.bgs.ac.uk/index.php/Metalliferous_and_associated_minerals,_geology_and_man,_Northern_England |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170318172649/http://earthwise.bgs.ac.uk/index.php/Metalliferous_and_associated_minerals%2C_geology_and_man%2C_Northern_England |archive-date=18 March 2017 }} Salt mining in Cheshire has a long history, and both remaining rock salt mines in Great Britain are in the North: Winsford Mine in Cheshire and Boulby Mine in North Yorkshire, which also produces half of the UK's potash.{{cite news|url=http://www.winsfordguardian.co.uk/news/13929617.Transport_minister_visits_Winsford_rock_salt_mine_in_preparation_for_Winter_chill/|title=Transport minister visits Winsford rock salt mine in preparation for Winter chill|first=Kenny|last=Lomas|date=2 November 2015|access-date=17 March 2017|newspaper=Winsford Guardian}}{{cite hansard|url=https://hansard.parliament.uk/commons/2017-02-27/debates/36A273E2-5292-415A-9C5C-4423590EBC9C/ICLBoulbyPotashMine|title=ICL Boulby Potash Mine|speaker=Blenkinsop, Tom|volume=622|column=131|jurisdiction=United Kingdom |house=House of Commons}}

{{see also|Climate of the United Kingdom}}

Northern England has a cool, wet oceanic climate with small areas of subpolar oceanic climate in the uplands.Calculated using data from WorldClim.org. {{cite journal|last1=Hijmans|first1=R.J.|first2=S.E.|last2=Cameron|first3=J.L.|last3=Parra|first4=P.G.|last4=Jones|first5=A.|last5=Jarvis|year=2005|title=Very high resolution interpolated climate surfaces for global land areas|journal=International Journal of Climatology|volume=25|issue=15|pages=1965–1978|doi=10.1002/joc.1276|bibcode=2005IJCli..25.1965H|s2cid=8615577 }} Averaged across the entire region,{{efn|The Met Office climate region "England N" is defined as the whole of England north of the 53°N parallel, approximately from Stoke-on-Trent to the Wash, and also includes the Isle of Man.{{cite web|url=http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/about/regions-map|title=UK climate regions map|website=Met Office|access-date=31 May 2017}}}} Northern England temperature range and sunshine duration is similar to the UK average and it sees substantially less rainfall than Scotland or Wales. It is cooler, wetter and cloudier than England as a whole, containing both England's coldest (Cross Fell) and rainiest point (Seathwaite Fell). These averages disguise considerable variation across the region, due chiefly to the upland regions and adjacent seas.{{cite web|url=http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/regional-climates/ne |title=North East England: climate |date=10 October 2016 |access-date=16 March 2017 |website=Met Office |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161011032150/http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/regional-climates/ne |archive-date=11 October 2016 }} {{cite web|url=http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/regional-climates/nw |title=North West England & Isle of Man: climate |date=10 October 2016 |access-date=16 March 2017 |website=Met Office |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161212034259/http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/regional-climates/nw |archive-date=12 December 2016 }}{{cite web|url=http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/public/weather/climate/gcw2hzs1u#averagesTable |title=Manchester Climate Information (Region: England N tab) |website=Met Office |access-date=16 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316205917/http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/public/weather/climate/gcw2hzs1u |archive-date=16 March 2017 }}

The prevailing winds across the British Isles are westerlies bringing moisture from the Atlantic; this means that the west coast frequently receives strong winds and heavy rainfall while the east coast lies in a rain shadow behind the Pennines. As a result the coast north of the Humber are the driest parts of the North, the Tees basin has {{cvt|600|mm}} of rain per year while parts of the Lake District receive over {{cvt|3200|mm}}. Lowland regions in the more southern parts of Northern England (such as Cheshire and South Yorkshire) are the warmest with average maximum July temperatures of over {{cvt|21|°C}}: the highest points in the Pennines and Lake District reach only {{cvt|17|°C}}. The North has a reputation for cloud and fog – with the west's high average rainfall and the east coast experiences a distinctive sea fret. Smog in urban areas was prevalent from the beginning of the Industrial Revolution; sunshine duration has increased in urban areas in recent years with the Clean Air Act 1956 and the area's heavy industry in decline.

{{Weather box|location = the England N climate region, 1981–2010

|collapsed =

|metric first = y

|single line = y

|Jan high C = 6.4

|Feb high C = 6.6

|Mar high C = 8.8

|Apr high C = 11.4

|May high C = 14.7

|Jun high C = 17.3

|Jul high C = 19.4

|Aug high C = 19.1

|Sep high C = 16.5

|Oct high C = 12.8

|Nov high C = 9.1

|Dec high C = 6.7

|year high C = 12.4

|Jan low C = 0.7

|Feb low C = 0.6

|Mar low C = 2.1

|Apr low C = 3.4

|May low C = 6.0

|Jun low C = 8.9

|Jul low C = 11.0

|Aug low C = 10.9

|Sep low C = 8.9

|Oct low C = 6.2

|Nov low C = 3.2

|Dec low C = 0.9

|year low C = 5.3

|Jan precipitation mm = 94.1

|Feb precipitation mm = 69.2

|Mar precipitation mm = 75.2

|Apr precipitation mm = 64.9

|May precipitation mm = 61.0

|Jun precipitation mm = 71.9

|Jul precipitation mm = 72.3

|Aug precipitation mm = 82.4

|Sep precipitation mm = 80.8

|Oct precipitation mm = 100.6

|Nov precipitation mm = 98.1

|Dec precipitation mm = 99.2

|year precipitation mm = 969.8

| unit precipitation days = 1 mm

| Jan precipitation days = 14.2

| Feb precipitation days = 11.1

| Mar precipitation days = 12.5

| Apr precipitation days = 10.9

| May precipitation days = 10.5

| Jun precipitation days = 10.7

| Jul precipitation days = 10.7

| Aug precipitation days = 11.5

| Sep precipitation days = 10.9

| Oct precipitation days = 13.6

| Nov precipitation days = 14.3

| Dec precipitation days = 13.7

| year precipitation days = 144.5

|Jan sun = 49.4

|Feb sun = 70.5

|Mar sun = 101.9

|Apr sun = 142.4

|May sun = 182.8

|Jun sun = 166.7

|Jul sun = 175.6

|Aug sun = 164.0

|Sep sun = 126.7

|Oct sun = 94.0

|Nov sun = 58.7

|Dec sun = 43.5

|year sun = 1376.2

|source 1 = Met Office

|date=November 2012

}}

File:Foot-strut split.svg isogloss.{{cite book|title=An Atlas of English Dialects|first1=Clive|last1=Upton|first2=John David Allison|last2=Widdowson|year=2006|isbn=978-0-19-869274-4|publisher=Oxford University Press|url=https://archive.org/details/atlasofenglishdi00upto}}|alt=A map of England, with isoglosses showing how different regions pronounce "sun"]]

{{main|Northern England English}}

The English spoken today in the North has been shaped by the area's history, and some dialects retain features inherited from Old Norse and the local Celtic languages.{{sfn|Wales|2006|pages=43–45, 55–59}} They are a dialectal continuum, middle areas that have a crossover between varieties spoken, around the North. Traditional dialectal areas are defined by their historic county or combined historic counties; including Cumbrian (Cumberland and Westmorland), Lancastrian (Lancashire), Northumbrian (Northumberland and Durham) and Tyke (Yorkshire). During the Industrial Revolution urban areas gained some or further distinction from traditional dialects; such as areas Mackem (Wearside), Mancunian (Manchester), Pitmatic (Great Northern Coalfield), Geordie (Tyneside), Smoggie (Teesside), Scouse (Liverpool) and around Hull.

Linguists have attempted to define a Northern dialect area, some correspond the area north of a line that begins at the Humber estuary and runs up the River Wharfe and across to the River Lune in north Lancashire.{{cite book|title=Accents of English|volume=2|pages=349–350|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1982|isbn=978-0-521-28540-7|first=John C.|last=Wells}} This area corresponds roughly to the sprachraum of the Old English Northumbrian dialect, although the linguistic elements that defined this area in the past, such as the use of doon instead of down and substitution of an ang sound in words that end -ong (lang instead of long), are now prevalent only in the more northern parts of the region. As speech has changed, there is little consensus on what defines a "Northern" accent or dialect.{{sfn|Hickey|2015|p=1}}

Northern English accents have not undergone the TRAP–BATH split, and a common shibboleth to distinguish them from Southern ones is the Northern use of the short a (the near-open front unrounded vowel) in words such as bath and castle.{{cite web|url=http://www.bl.uk/learning/langlit/sounds/changing-voices/phonological-change/trap-bath-split/ |title=The TRAP~BATH Split |website=The British Library |access-date=3 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161212034113/http://www.bl.uk/learning/langlit/sounds/changing-voices/phonological-change/trap-bath-split/ |archive-date=12 December 2016 }} On the opposite border, most Northern English accents can be distinguished from Scottish accents because they are non-rhotic, although some Lancashire and Northumberland accents remain rhotic.{{sfn|Hickey|2015|pp=11–12}} Other features common to many Northern English accents are the absence of the FOOT–STRUT split (so put and putt are homophones), the reduction of the definite article the to a glottal stop (usually represented in writing as t{{'}} or occasionally th{{'}}, although it is often not pronounced as a /t/ sound) or its total elision, and the T-to-R rule that leads to the pronunciation of t as a rhotic consonant in phrases like get up ({{IPA|[ɡɛɹ ʊp]}}).{{sfn|Hickey|2015|pp=12–13}}

The pronouns thou and thee survive in some Northern English dialects, although these are dying out outside very rural areas, and many dialects have an informal second-person plural pronoun: either ye (common in the North East) or yous (common in areas with historical Irish communities).{{sfn|Hickey|2015|pp=85–86}} Many dialects use me as a possessive ("me car") and some treat us likewise ("us cars") or use the alternative wor ("wor cars"). Possessive pronouns are also used to mark the names of relatives in speech (for example, a relative called Joan would be referred to as "our Joan" in conversation).{{sfn|Hickey|2015|pp=83–85}}

With urbanisation, distinctive urban accents have arisen which often differ greatly from the historical accents of the surrounding rural areas and sometimes share features with Southern English accents.{{sfn|Hickey|2015|p=1}} Northern English dialects remain an important part of the culture of the region, and the desire of speakers to assert their local identity has led to accents such as Scouse and Geordie becoming more distinctive and spreading into surrounding areas.{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/howaboutthat/6927109/British-regional-accents-still-thriving.html |title=British regional accents "still thriving" |first=Richard |last=Savill |date=3 January 2010 |access-date=3 March 2017 |newspaper=Daily Telegraph |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160522185109/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/howaboutthat/6927109/British-regional-accents-still-thriving.html |archive-date=22 May 2016 }}

File:Ullswater (geograph 3932818) (cropped).jpg of the Lake District are immortalised in Wordsworth's "I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud".]]

The contrasting geography of Northern England is reflected in its literature. On the one hand, the wild moors and lakes have inspired generations of Romantic authors: the poetry of William Wordsworth and the novels of the Brontë sisters are perhaps the most famous examples of writing inspired by these elemental forces. Classics of children's literature such as The Railway Children (1906), The Secret Garden (1911) and Swallows and Amazons (1930) portray these largely untouched landscapes as worlds of adventure and transformation where their protagonists can break free of the restrictions of society.{{sfn|Cockin|2012|p=218}} Modern poets such as the Poets Laureate Ted Hughes and Simon Armitage have found inspiration in the Northern countryside, producing works that take advantage of the sounds and rhythms of Northern English dialects.{{cite news|url=http://www.newstatesman.com/2013/11/heathcliff-and-angry-young-men |title=The A-Z of northern fiction |first1=Frances |last1=Wilson |first2=Philip |last2=Maughan |newspaper=New Statesman |date=5 December 2013 |access-date=23 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170425100219/http://www.newstatesman.com/2013/11/heathcliff-and-angry-young-men |archive-date=25 April 2017 }}{{cite news|first=Melvyn |last=Bragg |author-link=Melvyn Bragg |title=London? Scotland? No, it's the North that has given the most to art, literature, language and comedy |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/books/authors/london-scotland-no-its-the-north-that-has-given-the-most-to-art/ |date=26 August 2016 |access-date=23 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161031035809/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/books/authors/london-scotland-no-its-the-north-that-has-given-the-most-to-art/ |archive-date=31 October 2016 }}

Meanwhile, the industrialising and urbanising cities of the North gave rise to many masterpieces of social realism. Elizabeth Gaskell was the first in a lineage of female realist writers from the North that later included Winifred Holtby, Catherine Cookson, Beryl Bainbridge and Jeanette Winterson.{{cite book|title=The Woman's Historical Novel: British Women Writers, 1900–2000|first=D. |last=Wallace|page=20|year=2004|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-230-50594-0}} Many of the angry young men of post-war literature were Northern, and working-class life in the face of deindustrialisation is depicted in novels such as Room at the Top (1959), Billy Liar (1959), This Sporting Life (1960) and A Kestrel for a Knave (1968).{{cite book|contribution=Introduction|contributor-first=Blake|contributor-last=Morrison|title=Billy Liar|year=2010|orig-year=1959|first=Keith|last=Waterhouse|publisher=Penguin|isbn=978-0-14-195803-3}}

There are no recognised minority languages in Northern England, although the Northumbrian Language Society campaigns to have the Northumbrian dialect recognised as a separate language.{{cite web|url=http://www.northumbriana.org.uk/langsoc/ |title=What is the Northumbrian Language Society? |website=The Northumbrian Language Society |year=2013 |access-date=13 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161015204522/http://www.northumbriana.org.uk/langsoc/ |archive-date=15 October 2016 }} It is possible that traces of now-extinct Brythonic Celtic languages from the region survive in some rural areas in the Yan Tan Tethera counting systems traditionally used by shepherds.{{cite book|title=Cultural Evolution|first= Kate |last=Distin|year=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-18971-2|page=93}}

Contact between English and immigrant languages has given rise to new accents and dialects. For instance, the variety of English spoken by Poles in Manchester is distinct both from typical Polish-accented English and from Mancunian.{{sfn|Hickey|2015|pp=459–469}} At a local level, the diversity of immigrant communities means that some languages that are extremely rare in the country as a whole have strongholds in Northern towns: Bradford for instance has the largest proportion of Pashto speakers, while Manchester has most Cantonese speakers.

File:RudstonMonolith(StephenHorncastle)Apr2006.jpg, from the late Neolithic or early Bronze Age, is the tallest megalith in Great Britain.{{PastScape |num=79482 |desc=Rudston Monolith |access-date=16 May 2017}}|alt=A 7.6 metre (26 foot) pillar of stone in a graveyard.]]

During the ice ages, Northern England was buried under ice sheets, and little evidence remains of habitation – either because the climate made the area uninhabitable, or because glaciation destroyed most evidence of human activity.{{sfn|Pettit|White|2012|pp=489, 497}} The northernmost cave art in Europe is found at Creswell Crags in northern Derbyshire, near modern-day Sheffield, which shows signs of Neanderthal inhabitation 50 to 60 thousand years ago, and of a more modern occupation known as the Creswellian culture around 12,000 years ago.{{cite web|url=https://www.dur.ac.uk/archaeology/research/projects/all/?mode=project&id=639 |publisher=Durham University |title=Palaeolithic art and archaeology of Creswell Crags, UK |access-date=5 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017013852/https://www.dur.ac.uk/archaeology/research/projects/all/?mode=project&id=639 |archive-date=17 October 2015 }} The dates given in the source are 28,000 14C years ago for the Gravettian and 12,500 to 12,200 14C years ago for the Magdalenian. The 14C radiocarbon dating years have been adjusted to give calendar ('real') years. Kirkwell Cave in Lower Allithwaite, Cumbria shows signs of the Federmesser culture of the Paleolithic, and was inhabited some time between 13,400 and 12,800 years ago.{{sfn|Pettit|White|2012|pp=480–481}}

Significant settlement appears to have begun in the Mesolithic era, with Star Carr in North Yorkshire generally considered the most significant monument of this era.{{cite news|url=https://www.york.ac.uk/news-and-events/news/2011/research/heritage-minister-star-carr/ |title=Heritage Minister gives protection to Star Carr |date=19 December 2011 |access-date=5 March 2017 |website=University of York |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170306034517/https://www.york.ac.uk/news-and-events/news/2011/research/heritage-minister-star-carr/ |archive-date= 6 March 2017 }}{{cite book|title=An Archaeological History of Britain: Continuity and Change from Prehistory to the Present|first=Jonathan Mark|last=Eaton|date=12 December 2014|isbn=978-1-4738-5103-0|publisher=Pen and Sword}} The Star Carr site includes Britain's oldest known house, from around 9000 BC, and the earliest evidence of carpentry in the form of a carved tree trunk from 11000 BC.{{cite web|url=https://www.archaeology.co.uk/articles/return-to-star-carr-discovering-the-true-size-of-a-mesolithic-settlement.htm |title=Return to Star Carr: Discovering the true size of a Mesolithic settlement |date=6 August 2013 |access-date=5 March 2017 |website=Current Archaeology |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170306034332/https://www.archaeology.co.uk/articles/return-to-star-carr-discovering-the-true-size-of-a-mesolithic-settlement.htm |archive-date= 6 March 2017 }}

The Lincolnshire and Yorkshire Wolds around the Humber Estuary were settled and farmed in the Bronze Age, and the Ferriby Boats – one of the best-preserved finds of the era – were discovered near Hull in 1937.{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1234529.stm |title=Bronze Age boat "oldest in Europe" |work=BBC News |access-date=18 March 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071219060226/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1234529.stm |archive-date=19 December 2007 }} In the more mountainous regions of the Peak District, hillforts were the main Bronze Age settlement and the locals were most likely pastoralists raising livestock.{{cite book|title=Bronze Age Landscapes: Tradition and Transformation|first=Willy|last=Kitchen|pages=116–118|chapter=Tenure and Territoriality in the British Bronze Age|year=2002|publisher=Oxbow Books |isbn=978-1-78570-538-0}}

File:Hadrian's wall at Greenhead Lough.jpg.|alt=A stone wall winding over a hilly landscape]]

Roman histories name the Celtic tribe that occupied the majority of Northern England as the Brigantes, likely meaning "Highlanders". Whether the Brigantes were a unified group or a looser federation of tribes around the Pennines is debated, but the name appears to have been adopted by the inhabitants of the region, which was known by the Romans as Brigantia.{{sfn|Harding|2004|page=23–27}} Other tribes mentioned in ancient histories, which may have been part of the Brigantes or separate nations, are the Carvetii of modern-day Cumbria and the Parisi of east Yorkshire.{{cite book|title=A Companion to Roman Britain|first=Michael|last=Todd|chapter=Cities and Urban Life|page=163|isbn=978-0-470-99885-4|date=15 April 2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons }}

The Brigantes allied with the Roman Empire during the Roman conquest of Britain: Tacitus records that they handed the resistance leader Caratacus over to the Empire in 51.Tacitus, Annals [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Tac.+Ann.+12.36 12:36] Power struggles within the Brigantes made the Romans wary, and they were conquered in a war beginning in the 70s under the governorship of Quintus Petillius Cerialis.{{cite book|title=Roman Britain|first=David|last=Shotter|year=2012|publisher=Routledge}} The Romans created the province of "Britannia Inferior" (Lower Britain) in the North, and it was ruled from the city of Eboracum (modern York).{{cite book|title=The Cambridge Ancient History|volume=XII|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1970|page=706}} Eboracum and Deva Victrix (modern Chester) were the main legionary bases in the region, with other smaller forts including Mamucium (Manchester) and Cataractonium (Catterick).{{cite book|title=The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 12, The Crisis of Empire, AD 193–337|pages=253–254|first=John|last=Wilkes|chapter=Frontiers and Provinces|year=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-30199-2}}{{cite book|title=Philip Perry's Sketch of the Ancient British History: A Critical Edition|first=Philip|last=Perry|page=8|year=2009|isbn=978-1-4438-0470-7|chapter=Introduction|publisher=Cambridge Scholars }} Britannia Inferior extended as far north as Hadrian's Wall, which was the northernmost border of the Roman Empire.{{efn|The Antonine Wall, across what is now the Central Belt of Scotland, was even further north, but Roman control over this area was limited.{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of European Peoples, Volume 2|first1=Carl|last1=Waldman|first2=Catherine|last2=Mason|isbn=978-1-4381-2918-1|year=2006|publisher=Infobase}}}} Although the Romans invaded modern-day Northumberland and part of Scotland beyond it, they never succeeded in conquering the reaches of Britain beyond the River Tyne.

File:England 878.svg}}{{legend|#dfc779|Other Anglo-Saxons}}{{legend|#ff91a4|Danelaw}}{{legend|#edebe6|Celts}}|upright=1]]

After the end of Roman rule in Britain and the arrival of the Angles, Yr Hen Ogledd (the "Old North") was divided into rival kingdoms, Bernicia, Deira, Rheged and Elmet.{{cite book|title=Wales and the Britons, 350–1064|first=T. M.|last=Charles-Edwards|pages=10–11|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-821731-2|year=2013}} Bernicia covered lands north of the Tees, Deira corresponded roughly to the eastern half of modern-day Yorkshire, Rheged to Cumbria, and Elmet to the western-half of Yorkshire. Bernicia and Deira were first united as Northumbria by Aethelfrith, a king of Bernicia who conquered Deira around the year 604.{{cite book|year=1991|first=D. P.|last=Kirby|title=The Earliest English Kings|pages=60–61|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-54813-2}} Northumbria then saw a Golden Age in cultural, scholarly and monastic activity, centred on Lindisfarne and aided by Irish monks.{{cite web |title=Historical background to The Golden Age |url=http://www.goldenageofnorthumbria.com/history.html |publisher=Golden Age of Northumbria |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090827225854/http://www.goldenageofnorthumbria.com/history.html |archive-date=27 August 2009 |access-date=23 February 2009}} The north-west of England retains vestiges of a Celtic culture, and had its own Celtic language, Cumbric, spoken predominately in Cumbria until around the 12th century.{{cite book|title=Imagining Medieval English: Language Structures and Theories, 500–1500|first=Tim William|last=Machan|page=140|year=2016|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-05859-0}}

Parts of the north and east of England were subject to Danish control (the Danelaw) during the Viking Age, but the northern part of the old Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria remained under Anglo-Saxon control.{{efn|In this context "Dane", from Old English word Dene, refers to Scandinavians of any kind. Most of the invaders were from modern Denmark (East Norse speakers), but some were Norwegians (West Norse speakers).{{cite book|last=Lass|first=Roger|title=Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion|page=187|volume=12|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1994}}}} Under the Vikings, monasteries were largely wiped out, and the discovery of grave goods in Northern churchyards suggests that Norse funeral rites replaced Christian ones for a time.{{cite book|title=The Vikings|first=Else|last=Roesdahl|year=1998|publisher=Penguin|isbn=978-0-14-194153-0}} Viking control of certain areas, particularly around Yorkshire, is recalled in the etymology of many place names: the thorpe in town names such as Cleethorpes and Scunthorpe, the kirk in Kirklees and Ormskirk and the by of Whitby and Grimsby all have Norse roots.{{cite web|url=http://www.yorkshiredialectsociety.org.uk/viking-place-names/ |title=Viking Place Names |website=Yorkshire Dialect Society |access-date=9 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170210145207/http://www.yorkshiredialectsociety.org.uk/viking-place-names/ |archive-date=10 February 2017 }}

{{multiple images|perrow=2/2/3/1|total_width=300|header=The Historic county town strongholds

|image1= Citadel, Carlisle (geograph 7259308).jpg|caption1= Carlisle Citadel

|image2= Alnwick Castle - 20437529412.jpg|caption2= Alnwick Castle

|image3= Appleby Castle- inner gateway (geograph 4958742).jpg|caption3= Appleby Castle

|image4= Durham Castle 014.jpg|caption4= Durham Castle

|image5= Inside Lancaster Castle (geograph 5900140).jpg |caption5=Lancaster Castle

|image6= Clifford's Tower 2.jpg|caption6= York Castle

|image7= Chester Castle - geograph.org.uk - 4382212.jpg|caption7= Chester Castle}}

The 1066 defeat of the Norwegian king Harald Hardrada by the Anglo-Saxon Harold Godwinson at the Battle of Stamford Bridge near York marked the beginning of the end of Viking rule in England, and the almost immediate defeat of Godwinson at the hands of the Norman William the Conqueror at the Battle of Hastings was in turn the overthrow of the Anglo-Saxon order.{{cite book|title=Medieval Scandinavia: An Encyclopedia|page=267|first=Phillip|last=Pulsiano|year=1993|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-8240-4787-0}} The Northumbrian and Danish aristocracy resisted the Norman Conquest, and to put an end to the rebellion, William ordered the Harrying of the North. In the winter of 1069–1070, towns, villages and farms were systematically destroyed across much of Yorkshire as well as northern Lancashire and County Durham.{{cite web|url=http://www.historytoday.com/james-aitcheson/harrying-north |title=The Harrying of the North |first=James |last=Aitcheson |date=12 October 2016 |access-date=9 March 2017 |website=History Today |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312034206/http://www.historytoday.com/james-aitcheson/harrying-north |archive-date=12 March 2017 }}{{cite book|title=Rural settlement in Britain|first=Brian K.|last=Roberts|publisher=Dawson|year=1977|isbn=978-0-7129-0701-9|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/ruralsettlementi0000robe}} The region was gripped by famine and much of Northern England was deserted. Chroniclers at the time reported a hundred thousand deaths – modern estimates place the total somewhere in the tens of thousands, out of a population of two million. When the Domesday Book was compiled in 1086, much of Northern England was still recorded as wasteland, although this may have been in part because the chroniclers, more interested in manorial farmland, paid little attention to pastoral areas.{{sfn|Jewell|1994|pp=86–88}}

File:Fountains abbey 011 (19132005443).jpg, now another World Heritage Site|alt=The ruined walls of a large abbey with a tower]]

Following Norman subjugation, monasteries returned to the North as missionaries sought to "settle the desert".{{cite journal|title=The Cistercian Order and the Settlement of Northern England|first=R. A.|last=Donkin|journal=Geographical Review|volume=59|issue=3|year=1969|pages=403–416|doi=10.2307/213484|jstor=213484|bibcode=1969GeoRv..59..403D }} Monastic orders such as the Cistercians became significant players in the economy of Northern England – the Cistercian Fountains Abbey in North Yorkshire became the largest and richest of the Northern abbeys, and would remain so until the Dissolution of the Monasteries.{{cite web|title=Fountains Abbey History |url=http://cistercians.shef.ac.uk/fountains/ |publisher=University of Sheffield |access-date=9 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225152851/http://cistercians.shef.ac.uk/fountains/ |archive-date=25 February 2012 |url-status=dead }} Other Cistercian abbeys are at Rievaulx, Kirkstall and Byland. The 7th-century Whitby Abbey was Benedictine and Bolton Abbey, Augustinian. A significant Flemish immigration followed the conquest, which likely populated much of the desolated regions of Cumbria, and which was persistent enough that the town of Beverley in the East Riding of Yorkshire still had an ethnic enclave called Flemingate in the thirteenth century.{{cite book|title=Flanders and the Anglo-Norman World, 1066–1216|pages=183–184|first=Eljas|last=Oksanen|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-57650-5|date=13 September 2012}}

During the Anarchy, Scotland invaded Northern England and took much of the land north of the Tees. In the 1139 peace treaty that followed, Prince Henry of Scotland was made Earl of Northumberland and kept the counties of Cumberland, Westmorland and Northumbria, as well as part of Lancashire. These reverted to English control in 1157, establishing for the most part the modern England–Scotland border.{{cite book|title=Kingship and Unity|first=G. W.  S.|last=Barrow|isbn=978-1-4744-0183-8|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|year=2015}} The region also saw violence during The Great Raid of 1322 when Robert the Bruce invaded and raided the whole of Northern England. There was also the Wars of the Roses, including the decisive Battle of Wakefield, although the modern-day conception of the war as a conflict between Lancashire and Yorkshire is anachronistic – Lancastrians recruited from across Northern England, including Yorkshire, even requiring mercenaries from Scotland and France, while the Yorkists drew most of their power from Southern England, Wales and Ireland.{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/war-of-the-roses-part-ii-6289574.html |title=War Of The Roses Part II |date=14 January 2012 |access-date=9 March 2017 |first=Jonathan |last=Brown |newspaper=The Independent |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120221055651/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/war-of-the-roses-part-ii-6289574.html |archive-date=21 February 2012 }} The Anglo-Scottish Wars also touched the region, and in just 400 years, Berwick-upon-Tweed – now the northernmost town in England – changed hands more than a dozen times.{{cite book |last1=Pevsner |first1=Nikolaus |author1-link=Nikolaus Pevsner |last2=Richmond |first2=Ian A |author2-link=Ian Richmond |last3=Grundy |first3=John |author3-link=John Grundy (television presenter) |last4=McCombie |first4=Grace |last5=Ryder |first5=Peter |last6=Welfare |first6=Peter |year=1992 |orig-year=1957 |title=Northumberland |series=The Buildings of England |location=Yale |publisher=Yale University Press|page=173}} The wars also saw thousands of Scots settle south of the border, chiefly in the border counties and Yorkshire.{{cite web|url=https://www.englandsimmigrants.com/search/chart/england?chartFacet=residenceCounty.untouched&originNationalityCombined_untouched_facet=&page=1&chartType=england&residenceCounty_untouched_facet=Cheshire%7CYorkshire+East+Riding%7CDurham%7CYorkshire+West+Riding%7CYorkshire+North+Riding%7CNorthumberland%7CCumberland%7CWestmorland%7CYork%7CLancashire&residenceCounty_untouched_facet_size=100000&documentStartDateDecade_untouched_facet_size=10#documentStartDateDecade-untouched-facet |title=Map showing results by Residence: County |website=England's Immigrants 1350–1550 |access-date=9 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908202933/https://www.englandsimmigrants.com/search/chart/england?chartFacet=residenceCounty.untouched |archive-date= 8 September 2015 }}

After the English Reformation, the North saw several Catholic uprisings, including the Lincolnshire Rising, Bigod's Rebellion in Cumberland and Westmorland, and largest of all, the Yorkshire-based Pilgrimage of Grace, all against Henry VIII.{{cite web|url=http://tudortimes.co.uk/military-warfare/the-pilgrimage-of-grace |title=The Pilgrimage of Grace |date=2 December 2014 |access-date=3 March 2017 |website=Tudor Times |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161015052650/http://tudortimes.co.uk/military-warfare/the-pilgrimage-of-grace |archive-date=15 October 2016 }} His daughter Elizabeth I faced another Catholic rebellion, the Rising of the North.{{cite book|title=The English Catholics in the Reign of Queen Elizabeth|first=John Hungerford |last=Pollen|year=1920|publisher=Longmans|chapter=Chapter IV: The Rising of the North}} The region would become the centre of recusancy as prominent Catholic families in Cumbria, Lancashire and Yorkshire refused to convert to Protestantism.{{sfn|Jewell|1994|pages=177–178}} Royal power over the region was exercised through the Council of the North at King's Manor, York, which was founded in 1484 by Richard III. The Council existed intermittently for the next two centuries – its final incarnation was created in the aftermath of the Pilgrimage of Grace and was chiefly an institution for providing order and dispensing justice.{{cite web|url=http://www.historytoday.com/stephen-cooper/council-north |title=The Council of the North |first1=Stephen |last1=Cooper |first2=Ashley |last2=Cooper |website=History Today |date=29 April 2015 |access-date=9 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224052534/http://www.historytoday.com/stephen-cooper/council-north |archive-date=24 February 2017 }}

Northern England was a focal point for fighting during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. The border counties were invaded by Scotland in the Second Bishops' War, and at the 1640 Treaty of Ripon King Charles I was forced to temporarily cede Northumberland and County Durham to the Scots and pay to keep the Scottish armies there.{{cite web|url=http://bcw-project.org/military/bishops-wars/second-bishops-war |title=The Second Bishops' War, 1640 |access-date=10 March 2017 |website=BCW |date=24 November 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160406181642/http://bcw-project.org/military/bishops-wars/second-bishops-war |archive-date= 6 April 2016 }} To raise enough funds and ratify the final peace treaty, Charles had to call what became the Long Parliament, beginning the process that led to the First English Civil War. In 1641, the Long Parliament abolished the Council of the North for perceived abuses during the Personal Rule period. By the time war broke out in 1642, King Charles had moved his court to York, and Northern England was to become a major base of the Royalist forces until they were routed at the Battle of Marston Moor.{{cite web|url=http://bcw-project.org/military/english-civil-war/northern-england/index |title=Civil War in Northern England |access-date=10 March 2017 |website=BCW |date=8 March 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160419100720/http://bcw-project.org/military/english-civil-war/northern-england/index |archive-date=19 April 2016 }}

File:Salts Mill.jpeg, West Yorkshire, one of two industrial World Heritage Sites in the North|alt=A large mill above a weir on a wide river]]

At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, Northern England had plentiful coal and water power while the poor agriculture in the uplands meant that labour in the area was cheap. Mining and milling, which had been practised on a small scale in the area for generations, began to grow and centralise.{{cite web|url=http://www.citymetric.com/skylines/economic-history-north-england-part-3-industrial-revolution-arrives-1209 |title=An economic history of the north of England. Part 3: The industrial revolution arrives |first=Stephen |last=Caunce |date=9 July 2015 |access-date=9 March 2017 |website=CityMetric |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906061840/http://www.citymetric.com/skylines/economic-history-north-england-part-3-industrial-revolution-arrives-1209 |archive-date= 6 September 2015 }} The boom in industrial textile manufacture is sometimes attributed to the damp climate and soft water making it easier to wash and work fibres, although the success of Northern fabric mills has no single clear source. Readily available coal and the discovery of large iron deposits in Cumbria and Cleveland allowed ironmaking and, with the invention of the Bessemer process, steelmaking to take root in the region. High quality steel in turn fed the shipyards that opened along the coasts, especially on Tyneside and at Barrow-in-Furness.{{cite web|url=http://www.dockmuseum.org.uk/Iron-and-Steelworks |title=Iron and Steelworks in Barrow |website=Barrow Dock Museum |access-date=9 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170226014557/http://www.dockmuseum.org.uk/Iron-and-Steelworks |archive-date=26 February 2017 }}

File:Liverpool Pier Head.jpg, now part of the Liverpool Maritime Mercantile City former World Heritage Site, greeted migrants from around the world.|alt=The Three Graces, three grand early twentieth century office buildings, on the bank of the River Mersey]]

The Great Famine in Ireland of the 1840s drove migrants across the Irish Sea, and many settled in the industrial cities of the North, especially Manchester and Liverpool – at the 1851 census, 13% of the population of Manchester and Salford were Irish-born, and in Liverpool the figure was 22%.{{cite book|title=Building Jerusalem: The Rise and Fall of the Victorian City|first=Tristram|last=Hunt|publisher=Hachette|author-link=Tristram Hunt|isbn=978-0-297-86594-0|year=2010}} In response there was a wave of anti-Catholic riots and Protestant Orange Orders proliferated across Northern England, chiefly in Lancashire, but also elsewhere in the North. By 1881 there were 374 Orange organisations in Lancashire, 71 in the North East, and 42 in Yorkshire.{{cite book|title=Political Parties in Britain 1783–1867|first=Eric J.|last=Evans|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-83561-3|year=2006}}{{cite book|title=Faith, Fraternity and Fighting: The Orange Order and Irish Migrants in Northern England|first=Donald M.|last=MacRaild|publisher=Liverpool University Press|isbn=978-0-85323-939-0|year=2005}} From further afield, Northern England saw immigration from European countries such as Germany, Italy, Poland, Russia and Scandinavia. Some immigrants were well-to-do industrialists seeking to do business in the booming industrial cities, some were escaping poverty, some were servants or slaves, some were sailors who chose to settle in the port towns, some were Jews fleeing pogroms on the continent, and some were migrants originally stranded at Liverpool after attempting to catch an onwards ship to the United States or to colonies of the British Empire.{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/manchester/content/articles/2007/10/03/031007_migrant_history_manchester_feature.shtml |title=Manchester: Migrant city |first=Jonathan |last=Schofield |website=BBC |date=3 October 2017 |access-date=10 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925071426/http://www.bbc.co.uk/manchester/content/articles/2007/10/03/031007_migrant_history_manchester_feature.shtml |archive-date=25 September 2015 }}{{cite news|title=Ciao, pet: A history of Italian immigration to Newcastle and the North East |first=Mike |last=Kelly |date=23 December 2014 |access-date=10 March 2017 |newspaper=Newcastle Chronicle |url=http://www.chroniclelive.co.uk/news/north-east-news/ciao-pet-history-italian-immigration-8305071 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160717081018/http://www.chroniclelive.co.uk/news/north-east-news/ciao-pet-history-italian-immigration-8305071 |archive-date=17 July 2016 }}{{cite web|title=Liverpool as a Diasporic City|first=John|last=Herson|url=http://www.ehs.org.uk/dotAsset/26ce2dec-e3c7-41cc-b1f1-c6af42ade9e4.doc|format=DOC|publisher=Liverpool John Moores University|access-date=10 March 2017|archive-date=12 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312051412/http://www.ehs.org.uk/dotAsset/26ce2dec-e3c7-41cc-b1f1-c6af42ade9e4.doc|url-status=dead}} At the same time, hundreds of thousands from depressed rural areas of the North emigrated, chiefly to the US, Canada, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand.{{cite web|url=https://britishheritage.com/north-british-migration-from-the-irish-sea-to-the-allegheny-mountains/ |title=North British Migration: From the Irish Sea to the Allegheny Mountains |date=12 June 2016 |access-date=13 March 2017 |first=Clare |last=Hopley |website=British Heritage |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151124035831/http://www.britishheritage.com/north-british-migration-from-the-irish-sea-to-the-allegheny-mountains/ |archive-date=24 November 2015 }}{{cite book|title=The Australian People|chapter=Immigration from Northern England|year=2001|page=300|first=James|last=Jupp|isbn=978-0-521-80789-0|publisher=Cambridge University Press}}

File:The River Tyne & Baltic Flour Mills (7880784038).jpg, formerly an industrial building, is a symbol of the regeneration of Gateshead.|upright=1.2|alt=A warehouse signed "Baltic Flour Mills" surrounded by modern buildings.]]

The First World War was the turning point for the economy of Northern England. In the interwar years, the Northern economy began to be eclipsed by the South – in 1913–1914, unemployment in "outer Britain" (the North, plus Scotland and Wales) was 2.6% while the rate in Southern England was more than double that at 5.5%, but in 1937 during the Great Depression the outer British unemployment rate was 16.1% and the Southern rate was less than half that at 7.1%.{{cite thesis|title=Roots of Employment|volume=1|first=Frank Davies|last=Newbury|year=1945|page=1|publisher=Cornell University}} The weakening economy and interwar unemployment caused several episodes of social unrest in the region, including the 1926 general strike and the Jarrow March. The Great Depression highlighted the weakness of Northern England's specialised economy: as world trade declined, demand for ships, steel, coal and textiles all fell.{{cite book|title=The Economics of the Great Depression|first=Mark|last=Wheeler|publisher=W.E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research|year=1998|page=31|isbn=978-0-88099-192-6}} For the most part, Northern factories were still using nineteenth-century technology, and were not able to keep up with advances in industries such as motors, chemicals and electricals, while the expansion of the electric grid removed the North's advantages in terms of power generation and meant it was now more economic to build new factories in the Midlands or South.{{cite book|title=Regional Development in the 1990s: The British Isles in Transition|chapter=The Macroeconomic Context|first1=Ron|last1=Martin|first2=Peter|last2=Townroe|page=270|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-03688-0}}

The industrial concentration in Northern England made it a major target for Luftwaffe attacks during the Second World War. The Blitz of 1940–1941 saw major raids on Barrow-in-Furness, Hull, Leeds, Manchester, Merseyside, Newcastle and Sheffield with thousands killed and significant damage done. Liverpool, a vital port for supplies from North America, was especially hard hit – the city was the most bombed in the UK outside London and Hull, with around 4,000 deaths across Merseyside and most of the city centre destroyed.{{cite web|url=http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/maritime/exhibitions/blitz/blitz.aspx |title=The Blitz |website=Merseyside Maritime Museum |access-date=10 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160528225044/http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/maritime/exhibitions/blitz/blitz.aspx |archive-date=28 May 2016 }} Hull, the worst bombed city outside of London suffered damage to 98% of all buildings, the highest percentage of any town or city. The rebuilding that followed, and the simultaneous slum clearance that saw whole neighbourhoods demolished and rebuilt, transformed the faces of Northern cities.{{sfn|Russell|2004|p=65}} Immigration from the "New Commonwealth", especially Pakistan and Bangladesh, starting in the 1950s reshaped Northern England once more, and there are now significant populations from the Indian subcontinent in towns and cities such as Bradford, Leeds, Preston and Sheffield.{{cite book|title=Anti-Oppressive Social Work: A Guide for Developing Cultural Competence|first=Siobhan|last=Laird|pages=73–74|year=2008|publisher=SAGE|isbn=978-1-4129-1236-5}}

Deindustrialisation continued and unemployment gradually increased during the 1970s, but accelerated during the government of Margaret Thatcher, who chose not to encourage growth in the North if it risked growth in the South.{{cite journal|url=http://www.metropolitiques.eu/The-effects-of-Thatcherism-in-the.html |title=The effects of Thatcherism in the urban North of England |first1=Mark |last1=Bailoni |translator-first=Oliver |translator-last=Waine |date=2 April 2014 |access-date=3 March 2017 |journal=Metropolitics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170304113850/http://www.metropolitiques.eu/The-effects-of-Thatcherism-in-the.html |archive-date= 4 March 2017 }}{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2013/apr/14/margaret-thatcher-20-changes-britain |title=Margaret Thatcher: 20 ways that she changed Britain |first=Julian |last=Coman |date=14 April 2013 |access-date=10 March 2017 |newspaper=The Guardian |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170410222541/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2013/apr/14/margaret-thatcher-20-changes-britain |archive-date=10 April 2017 }} The era saw the 1984–85 miners' strike, which brought hardship for many Northern mining towns. Northern metropolitan county councils, which were Labour strongholds often with very left-wing leadership (such as Militant-dominated Liverpool and the so-called "People's Republic of South Yorkshire"), had high-profile conflicts with the national government. The increasing awareness of the North–South divide strengthened the distinct Northern English identity, which, despite regeneration in some of the major cities, remains to this day.

The region saw several IRA attacks during the Troubles, including the M62 coach bombing, the Warrington bomb attacks and the 1992 and 1996 Manchester bombings. The latter was the largest bomb detonation in Great Britain since the end of the Second World War, and damaged or destroyed much of central Manchester.{{citation |title=Detonation: Rebirth of a City |last=King |first=Ray |year=2006 |publisher=Clear Publications |isbn=978-0-9552621-0-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/detonationrebirt0000king/page/139 139] |url=https://archive.org/details/detonationrebirt0000king/page/139 }} The attack led to Manchester's ageing infrastructure being rebuilt and modernised, sparking the regeneration of the city and making it a leading example of post-industrial redevelopment followed by other cities in the region and beyond.{{cite news|url=http://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/business/business-news/bomb-to-boom---manchester-a-shining-689039 |title=Bomb to boom – Manchester, a shining example to other cities |date=31 May 2012 |access-date=13 March 2017 |newspaper=Manchester Evening News |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151023194320/http://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/business/business-news/bomb-to-boom---manchester-a-shining-689039 |archive-date=23 October 2015 }}{{cite news|url=https://www.ft.com/content/510bd2bc-dbbf-11e5-98fd-06d75973fe09 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221211/https://www.ft.com/content/510bd2bc-dbbf-11e5-98fd-06d75973fe09 |archive-date=11 December 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Northern England cities' promise attracts wave of property investment |date=15 March 2016|access-date=13 March 2017|newspaper=Financial Times|first=Judith|last=Evans}}

File:Map of Northern England with settlements and traditional counties.png

At the 2021 census, Northern England had a population of 15,550,000,{{Cite web |title=Population and household estimates, England and Wales – Office for National Statistics |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationestimates/bulletins/populationandhouseholdestimatesenglandandwales/census2021 |access-date=2024-08-08 |website=www.ons.gov.uk}} in 6,659,700 households.{{Cite web |title=Population and household estimates, England and Wales: Census 2021 – Office for National Statistics |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationestimates/datasets/populationandhouseholdestimatesenglandandwalescensus2021 |access-date=2024-08-08 |website=www.ons.gov.uk}} This is an increase from the 14,933,000 (and 6,364,000 households) counted in the 2011 census, and itself a growth of 5.1% from 2001. This means that Northerners comprise 28% of the English population and 24% of the UK population.

Taken overall, 8% of the population of Northern England were born overseas (3% from the European Union including Ireland and 5% from elsewhere), substantially less than the England and Wales average of 13%, and 5% define their nationality as something other than a UK or Irish identity.{{efn|UK and Irish identities include British, Cornish, English, Irish, Northern Irish, Scottish and Welsh.}}{{cite web|url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationestimates/articles/detailedcountryofbirthandnationalityanalysisfromthe2011censusofenglandandwales/2013-05-13 |title=Detailed country of birth and nationality analysis from the 2011 Census of England and Wales |date=16 May 2013 |access-date=13 March 2017 |first=Peter |last=Stokes |website=Office for National Statistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215055051/https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationestimates/articles/detailedcountryofbirthandnationalityanalysisfromthe2011censusofenglandandwales/2013-05-13 |archive-date=15 February 2017 }}{{cite web|url=https://www.nomisweb.co.uk/census/2011/ks204ew |title=Country of birth |website=NOMIS |publisher=Office for National Statistics |access-date=13 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160804040115/https://www.nomisweb.co.uk/census/2011/ks204ew |archive-date= 4 August 2016 }}{{cite web|url=https://www.nomisweb.co.uk/census/2011/ks202ew |title=National identity |website=NOMIS |publisher=Office for National Statistics |access-date=13 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160806003508/https://www.nomisweb.co.uk/census/2011/ks202ew |archive-date= 6 August 2016 }} 90.5% of the population described themselves as white, compared to an England and Wales average of 85.9%; other ethnicities represented include Pakistani (2.9%), Indian (1.3%), Black (1.3%), Chinese (0.6%) and Bangladeshi (0.5%). The broad averages hide significant variation within the region: Allerdale and Redcar and Cleveland had a greater percentage of the population identifying as White British (97.6% each) than any other district in England and Wales, while Manchester (66.5%), Bradford (67.4%) and Blackburn with Darwen (69.1%) had among the lowest proportions of White British outside London.{{cite web|url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/culturalidentity/ethnicity/articles/ethnicityandnationalidentityinenglandandwales/2012-12-11 |title=Ethnicity and National Identity in England and Wales: 2011 |date=11 December 2012 |access-date=14 March 2017 |first=Emma |last=White |website=Office for National Statistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170315002009/https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/culturalidentity/ethnicity/articles/ethnicityandnationalidentityinenglandandwales/2012-12-11 |archive-date=15 March 2017 }}{{cite web|url=https://www.nomisweb.co.uk/census/2011/ks201uk |title=Ethnic Group |website=NOMIS |publisher=Office for National Statistics |access-date=13 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170315002208/https://www.nomisweb.co.uk/census/2011/ks201uk |archive-date=15 March 2017 }}

File:Nelson Street sign, Liverpool (2).jpg|upright=1.1]]

95% of the Northern population speak English as a first language – compared to an England and Wales average of 92%{{efn|Within Wales, native Welsh speakers are counted with native English speakers.}} – and another 4% speak English as a second language well or very well.{{cite web|url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/culturalidentity/language/articles/languageinenglandandwales/2013-03-04 |title=Language in England and Wales: 2011 |date=4 March 2013 |publisher=Office for National Statistics |access-date=13 March 2017 |archive-date=29 July 2014 |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20140729112455/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/census/2011-census-analysis/language-in-england-and-wales-2011/rpt---language-in-england-and-wales--2011.html?format=print |url-status=dead }}{{cite web|url=https://www.nomisweb.co.uk/census/2011/DC2210EWR/view/TYPE480?rows=main_language&cols=proficiency_in_english|title=DC2210EWr – Main language by proficiency in English (regional)|website=NOMIS|publisher=Office for National Statistics|access-date=13 March 2017}} The 5% of the population who have another native language are chiefly speakers of European or South Asian languages. At the 2011 census, the largest languages apart from English were Polish (spoken by 0.7% of the population), Urdu (0.6%) and Punjabi (0.5%), and 0.4% of the population speak a variety of Chinese: a similar distribution to that in the whole of England. Redcar and Cleveland has the largest proportion of the population speaking English as a first language in England, with 99.3%.

At the 2011 census, the North East and North West had the largest proportion of Christians in England and Wales; 67.5% and 67.3% respectively (the proportion in Yorkshire and the Humber was lower at 59.5%). Yorkshire and the Humber and the North West both had significant populations of Muslims – 6.2% and 5.1% respectively – while Muslims in the North East made up only 1.8% of the population. All other faiths combined comprised less than 2% of the population in all regions.{{cite web|url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/culturalidentity/religion/articles/religioninenglandandwales2011/2012-12-11#religious-affiliation-across-the-english-regions-and-wales |title=Religion in England and Wales 2011 |publisher=Office for National Statistics |date=11 December 2012 |access-date=3 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215055230/https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/culturalidentity/religion/articles/religioninenglandandwales2011/2012-12-11 |archive-date=15 February 2017 }}

The census question on religion has been criticised by the British Humanist Association as leading, and other surveys of religion tend to find very different results.{{cite web|url=https://humanism.org.uk/campaigns/successful-campaigns/census-2011/ |title=The Census Campaign 2011 |website=British Humanist Association |access-date=18 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160619231454/https://humanism.org.uk/campaigns/successful-campaigns/census-2011/ |archive-date=19 June 2016 |date=24 May 2012 }} The 2015 British Election Survey found 52% of Northerners identified as Christian (22% Anglican, 14% non-denominational Christian, 12% Roman Catholic, 2% Methodist, and 2% other Christian denominations), 40% as non-religious, 5% as Muslim, 1% as Hindu and 1% as Jewish.{{cite web |url=http://www.britishelectionstudy.com/data-object/british-election-study-2015-face-to-face-post-election-survey/ |title=Version 2.2. 2015 Face-to-face Post-election Survey (with vote validation) |date=September 2015 |access-date=3 March 2017 |website=British Election Survey |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170304113840/http://www.britishelectionstudy.com/data-object/british-election-study-2015-face-to-face-post-election-survey/ |archive-date=4 March 2017 }}

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One major manifestation of the North–South divide is in health and life expectancy statistics.{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/health/news/11865790/Life-expectancy-increases-to-81-years-old-but-north-south-divide-remains.html |title=Life expectancy increases to 81 years old – but north-south divide remains |first=Ashley |last=Kirk |date=15 September 2015 |access-date=14 March 2017 |newspaper=Daily Telegraph |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170315000932/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/health/news/11865790/Life-expectancy-increases-to-81-years-old-but-north-south-divide-remains.html |archive-date=15 March 2017 }} All three Northern England statistical regions have lower than average life expectancies and higher than average rates of cancer, circulatory disease, respiratory disease and obesity.{{cite web|archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20160105160709/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/regional-trends/regional-trends/no--42--2010-edition/regional-health-inequalites-in-england-and-wales.pdf|url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/regional-trends/regional-trends/no--42--2010-edition/regional-health-inequalites-in-england-and-wales.pdf|archive-date=5 January 2016|year=2010|first1=Amy|last1=Ellis|first2=Robert|last2=Fry|access-date=14 March 2017|publisher=Office for National Statistics|title=Regional health inequalities in England}}{{cite web|url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/birthsdeathsandmarriages/lifeexpectancies/bulletins/lifeexpectancyatbirthandatage65bylocalareasinenglandandwales/2015-11-04 |title=Life Expectancy at Birth and at Age 65 by Local Areas in England and Wales: 2012 to 2014 |first=Olugbenga |last=Olatunde |date=4 November 2015 |access-date=14 March 2017 |publisher=Office of National Statistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170315001636/https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/birthsdeathsandmarriages/lifeexpectancies/bulletins/lifeexpectancyatbirthandatage65bylocalareasinenglandandwales/2015-11-04 |archive-date=15 March 2017 }} Blackpool has the lowest life expectancy at birth in England – male life expectancy at birth between 2012 and 2014 was 74.7, against an England-wide average of 79.5 – and the majority of English districts in the bottom 50 were in the North East or the North West. However, regional differences do seem to be slowly narrowing: between 1991 and 1993 and 2012–2014, life expectancy in the North East increased by 6.0 years and in the North West by 5.8 years, the fastest increases in any region outside London, and the gap between life expectancy in the North East and South East is now 2.5 years, down from 2.9 in 1993.

These health inequalities manifested during the COVID-19 pandemic in high infection rates, death rates and excess mortality in Northern England, and in severe job losses in the following Great Lockdown recession.{{cite web|url=https://medicalxpress.com/news/2020-05-northern-england-harder-covid-effects.html|title=Northern England hit harder by COVID-19 and effects will last longer|author=University of Manchester|website=Medical Xpress|date=26 May 2020|access-date=1 July 2020}} By June 2020, the infection rate in Northern England was nearly double that in London,{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2020/06/01/northern-englands-covid-19-infection-rate-nearly-double-londons/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2020/06/01/northern-englands-covid-19-infection-rate-nearly-double-londons/ |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Northern Covid-19 infection rate nearly double London's |first1=Dominic|last1=Scott|first2=Patrick|last2=Scott|website=The Daily Telegraph|date=1 June 2020|access-date=1 July 2020}}{{cbignore}} and a study by the Northern Health Science Alliance found that of the six worst affected areas in England during the pandemic in their study, five were located in the North.

{{multiple images|perrow=2|total_width=300|header=

|image1= Great Hall, Leeds University - geograph.org.uk - 2477359.jpg|caption1= University of Leeds Great Hall

|image2=Manchester University Campus, February 2019.jpg|caption2= University of Manchester

|image3= Huddersfield University, Creative Arts Building - geograph.org.uk - 4303926.jpg|caption3= University of Huddersfield Creative Arts Building

|image4= 22.9.16 Elephants in Sheffield 017 (29835509646).jpg|caption4= Sheffield Hallam University

|image5= The Bluecoat School, Chester - geograph.org.uk - 4501559.jpg|caption5= University of Chester Bluecoat School

|image6= University of Bradford Richmond 24 April 2017 01.jpg |caption6=University of Bradford Richmond Building}}

Before the 19th century, there were no universities in Northern England. The first was the University of Durham, founded in 1832.{{cite web|url=https://universityhistories.com/2016/08/12/durham-university-last-of-the-ancient-universities-and-first-of-the-new-1831-1871/ |title=Durham University: Last of the Ancient Universities and First of the New (1831–1871) |date=12 August 2016 |access-date=7 March 2017 |first=Matthew |last=Andrews |website=University Histories |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160813043134/https://universityhistories.com/2016/08/12/durham-university-last-of-the-ancient-universities-and-first-of-the-new-1831-1871/ |archive-date=13 August 2016 }} The next universities built in the North were part of the wave of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with Durham being joined by five redbrick university institutions (all in the Russell Group of leading research universities): Leeds, Liverpool, Manchester, Newcastle and Sheffield. These six, plus the plateglass universities of York (also in the Russell Group) and Lancaster, form the N8 Research Partnership.{{cite web|url=http://www.n8research.org.uk/view/6189/ThePowerof8.pdf|title=The Power of 8|website=N8 Research Partnership|access-date=7 March 2017}} The universities of Central Lancashire, Salford and Teesside are part of the University Alliance. Other universities in the North include Bolton, Bradford, Chester, Cumbria, Edge Hill, Huddersfield, Hull, Leeds Trinity, Leeds Arts, Liverpool Hope, Liverpool John Moores, Manchester Metropolitan, Northumbria, Sheffield Hallam, Sunderland and York St John.

There is a significant attainment gap between Northern and Southern schools, and pupils in the three regions are less likely than the national average to achieve five higher-tier GCSEs,{{cite web|title=Review of evidence on education in the north of England|year=2016|first1=Sue|last1=Tate|first2=David|last2=Greatbatch|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/571077/Northern_schools_Final_report.pdf|access-date=9 March 2017|website=Department for Education}} although this may be down to economic disadvantages faced by Northern pupils rather than a difference in school quality.{{cite news|title=North-south schools divide "not supported by evidence" |url=https://www.theguardian.com/education/2018/sep/11/nort-south-schools-divide-not-supported-by-evidence|date=11 September 2018|access-date=2 October 2018|newspaper=The Guardian|first=Liz|last=Lightfoot}} Northern students are under-represented at Oxbridge, where three times as many places go to southerners as to northerners, and at other Southern universities; while southerners are under-represented at leading Northern universities such as Sheffield, Manchester and Leeds.{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/education-13782315 |title=North-south divide in university admissions |first=Sean |last=Coughlan |date=8 July 2011 |access-date=9 March 2017 |work=BBC News |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160205132845/http://www.bbc.com/news/education-13782315 |archive-date= 5 February 2016 }} There are calls for the government to invest in education in disadvantaged parts of Northern England to redress the disparities in educational attainment and university admissions between north and south.[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-43500164 Northern children "too often left behind", says commissioner] BBC

Like the UK as a whole, the Northern English economy is now dominated by the service sector – in September 2016, 82.2% of workers in the Northern statistical regions were employed in services, compared to 83.7% for the UK as a whole. Manufacturing now employs 9.5%, compared to the national average of 7.6%.{{cite web|url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/employmentandemployeetypes/datasets/workforcejobsbyregionandindustryjobs05 |title=JOBS05: Workforce jobs by region and industry |date=14 December 2016 |access-date=11 March 2017 |website=Office for National Statistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170422070853/https://www.ons.gov.uk/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/employmentandemployeetypes/datasets/workforcejobsbyregionandindustryjobs05 |archive-date=22 April 2017 }} The unemployment rate in Northern England is 5.3% compared to an England-wide and UK-wide average of 4.8%, and the North East has the highest unemployment rate in the UK, at 7.0% in December 2016, more than one percentage point higher than any other region.{{cite web|url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/employmentandemployeetypes/bulletins/regionallabourmarket/feb2017 |title=Regional labour market statistics in the UK: Feb 2017 |first=Bob |last=Watson |date=15 February 2017 |access-date=12 March 2017 |website=Office for National Statistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170429164830/https://www.ons.gov.uk/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/employmentandemployeetypes/bulletins/regionallabourmarket/feb2017 |archive-date=29 April 2017 }}{{cite web|url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/employmentandemployeetypes/datasets/headlinelabourforcesurveyindicatorsforallregionshi00 |title=HI00 Regional labour market: Headline LFS indicators for all regions |first=Bob |last=Watson |date=15 February 2017 |access-date=12 March 2017 |website=Office for National Statistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160919022634/http://www.ons.gov.uk/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/employmentandemployeetypes/datasets/headlinelabourforcesurveyindicatorsforallregionshi00 |archive-date=19 September 2016 }} In 2015, the gross value added (GVA) of the Northern English economy was £316 billion,{{cite web|url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/grossvalueaddedgva/datasets/regionalgrossvalueaddedincomeapproach |title=Regional Gross Value Added (Income Approach) |first=Trevor |last=Fenton |date=15 December 2016 |access-date=16 May 2017 |website=Office of National Statistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215055004/https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/grossvalueaddedgva/datasets/regionalgrossvalueaddedincomeapproach |archive-date=15 February 2017 }} and if it were an independent nation, it would be the tenth largest economy in Europe.{{cite web|url=http://www.ippr.org/files/IPPR%20North%20-%20State%20of%20the%20North%20briefing.pdf?noredirect=1|title=House of Lords State of the North Debate|author=IPPR North|date=12 January 2017|access-date=16 May 2017|archive-date=25 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225135619/https://www.ippr.org/files/IPPR%20North%20-%20State%20of%20the%20North%20briefing.pdf?noredirect=1|url-status=dead}} The region does have poor growth and productivity rates compared to Southern England and to other EU countries.{{sfn|IPPR North|2016|page=9}}

Growth, employment and household income have lagged behind the South, and the five most deprived districts in England{{efn|Middlesbrough, Knowsley, Hull, Liverpool and Manchester.}} are all in Northern England,{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/english-indices-of-deprivation-2015 |title=English indices of deprivation 2015 |date=30 September 2015 |website=Office for National Statistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220121719/https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/english-indices-of-deprivation-2015 |archive-date=20 December 2016 }}{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/public-leaders-network/gallery/2015/oct/02/england-most-least-deprived-places-in-pictures |title=Haves and have-nots: England's most and least deprived places – in pictures |date=2 October 2015 |first=Jane |last=Dudman |access-date=12 March 2017 |newspaper=The Guardian |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160326100140/http://www.theguardian.com/public-leaders-network/gallery/2015/oct/02/england-most-least-deprived-places-in-pictures |archive-date=26 March 2016 }} as are ten of the twelve most declining major towns in the UK.{{efn|Rochdale, Burnley, Bolton, Blackburn, Hull, Grimsby, Middlesbrough, Bradford, Blackpool and Wigan.}}{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2016/feb/29/uk-10-of-12-most-declining-cities-are-in-north-england-rochdale-burnley-bolton |title=Ten of top 12 most declining UK cities are in north of England – report |date=29 February 2016 |first=Frances |last=Perraudin |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=12 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160819042942/https://www.theguardian.com/society/2016/feb/29/uk-10-of-12-most-declining-cities-are-in-north-england-rochdale-burnley-bolton |archive-date=19 August 2016 }} The picture is not clear-cut, as the North has areas which are as wealthy as, if not wealthier than, fashionable Southern areas such as Surrey. Yorkshire's Golden Triangle which extends from north Leeds to Harrogate and across to York is an example, as is Cheshire's Golden Triangle, centred on Alderley Edge.{{sfn|Maconie|2007|p=227}} There are major disparities even across individual cities: Sheffield Hallam is one of the wealthiest constituencies in the country, and is the richest outside London and the South East, while Sheffield Brightside and Hillsborough, just on the other side of the city, is one of the most deprived.{{cite book|title=The Rise of the English Regions?|chapter=Yorkshire and the Humber|page=149|first1=Tony|last1=Gore|first2=Catherine|last2=Jones|year=2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-30608-4}}{{cite web|url=https://www.citymetric.com/business/sheffields-dividing-line-runs-berlin-wall-inequality-two-cities4213|title=Uniquely, Sheffield's dividing line runs directly through the city like the Berlin Wall|first=Sam|last=Gregory|website=CityMetric|date=18 September 2018|access-date=2 October 2018|archive-date=2 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181002180716/https://www.citymetric.com/business/sheffields-dividing-line-runs-berlin-wall-inequality-two-cities4213|url-status=dead}} Housing in Northern England is more affordable than the UK average: the median house price in most Northern cities was below £200,000 in 2015 with typical increases of below 10% over the previous five years. However, some areas have seen house prices fall considerably, putting inhabitants at risk of negative equity.{{cite web|url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/housing/articles/townsandcitiesanalysisenglandandwalesmarch2016/2016-03-18 |title=Towns and cities analysis, England and Wales, March 2016 |first=Richard |last=Prothero |date=18 March 2016 |access-date=13 March 2017 |website=Office for National Statistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160523124759/http://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/housing/articles/townsandcitiesanalysisenglandandwalesmarch2016/2016-03-18 |archive-date=23 May 2016 }}{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/2136114.stm |title=Housing crisis in northern England |date=18 July 2002 |access-date=13 March 2017 |work=BBC News |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910005919/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/2136114.stm |archive-date=10 September 2015 }}

The decline of coal mining and manufacturing in Northern England has led to comparisons with the Rust Belt in the United States.{{cite web |last1=Faulconbridge |first1=Guy |title=In England's forgotten "rust belt", voters show little sign of Brexit regret |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-britain-eu-voters-idUKKBN1KS0VM |website=Reuters |language=en |date=8 August 2018}} To stimulate the Northern economy, the government has organised a series of programmes to invest in and develop the region, of which the latest as of 2017 is the Northern Powerhouse. The North has also been a significant recipient of European Union Structural Funds. Between 2007 and 2013, EU funds created around 70,000 jobs in the region, and the majority of Northern Powerhouse funding comes from the European Regional Development Fund and the European Investment Bank.{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/06/01/mapped-where-in-the-uk-receives-most-eu-funding-and-how-does-thi/ |title=Mapped: Where in the UK receives most EU funding and how does this compare with the rest of Europe? |first=Daniel |last=Dunford |date=1 June 2016 |access-date=12 March 2017 |newspaper=Daily Telegraph |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160806041231/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/06/01/mapped-where-in-the-uk-receives-most-eu-funding-and-how-does-thi/ |archive-date= 6 August 2016 }} The loss of these funds following Brexit, combined with potential reductions in exports to the EU, has been identified as a threat to Northern growth.{{cite news|url=https://www.ft.com/content/173270b2-4f2a-11e6-8172-e39ecd3b86fc |title=Funding concerns for UK's northern business after Brexit vote |newspaper=Financial Times |date=22 July 2016 |access-date=12 March 2017 |first1=Andrew |last1=Bounds |first2=Chris |last2=Tighe |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170507084455/https://www.ft.com/content/173270b2-4f2a-11e6-8172-e39ecd3b86fc |archive-date= 7 May 2017 }}{{cite web|title=UK regions, the European Union and manufacturing exports|author=Sheffield Political Economy Research Institute|website=University of Sheffield|url=http://speri.dept.shef.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Brief23-UK-regions-the-EU-and-manufacturing-exports.pdf|year=2016|access-date=12 March 2017}}

The public sector is a major employer in Northern England. Between 2000 and 2008, the majority of new jobs created in Northern England were for the government and its suppliers and contractors.{{cite web|url=http://socialwelfare.bl.uk/subject-areas/services-activity/community-development/smithinstitute/1518642013_public_services_north.pdf|title=Public services north: time for a new deal?|publisher=Smith Institute|first=Michael|last=Ward|access-date=11 March 2017|pages=6, 49}}{{dead link|date=November 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}} All three Northern regions have public sector employment above the national average, and North East has the highest level in England with 20.2% of the workforce in the public sector as of 2016 – down from 23.4% a decade earlier.{{cite web|url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/publicsectorpersonnel/bulletins/publicsectoremployment/september2016|title=Public sector employment, UK: September 2016|date=14 December 2016|access-date=11 March 2017|website=Office for National Statistics}}{{cite web|archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20110824114359/http://statistics.gov.uk/statbase/product.asp?vlnk=13615|url=http://statistics.gov.uk/statbase/product.asp?vlnk=13615|website=Office for National Statistics|archive-date=24 August 2011|year=2009|access-date=11 March 2017|title=Regional analysis of public sector employment|first=Nicola|last=James}} The austerity programme under the government of David Cameron saw significant cuts to public services, and the reduction in public sector employment resulted in job losses for around 3% of the Northern England workforce with significant impact on the regional economy.

File:Track of Railway, from Ingleby Incline at Bank Foot Farm - geograph.org.uk - 1594044.jpg, are a major part of Northern English agriculture.|alt=Sheep with thick, stringy wool in a field.]]

There are {{convert|2580000|ha|acre km2 sqmi}} of farmland in Northern England.{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/statistical-data-sets/structure-of-the-agricultural-industry-in-england-and-the-uk-at-june |title=Structure of the agricultural industry in England and the UK at June |date=20 December 2016 |website=Office for National Statistics |access-date=12 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313044945/https://www.gov.uk/government/statistical-data-sets/structure-of-the-agricultural-industry-in-england-and-the-uk-at-june |archive-date=13 March 2017 }} The rough Pennine terrain means that most of Northern England is unsuited for growing crops; like Scotland, Northern farming was traditionally dominated by oats, which grow better than wheat in poor soil.{{cite web

|url = http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/counprof/britain/unitedkingdom.htm

|title = Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile: United Kingdom

|first = Alan

|last = Hopkins

|access-date = 12 March 2017

|website = Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

|year = 2008

|url-status = dead

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161029200818/http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/counprof/britain/unitedkingdom.htm

|archive-date = 29 October 2016

}}{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-12674767 |title=What is the UK's national vegetable? |first=Megan |last=Lane |date=9 March 2011 |access-date=12 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161009154903/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-12674767 |archive-date= 9 October 2016 }} Today, the mix of cereals and vegetables grown is similar to that of the UK as a whole, but only a minority of land is arable. Only 32% of Northern farmland is primarily used for growing crops, compared to 49% for England as a whole. Conversely, 57% of the land is given over to rearing livestock, and 33% of England's cattle, 43% of its pigs and 46% of its sheep and lambs are reared in the North.

The only part of the region that is predominantly given over to crops is the land around the Humber estuary, where the well-drained fens result in excellent quality land. The lowland Cheshire Plain is mostly given over to dairy farming, while in the Pennines and Cheviots grazing sheep play an important role not just in agriculture but also in land management more generally. Heather moorland in the Pennine uplands is home to driven grouse shooting from 12 August (the Glorious Twelfth) until 10 December every year. The number of grouse moors in Northern England is a major threat to natural predators, which are often killed by gamekeepers to protect grouse, and as a result, the Cumbria Wildlife Trust describes the North's moors as a "black hole" for the endangered hen harrier.{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-cumbria-44832483|title=North of England "a black hole" for hen harriers|date=15 July 2018|access-date=25 April 2019|work=BBC News}}

File:Fishing Boat at Whitby - geograph.org.uk - 3822726.jpg|alt=Three small brightly-painted boats in a harbour, with a church on the hill behind.]]

Sea fishing is an important industry for Northern coastal towns. Major fishing ports include Fleetwood, Grimsby, Hull and Whitby. At its height, Grimsby was the largest fishing port in the world, but the Northern fishing industry suffered greatly from a series of events in the second half of the twentieth century: the Cod Wars with Iceland and establishment of the exclusive economic zone ended British access to rich North Atlantic fishing grounds, while the North Sea was badly overfished and the European Common Fisheries Policy put strict quotas on catches to protect the almost depleted stocks.{{cite news|url=http://www.yorkshirepost.co.uk/our-region/east-yorkshire/how-the-cod-war-of-40-years-ago-left-a-yorkshire-community-devastated-1-7636401 |title=How the Cod War of 40 years ago left a Yorkshire community devastated |date=21 December 2015 |first=John |last=Ledger |newspaper=Yorkshire Post |access-date=12 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161102010528/http://www.yorkshirepost.co.uk/our-region/east-yorkshire/how-the-cod-war-of-40-years-ago-left-a-yorkshire-community-devastated-1-7636401 |archive-date= 2 November 2016 }}{{cite news|url=https://time.com/4351849/brexit-grimsby-fishing-capital-eu/ |title=Meet the British Fishermen Who Want Out of the E.U. |first=Tara |last=John |date=6 June 2016 |access-date=12 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161214234822/http://time.com/4351849/brexit-grimsby-fishing-capital-eu/ |archive-date=14 December 2016 |newspaper=TIME}} Grimsby is now transitioning to the processing of imported seafood and to offshore wind to replace its fishing fleet.

Northern England has a strong export-based economy, with trade more balanced than the UK average, and the North East is the only region of England to regularly export more than it imports.{{cite news|url=http://www.chroniclelive.co.uk/business/business-news/north-east-exports-top-12bn-10991790 |title=North East exports top £12bn, giving region consistent balance of trade |date=4 March 2016 |first=Coreena |last=Ford |access-date=12 March 2017 |newspaper=Chronicle Live |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160506135239/http://www.chroniclelive.co.uk/business/business-news/north-east-exports-top-12bn-10991790 |archive-date= 6 May 2016 }}{{cite web|url=https://www.uktradeinfo.com/Statistics/RTS/Pages/default.aspx |title=Region Trade Statistics Latest Release |date=4 March 2017 |access-date=12 March 2017 |website=UK Trade Info |publisher=HMRC |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170129071723/https://www.uktradeinfo.com/Statistics/RTS/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=29 January 2017 }} Chemicals, vehicles, machinery and other manufactured goods make up the majority of Northern exports, just over half of which go to EU countries. Major manufacturing plants include car plants at Vauxhall Ellesmere Port, Jaguar Land Rover Halewood and Nissan Sunderland, the Leyland Trucks factory, the Hitachi Newton Aycliffe train plant, the Humber, Lindsey and Stanlow oil refineries, the NEPIC cluster of chemical works based around Teesside, and the nuclear processing facilities at Springfields and Sellafield.{{cite web|url=https://www.transportforthenorth.com/wp-content/uploads/Northern-Powerhouse-Independent-Economic-Review-Pan-Northern-Capabilities.pdf|title=The Northern Powerhouse Independent Economic Review|publisher=SQW|date=1 May 2016|access-date=18 May 2017}}

Offshore oil and gas from North Sea and Irish Sea, and more recently offshore wind power, are significant components in Northern England's energy mix.{{cite web |url=http://origin.misc.pagesuite.com/pdfdownload/8f1ac0eb-3af7-40d1-bb25-94ca542dcc9d.pdf |title=The North of England Energy, Marine and Offshore Report |date=22 September 2016 |access-date=12 March 2017 |website=The Journal Live |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313042645/http://origin.misc.pagesuite.com/pdfdownload/8f1ac0eb-3af7-40d1-bb25-94ca542dcc9d.pdf |archive-date=13 March 2017 }} Although deep-pit coal mining in the UK ended in 2015 with the closure of Kellingley Colliery, North Yorkshire, there are still several open-pit mines in the area.{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-york-north-yorkshire-35124077 |title=Closure of Kellingley pit brings deep coal mining to an end |date=18 December 2015 |access-date=12 March 2017 |work=BBC News |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170429045926/http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-york-north-yorkshire-35124077 |archive-date=29 April 2017 }} Shale gas is especially prevalent across Northern England, although plans to extract it through hydraulic fracturing ("fracking") have proven to be controversial.{{cite news|url=https://www.ft.com/content/e8840832-41c1-11e5-9abe-5b335da3a90e |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221211/https://www.ft.com/content/e8840832-41c1-11e5-9abe-5b335da3a90e |archive-date=11 December 2022 |url-access=subscription|title=Fast-track fracking taps well of northern anger|date=13 August 2015|access-date=12 March 2017|newspaper=Financial Times|first=Andrew|last=Bounds}}

File:Leeds CBD at night.jpg

Around 10% of the Northern England workforce is employed in retail.{{sfn|IPPR North|2012|pages=190–192}} Of the Big Four supermarkets in the UK, two – Asda and Morrisons – are based in the North. Northern England was the birthplace of the modern cooperative movement, and the Manchester-based Co-operative Group has the highest revenue of any firm in the North West.{{cite news|url=http://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/business/business-news/who-north-wests-biggest-businesses-10319352 |title=Who are the north west's biggest businesses? |first=Alan |last=Jupp |date=27 October 2015 |access-date=12 March 2017 |newspaper=Manchester Evening News |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170204155954/http://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/business/business-news/who-north-wests-biggest-businesses-10319352 |archive-date= 4 February 2017 }}Wilson, J. F., Webster, A. and Vorberg-Rugh, R. (2013) "Building Co-operation: A business history of The Co-operative Group", Oxford University Press, Oxford The area is also home to many online retailers, with startups emerging around tech hubs in Northern cities.{{cite news|url=https://www.ft.com/content/d4da8ce2-dbbe-11e5-98fd-06d75973fe09 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221211/https://www.ft.com/content/d4da8ce2-dbbe-11e5-98fd-06d75973fe09 |archive-date=11 December 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=North of England tech hubs grow in strength|newspaper=Financial Times|first=Andrew|last=Bounds|date=15 March 2016|access-date=12 March 2017}}

With urban regeneration, high-value service sector industries such as corporate services and financial services have taken root in Northern England, with major hubs around Leeds and Manchester.{{sfn|IPPR North|2012|pages=190–192}} Call centres – attracted by low labour costs and a preference for Northern English accents among the public – have replaced heavy industry as major employers of unskilled workers, with more than 5% of workers in all Northern England regions working in one.{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-12691704 |title=Are call centres the factories of the 21st Century? |first=Alex |last=Hudson |date=10 March 2011 |website=BBC News |access-date=16 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150927033439/http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-12691704 |archive-date=27 September 2015 }}{{sfn|Russell|2004|page=115}}

Together, the N8 research universities have over 190,000 students and contribute more to the Northern economy in terms of GVA than agriculture, car manufacturing or media. Discoveries and inventions at these universities have resulted in spin-offs worth hundreds of millions to local economies: the discovery of graphene at the University of Manchester produced the National Graphene Institute and the Sir Henry Royce Institute for Advanced Materials, while robotics research at the University of Sheffield led to the development of the Advanced Manufacturing Park.

Recent decades have seen the growth of high-tech companies based around Northern England's major cities. There are eleven high-tech firms worth over $1 billion based in the region, and digital industries support around 300,000 jobs.{{cite web|url=http://www.cbi.org.uk/businessvoice/latest/the-uk-s-tech-clusters/ |title=The UK's tech clusters |date=3 May 2016 |access-date=12 March 2017 |website=CBI |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313043907/http://www.cbi.org.uk/businessvoice/latest/the-uk-s-tech-clusters/ |archive-date=13 March 2017 }} Game development, online retail, health technology and analytics are among the major high-tech sectors in the North.{{cite web|url=http://www.techradar.com/news/world-of-tech/can-the-north-of-england-rival-london-s-tech-city-1307993|title=Can the North of England rival London's Tech City?|first=Kane|last=Fulton|date=4 November 2015|access-date=12 March 2017}}

File:The Promenade and Tower from South Pier, Blackpool, England-LCCN2002696387.tif

The expansion of the railway network in the second half of the nineteenth century meant most in the North lived within reach of the coast, and seaside towns saw a major tourism boom. By around 1870 Blackpool on the Lancashire coast had become overwhelmingly the most popular destination – not just for Northern families, but many from the Midlands and Scotland as well.{{cite book|title=The Blackpool Landlady: A Social History|first=John|last=Walton|page=40|year=1978|publisher=Manchester University Press |isbn=978-0-7190-0723-1}} Other resorts popular with Northerners included Morecambe in northern Lancashire, Whitley Bay near Newcastle, Whitby in North Yorkshire, and New Brighton on the Wirral Peninsula, as well as Rhyl over the border in North Wales.{{cite book|title=Lancashire's Seaside Piers: Also Featuring the Piers of the River Mersey|pages=9–13|first=Martin|last=Easdown|date=November 2009|isbn=978-1-84563-093-5|publisher=Casemate}}{{cite book|title=The Forging of the Modern State: Early Industrial Britain, 1783–1870|page=395|isbn=978-1-317-87371-6|first=Eric|last=Evans|publisher=Routledge|year=2014}}

The same social forces that had built these resorts in the nineteenth century proved to be their undoing in the twentieth. Transport links continued to improve and it became possible to travel overseas quickly and affordably. The Belgian coast at Ostend became popular with Northern working-class tourists in the first half of the twentieth century, and the introduction of package holidays in the 1970s was the death of most Northern seaside resorts.{{cite web|title=Review of Working-Class Organisations and Popular Tourism, 1840–1970 |url=http://www.history.ac.uk/reviews/review/458 |website=Reviews in History |access-date=7 March 2017 |first=John K. |last=Walton |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170210155040/http://www.history.ac.uk/reviews/review/458 |archive-date=10 February 2017 }} Blackpool has maintained a focus on tourism, and remains one of the most visited towns in England, but visitor numbers are far below their peak and the town's economy has suffered – both employment rates and average earnings remain below the regional average.{{cite book|title=Coastal Towns: Session 2005–06|publisher=The Stationery Office|author=((Housing, Planning, Local Government and the Regions Committee))|page=Ev 140–141|isbn=978-0-215-02841-9|date=18 April 2006}}

The wild landscapes of the North are a major draw for tourists,{{sfn|Ehland|2007|pp=239–240}} and many urban areas are looking for regeneration through industrial, heritage and cultural tourism: of the 24 national museums and galleries in England outside London, 14 are located in the North.{{sfn|Ehland|2007|pp=65–68}} In 2015, Northern England received around a quarter of all domestic tourism within the UK, with 28.7 million visitors in 2015, but only 8% of international tourists to the United Kingdom visit the region.{{cite web|url=https://www.visitbritain.org/sites/default/files/vb-corporate/Documents-Library/documents/England-documents/128131_gbts_-_quarterly_regional_summary_-_q4_2015ve.pdf|title=Great Britain Tourism Survey Quarterly Regional Summary Q4 2015|publisher=TNS|website=VisitBritain|access-date=8 March 2017|archive-date=8 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308123903/https://www.visitbritain.org/sites/default/files/vb-corporate/Documents-Library/documents/England-documents/128131_gbts_-_quarterly_regional_summary_-_q4_2015ve.pdf|url-status=dead}}{{cite web|url=https://www.visitbritain.org/nation-region-county-data |title=Inbound nation, region & county data |website=VisitBritain |access-date=8 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170209150038/https://www.visitbritain.org/nation-region-county-data |archive-date= 9 February 2017 |date=21 April 2015 }}

File:BDUK Cumbria Fell End21 (14040070556).jpg to the North.|alt=Workers install cables in a trench in a field.]]

Manchester Network Access Point is the only internet exchange point in the UK outside London, and forms the main hub for the region.{{cite web|url=http://theconversation.com/ten-ways-manchester-is-set-to-become-one-of-the-worlds-top-digital-cities-76737 |title=Ten ways Manchester is set to become one of the world's top "digital cities" |first=David |last=Kreps |date=11 May 2017 |access-date=18 May 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170511145653/http://theconversation.com/ten-ways-manchester-is-set-to-become-one-of-the-worlds-top-digital-cities-76737 |archive-date=11 May 2017 }} Household internet access in Northern England is at or above the UK average, but speeds and broadband penetration vary greatly.{{sfn|IPPR North|2012|page=184}}{{cite web|url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/householdcharacteristics/homeinternetandsocialmediausage/bulletins/internetaccesshouseholdsandindividuals/2016 |title=Internet access – households and individuals: 2016 |date=4 August 2016 |access-date=18 May 2017 |first=Cecil |last=Prescott |website=Office of National Statistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161010204732/http://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/householdcharacteristics/homeinternetandsocialmediausage/bulletins/internetaccesshouseholdsandindividuals/2016 |archive-date=10 October 2016 }} In 2013 the average speed in central Manchester was 60 Mbit/s, while in nearby Warrington the average speed was only 6.2 Mbit/s.{{cite web|title=Broadband speed gaps exposed in north |date=4 July 2013 |first=Anthony |last=Hill |website=broadbandchoices.co.uk |url=https://www.broadbandchoices.co.uk/news/2013/07/broadband-speeds-040713 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160426132447/http://www.broadbandchoices.co.uk/news/2013/07/broadband-speeds-040713 |archive-date=26 April 2016 }} Hull, which is unique in the UK in that its telephone network was never nationalised, has simultaneously some of the fastest and slowest internet speeds in the country: many households have "ultrafast" fibre optic broadband as standard, but it is also one of only two places in the UK where over 30% of businesses receive less than 10 Mbit/s.{{cite news|title=Why Hull has cream phone boxes (and why it's relevant to tech today) |date=25 August 2016 |access-date=18 May 2017 |newspaper=New Statesman |url=http://tech.newstatesman.com/feature/hull-cream-phone-boxes |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160902000622/http://tech.newstatesman.com/feature/hull-cream-phone-boxes |archive-date=2 September 2016 }} Speeds are especially poor in the rural parts of the North, with many small towns and villages completely without high speed access. Some areas have therefore formed their own community enterprises, such as Broadband 4 Rural North in Lancashire and Cybermoor in Cumbria, to install high-speed internet connections. Mobile broadband coverage is similarly patchy, with 3G and 4G almost universal in cities but unavailable in large parts of Yorkshire, the North East and Cumbria.{{cite web|url=http://www.dotrural.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/TwoSpeedBritain_18Aug2015Final.pdf|title=Two-Speed Britain: Rural and Urban Internet|first1=John|last1=Farrington|year=2015|access-date=16 December 2021|archive-date=26 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170826113853/http://www.dotrural.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/TwoSpeedBritain_18Aug2015Final.pdf|url-status=dead}}

As part of a drive to reduce media centralisation in London, the BBC and ITV have moved much of their programme production to MediaCityUK in Salford and Channel 4 has moved its headquarters to Leeds. Of the four national evening soap operas, three are set and filmed in Northern England (Coronation Street in Manchester, Emmerdale in the Yorkshire Dales and Hollyoaks in Liverpool but set in Chester) and these are important to the local TV industry – the commitment to Emmerdale saved ITV Yorkshire's Leeds Studios from closure.{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/media/2016/jul/24/happy-valley-gritty-north-manchester-red-productions |title=Happy Valley producer: Gritty north? "I get very cross about that phrase" |first=Francis |last=Peraudin |date=24 July 2016 |access-date=8 March 2017 |newspaper=The Guardian |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170309071443/https://www.theguardian.com/media/2016/jul/24/happy-valley-gritty-north-manchester-red-productions |archive-date= 9 March 2017 }}{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/media/2009/dec/03/itv-studios-5m-leeds |title=ITV Studios to put £5m into Leeds site |first=Stephen |last=Brook |date=3 December 2009 |access-date=8 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170309072548/https://www.theguardian.com/media/2009/dec/03/itv-studios-5m-leeds |archive-date= 9 March 2017 }} The region also has a reputation for drama serials and has produced some the most successful and acclaimed series of recent decades, including Boys from the Blackstuff, Our Friends in the North, Clocking Off, Shameless, Waterloo Road and Last Tango in Halifax.{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-14060237 |title=The shameless success of northern TV drama |date=30 August 2011 |access-date=8 March 2017 |first=Liam |last=Allen |work=BBC News |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170309073627/http://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-14060237 |archive-date= 9 March 2017 }}{{cite magazine|url=http://www.radiotimes.com/news/2015-05-13/at-last-television-has-lifted-its-gaze-from-london-and-the-south |title=At last, television has lifted its gaze from London and the south |date=13 May 2015 |access-date=8 March 2017 |first=Alison |last=Graham |magazine=Radio Times |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170309071305/http://www.radiotimes.com/news/2015-05-13/at-last-television-has-lifted-its-gaze-from-london-and-the-south |archive-date= 9 March 2017 }}

Since The Guardian (formerly The Manchester Guardian) moved to London in 1964, no major national paper is based in the North, and Northern news stories tend to be poorly covered in the national press.{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/node/9621747 |title=Magnetic South |date=9 August 2007 |access-date=8 March 2017 |newspaper=The Economist |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017205020/http://www.economist.com/node/9621747 |archive-date=17 October 2015 }}{{cite news|title=The London newspaper bias: half of "national" news is about the south east |date=9 August 2013 |first=Joe |last=Collin |newspaper=New Statesman |url=http://www.newstatesman.com/newspapers/2013/08/london-newspaper-bias-half-national-news-about-south-east |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160121054515/http://www.newstatesman.com/newspapers/2013/08/london-newspaper-bias-half-national-news-about-south-east |archive-date=21 January 2016 }} The Yorkshire Post promotes itself as "Yorkshire's national paper" and covers some national and international stories, but is primarily focused on news from Yorkshire and the North East.{{cite book|title=News in the Regions: Plymouth Sound to Moray Firth|first=Alastair|last=Hetherington|chapter=Yorkshire Post|year=1989|publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-349-19952-5}} An attempt in 2016 to create a dedicated North-focused national newspaper, 24, failed after six weeks.{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-cumbria-36913204 |title=North's "national daily" newspaper 24 closes after six weeks |date=28 July 2016 |access-date=8 March 2017 |website=BBC News |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170309064428/http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-cumbria-36913204 |archive-date= 9 March 2017 }} Across Northern England as a whole, The Sun is the best selling newspaper, but the ongoing boycott around Merseyside following the newspaper's coverage of the 1989 Hillsborough disaster has seen the paper fall behind both the Daily Mail and the Daily Mirror in the North West.{{cite web|url=http://www.newsworks.org.uk/Titles-at-a-glance |title=Titles at a glance |website=Newsworks |access-date=9 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161012225013/http://www.newsworks.org.uk/Titles-at-a-glance |archive-date=12 October 2016 }}{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/when-revenue-is-slipping-its-ok-to-say-youre-sorry-1096904.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220621/https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/when-revenue-is-slipping-its-ok-to-say-youre-sorry-1096904.html |archive-date=21 June 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=When revenue is slipping, it's OK to say you're sorry|first=Chris|last=Horrie|date=29 May 1999|access-date=8 March 2017|newspaper=The Independent}}{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/476117/Taking_Part_201415_Focus_on_Newspaper_readership.pdf|title=Taking Part 2014/15, Focus on: Newspaper Readership|publisher=Department for Culture, Media and Sport|year=2015|access-date=8 March 2017}} In general national readership in the North drags behind that of the South; the Mirror and the Daily Star are the only national papers with more readers in Northern England than in the South East and London. Local newspapers are the top-selling titles in both the North East and Yorkshire and the Humber, although Northern regional newspapers have seen steep declines in readership in recent years.{{cite news|url=http://www.pressgazette.co.uk/regional-daily-abcs-north-and-midlands-titles-hit-hardest-as-print-sales-in-overall-decline/ |title=Regional daily ABCs: North and Midlands titles hit hardest as print sales in overall decline |date=25 August 2016 |access-date=8 March 2017 |first=Freddy |last=Mayhew |newspaper=Press Gazette |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211075549/http://www.pressgazette.co.uk/regional-daily-abcs-north-and-midlands-titles-hit-hardest-as-print-sales-in-overall-decline/ |archive-date=11 February 2017 }} Only seven daily Northern papers had circulation figures above 25,000 in June 2016: Manchester Evening News, Liverpool Echo, Hull Daily Mail, Newcastle Chronicle, The Yorkshire Post and The Northern Echo.

{{multiple images|perrow=3/2|total_width=320|header=Steel-built landmarks of the North

|image1= Blackpool Tower 2016 004.jpg|caption1= Blackpool Tower

|image2= The Angel of the North - panoramio (1).jpg|caption2= Angel of the North|alt2=A large rust-coloured statue of a figure stretching wing-like arms out on top of a hill.

|image3= 301 Deansgate, Manchester - geograph.org.uk - 2884715.jpg|caption3= Manchester Beetham Tower

|image4=Middlesbrough Walk (38369417295).jpg

|caption4=Middlesbrough Transporter Bridge

|image5= Humber Bridge (20551333355).jpg |caption5=Humber Bridge}}

The individual regions of the North have had their own identities and cultures for centuries, but with industrialisation, mass media and the opening of the North–South divide, a common Northern identity began to develop. This identity was initially a reactionary response to Southern prejudices—the North of the nineteenth century was largely depicted as a dirty, wild and uncultured place, even in sympathetic depictions such as Elizabeth Gaskell's 1855 novel North and South{{sfn|Russell|2004|pages=87–88}}—but became an affirmation of what Northerners saw as their own personal strengths.{{sfn|Ehland|2007|page=111}}{{sfn|Russell|2004|page=4}}{{cite journal|title=Theorising northernness and northern culture: the north of England, northern Englishness, and sympathetic magic|year=2016|first=Karl|last=Spacken|doi=10.1080/14797585.2015.1134056|journal=Journal for Cultural Research|volume=20|issue=1|pages = 4–16|s2cid=147445069|url=http://eprints.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/1776/3/Spracklen-Theorizing%20Northernness%20and%20Northern%20Culture-Revised%20Articlev2%20%281%29.pdf}}

Traits stereotypically associated with Northern England are straight-talking, grit and warmheartedness, as compared to the supposedly effete Southerners.{{sfn|Ehland|2007|page=111}}{{cite book|title=England|first1=Alan|last1=Allport|first2=George|last2=Wingfield|isbn=978-1-4381-0500-0|page=27|year=2007|publisher=Infobase}} Northern England—especially Lancashire, but also Yorkshire and the North East—has a tradition of matriarchal families, where the woman of the house runs the home and controls the family's finances. This too has its roots in industrialisation, when mills offered well-paid work for women: during depressions when demand for coal and steel were low, women were often the main breadwinners. Northern women are still stereotyped as strong-willed and independent, or affectionately as battle-axes.{{sfn|Russell|2004|page=39}}{{cite book|title=Ageing and Change in Pit Villages of North East England|first=Andrew|last=Dawson|pages=90–91|year=2011|isbn=978-1-921775-30-7|publisher=UoM Custom Book Centre}}{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/sep/02/battleaxe-alan-bennett-matriarch-extinction |title=Whatever happened to the Great British Battleaxe? |date=2 September 2015 |access-date=9 March 2017 |first=Lucy |last=Mangan |newspaper=The Guardian |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160822191635/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/sep/02/battleaxe-alan-bennett-matriarch-extinction |archive-date=22 August 2016 }}

File:Durham Miners Gala 2007 - geograph.org.uk - 494378.jpg is one of the largest trade union events in Europe.{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-tyne-36750069 |date=9 July 2016 |title=Labour leader calls for unity at Durham Miners' Gala |work=BBC News |access-date=21 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160719013344/http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-tyne-36750069 |archive-date=19 July 2016 }}|alt=A parade with large traditional trade union banners.|upright=0.9]]

The phrase it's grim up north is associated with coal mining, industrial mills, weather and the way of life in the north of England during the Victorian and post World War I eras, when mills, coal mining, child labour and slums were common. The phrase is often used by those who are not from the north of England, who paint the north as being different to the south of England. The current Mayor of Greater Manchester, Andy Burnham, has quoted the north as being grim, but not a bad thing.{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/05/20/andy-burnhams-right---its-grim-up-north---but-thats-no-bad-thing/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/05/20/andy-burnhams-right---its-grim-up-north---but-thats-no-bad-thing/ |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Andy Burnham's right – it's grim Up North – but that's no bad thing|first=David|last=Quantick|date=20 May 2016|work=The Telegraph|access-date=14 May 2021}}{{cbignore}}{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-tyne-30152684|title=Is JB Priestley to blame for grim up north stereotype?|date=26 November 2014|work=BBC News|access-date=14 May 2021}}{{cite news|url=http://www.theguardian.com/music/2007/sep/07/2|title=Readers recommend ... Songs about northern England|date=6 September 2007|website=The Guardian|access-date=14 May 2021}}{{cite web|url=https://www.focus-economics.com/blog/posts/englands-north-south-divide-is-it-still-grim-up-north|title=England's north-south divide: Is it still grim up north?|date=20 September 2017|website=FocusEconomics {{pipe}} Economic Forecasts from the World's Leading Economists|access-date=14 May 2021}}{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2020/10/13/may-grim-north-no-reason-lock-everyone/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2020/10/13/may-grim-north-no-reason-lock-everyone/ |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=It may be grim up North, but that's no reason to lock everyone down|first=Philip|last=Johnston|date=13 October 2020|work=The Telegraph|access-date=14 May 2021}}{{cbignore}} The phrase was quoted in 1991 when the band The Justified Ancients of Mu Mu a.k.a. The KLF used it in relation to a lot of places in the north of England including Cheshire, Greater Manchester, Lancashire, Merseyside and Yorkshire. As well as parts of the East Midlands Region and Cumbria and they use the phrase repeatedly in their song of the same name.

File:Flat-cap.jpg

The North of England is often stereotypically represented through the clothing worn by working-class men and women in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.{{cite news|url=http://www.yorkshirepost.co.uk/lifestyle/fashion/the-cap-that-rose-again-1-5882107|title=The cap that rose again|date=28 July 2013|first=Sarah|last=Freeman|newspaper=Yorkshire Post}} Working men would wear a heavy jacket and trousers held up by braces, an overcoat, and a hat, typically a flat cap, while women would wear a dress, or a skirt and blouse, with an apron on top as protection from dirt; in colder months they would often wear a shawl or headscarf.{{cite book|title=A life apart: the English working class, 1890–1914|page=[https://archive.org/details/lifeapartenglish0000meac/page/84 84]|year=1977|first=Standish|last=Meacham|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-53075-1|url=https://archive.org/details/lifeapartenglish0000meac/page/84}}{{cite book|title=Clothing the Poor in Nineteenth-Century England|first=Vivienne|last=Richmond|pages=33–34|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-1-107-47140-5}} The maud, a woollen plaid woven in a pattern of small black and white checks, was also popular in Northern England until the early twentieth century.Moffat, A. (2015). Scotland: A history from the earliest times. Edinburgh: Birlinn.

If not wearing leather lace-up shoes, some men and women would have worn English clogs, which were hardwearing and had replaceable soles and tips. Factory workers tapping their feet in time with the click of machinery developed a type of folk clog dance referred to as clogging, which was intricately developed in the North.{{cite book|title=Theatre, Performance and Analogue Technology|page=123|first=Kara|last=Reilly|year=2013|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-137-31967-8}}

In the second half of the twentieth century, these traditional clothes fell out of fashion. Other styles such as "casual clobber" (mainland European designer clothing brought back by touring football fans) and sportswear became more popular, and the influence of Northern bands and football teams helped spread them across the country.{{cite web|url=http://www.dazeddigital.com/fashion/article/33880/1/how-the-north-of-england-impacted-style |title=How the north of England impacted style |first=Ted |last=Stanfield |date=30 November 2016 |access-date=9 March 2017 |website=Dazed |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161201132334/http://www.dazeddigital.com/fashion/article/33880/1/how-the-north-of-england-impacted-style |archive-date= 1 December 2016 }}{{cite news|title=BBC Style Genius: Casuals |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/britishstylegenius/content/22265.shtml |access-date=18 May 2017 |website=BBC |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160401131313/http://www.bbc.co.uk/britishstylegenius/content/22265.shtml |archive-date=1 April 2016 }} In the twenty-first century, some traditional Northern items of clothing have begun to make a comeback – in particular, the flat cap.{{cite news|url=http://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/news/greater-manchester-news/hats-off-to-the-flat-cap-944386|title=Hats off to the flat cap|first=Chris|last=Osuh|date=19 April 2010|access-date=9 March 2017|newspaper=Manchester Evening News}}

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| image1 = Fish, chips and mushy peas (4by3).jpg

| caption1 = Fish and chips with mushy peas

| alt1 = A large piece of battered fish on a plate of chips, served with ramekins of tartar sauce and mushy peas

| image2 = Pork Sausage Lancashire Hotpot With Sage, Thyme And Black Pudding (32010991000).jpg

| caption2 = Lancashire hotpot

| alt2 = A small casserole dish filled with sausage and chunks of vegetable, topped with thinly sliced potato

| image3 = Cheshire Cheese.jpg

| caption3 = Cheshire cheese

| alt3 = A wedge of yellow-white cheese, with a large crumbly piece broken off, served with a cracker

| image4 = Bottle of Newcastle Brown Ale poured (4by3).jpg

| caption4 = Newcastle Brown Ale

| alt4 = A wide Geordie schooner glass with a stem, filled with dark brown beer with a large foam head. Next to it is a mostly-empty bottle labelled "The One and Only: Newcastle Brown Ale"

}}

Impressions of Northern English cuisine are still shaped by the working-class diet of the early twentieth century, which was heavy on offal, high in calories and often not particularly healthy. Dishes such as black pudding, tripe, mushy peas and meat pie remain stereotypical Northern English foods in the national imagination. As a result, there is a concerted effort among Northern chefs to improve the region's image.{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/jan/06/food-grim-up-north-pie-mushy-peas-toad-in-the-hole |date=6 January 2015 |title=Of course food isn't grim up north |first=Tony |last=Naylor |access-date=7 March 2017 |newspaper=The Guardian |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170430221703/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/jan/06/food-grim-up-north-pie-mushy-peas-toad-in-the-hole |archive-date=30 April 2017 }} Some Northern dishes such as Yorkshire pudding and Lancashire hotpot have spread across the UK, and only their names now hint at their origin. Among the Northern delicacies that have achieved Protected Geographical Status are traditional Cumberland sausage, traditional Grimsby smoked fish, Swaledale cheese, Yorkshire forced rhubarb and Yorkshire Wensleydale.{{efn|Newcastle Brown Ale formerly had protected status – this was cancelled in 2007 to allow the brewery to move outside Newcastle.{{cite web

|title = Commission Regulation (EC) No 952/2007 of 9 August 2007 cancelling a registration of a name in the Register of protected designations of origin and protected geographical indications (Newcastle Brown Ale (PGI))

|work = Official Journal

|publisher = European Commission

|date = 9 August 2007

|url = https://www.fsai.ie/uploadedFiles/Legislation/Legislation_Update/Reg952_2007.pdf

|access-date = 31 May 2017

|archive-date = 22 September 2013

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130922111017/http://www.fsai.ie/uploadedFiles/Legislation/Legislation_Update/Reg952_2007.pdf

|url-status = dead

}}}} {{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/quality/door/list.html?locale=en&filter.country=GB&recordSelection=all |title=Database Of Origin & Registration |publisher=European Commission |access-date=13 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304105849/http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/quality/door/list.html?locale=en&filter.country=GB&recordSelection=all |archive-date= 4 March 2016 }}

The North is known for its often crumbly cheeses, of which Cheshire cheese is the earliest example. Unlike Southern cheeses like Cheddar, Northern cheeses typically use uncooked milk and a pre-salted curd pressed under enormous weights, resulting in a moist, sharp-tasting cheese.{{cite book|title=Cheese and Culture: A History of Cheese and its Place in Western Civilization|first=Paul|last=Kindstedt|pages=167–170|year=2012|publisher=Chelsea Green|isbn=978-1-60358-412-8}} Wensleydale, another crumbly cheese, is unusual in that it is often served as a side to sweet cakes,{{cite web|url=http://www.cheeseboard.co.uk/wensleydale |title=Wensleydale |website=British Cheese Board |access-date=7 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160402181945/http://cheeseboard.co.uk/wensleydale |archive-date= 2 April 2016 }} which are themselves well represented in Northern England. Parkin, an oatmeal cake with black treacle and ginger, is a traditional treat across the North on Bonfire Night,{{cite web|url=https://www.bbcgoodfood.com/howto/guide/northern-bonfire-night-treat |title=A Northern Bonfire Night treat |first=Carol |last=Wilson |access-date=7 March 2017 |website=BBC Good Food |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161224141137/http://www.bbcgoodfood.com/howto/guide/northern-bonfire-night-treat |archive-date=24 December 2016 }} and the fruity scone-like singing hinny and fat rascal are popular in the North East and Yorkshire respectively.{{citation |title=The Oxford Companion to Food |first=Alan |last=Davidson |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-19-280681-9 |page=703}}

While a variety of beers are popular across Northern England, the region is especially associated with brown ales such as Newcastle Brown Ale, Double Maxim and Samuel Smith Old Brewery's Nut Brown Ale.{{cite book|title=The Wine, Beer, and Spirits Handbook: A Guide to Styles and Service|page=327|author=The International Culinary Schools at The Art Institutes, Joseph LaVilla|year=2009|isbn=978-0-470-13884-7|publisher=John Wiley and Sons}} Beer in the North is usually served with a thick head which accentuates the nutty, malty flavours preferred in Northern beers.{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/north-south-beer-divide-is-all-in-the-head-1563621.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220621/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/north-south-beer-divide-is-all-in-the-head-1563621.html |archive-date=21 June 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=North-South beer divide is all in the head|date=15 December 1992|first=Michael|last=Jackson|newspaper=The Independent|access-date=7 March 2017}} On the non-alcoholic side, the North – in particular, Lancashire – was the hub of the temperance bar movement which popularised soft drinks such as dandelion and burdock, Tizer and Vimto.{{cite news|title=Northside – Andrew Martin remembers dandelion and burdock|url=http://www.newstatesman.com/node/158082|first=Andrew|last=Martin|newspaper=New Statesman|date=21 July 2003|access-date=7 March 2017}}{{cite book|title=Lost Britain: An A-Z of Forgotten Landmarks and Lost Traditions|first=David|last=Long|isbn=978-1-78243-441-2|year=2015|publisher=Michael O'Mara}}

According to The Tab, the bakery chain Greggs is an integral part of Northern identity, using the number of people per Greggs as an indicator as to whether a town should be considered Northern.{{cite web|url=https://thetab.com/uk/2017/08/02/weve-figured-exactly-north-plotting-every-single-greggs-store-map-44385|title=We've figured out exactly where the North is by plotting every single Greggs store on a map|date=2 August 2017|website=The Tab|access-date=26 June 2019}}

Immigration to Northern England has shaped its cuisine. The Teesside parmo is one example, derived from escalope Parmesan brought to the area by an Italian-American immigrant and adapted to the region's taste.{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/insideout/content/articles/2007/11/01/northeast_parmo_s12_w8_feature.shtml |title=Teesside's fast food sensation |website=BBC |date=6 November 2007 |access-date=7 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160605021553/http://www.bbc.co.uk/insideout/content/articles/2007/11/01/northeast_parmo_s12_w8_feature.shtml |archive-date= 5 June 2016 }} There are large Chinatowns in Liverpool, Manchester and Newcastle, and communities from the Indian subcontinent in all major towns. Bradford has won the Federation of Specialist Restaurant's "Curry Capital" title six years in a row as of 2016,{{cite news|url=http://www.itv.com/news/calendar/2016-10-10/bradford-crowned-curry-capital-of-britain-for-sixth-year-in-a-row/ |title=Bradford crowned Curry Capital of Britain for sixth year in a row |date=10 October 2016 |access-date=7 March 2017 |publisher=ITV News |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161121101412/http://www.itv.com/news/calendar/2016-10-10/bradford-crowned-curry-capital-of-britain-for-sixth-year-in-a-row/ |archive-date=21 November 2016 }} while the Curry Mile in Manchester formerly had the largest concentration of curry restaurants in the UK and now offers a wide range of South Asian and Middle Eastern cuisine.{{cite news|url=http://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/whats-on/food-drink-news/curry-mile-wilmslow-road-rusholme-12827953?service=responsive |title='The Curry Mile stood still when the rest of the world kept moving' – can it be returned to its former glory? |first=Emily |last=Heward |newspaper=Manchester Evening News |date=2 April 2017 |access-date=3 April 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170404043519/http://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/whats-on/food-drink-news/curry-mile-wilmslow-road-rusholme-12827953?service=responsive |archive-date= 4 April 2017 }}

File:Scarborough Fair.ogg", a traditional Northern folk song]]

File:Northumbrian pipers at Alwinton Border Shepherds Show October 2009 - geograph.org.uk - 1529325.jpg|Northumbrian pipers at Alwinton Border Shepherds Show.

File:Harrogate Band in Leeds.jpg|The Harrogate Band playing in Leeds|alt=A marching band with a variety of horns and drums.

Traditional folk music in Northern England is a combination of styles of England and Scotland – what is now called the Anglo-Scottish border ballad was once prevalent as far south as Lancashire.{{cite journal|first=D.|last=Gregory|title="The Songs of the People for Me": The Victorian Rediscovery of Lancashire Vernacular Song|journal=Canadian Folk Music|volume=40|year=2006|pages=12–21}} In the Middle Ages, much of Northern folk was accompanied by bagpipes, with styles including the Lancashire bagpipe, Yorkshire bagpipe and Northumbrian smallpipes. These disappeared in the early nineteenth century from the industrialising south of the region, but remain in the music of Northumbria.{{cite journal|title=The Bagpipe in Northern England|first=R. D.|last=Cannon|journal=Folk Music Journal|volume=2|issue=2|year=1971|pages=127–147|jstor = 4521880}}

The British brass band tradition began in Northern England at around the same time: the dismissal of the Cheshire, Lancashire and Yorkshire military bands after the Napoleonic Wars, combined with the desire of industrial communities to better themselves, led to the founding of civilian bands. These bands provided entertainment at community events and led protest marches during the era of radical agitation.{{cite thesis|title=The evolution of the brass band and its repertoire in Northern England |url=http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/3078/ |first=Jack |last=Scott |year=1970 |access-date=8 March 2017 |publisher=University of Sheffield |pages=1–20 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170309070855/http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/3078/ |archive-date= 9 March 2017 |type=phd }} Although the style has since spread across much of Great Britain, brass bands remain a stereotype of the North, and the Whit Friday brass band contests draw hundreds of bands from across the UK and further afield.{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/commentisfree/2015/jun/02/real-northern-powerhouses-brass-bands-moved-me-to-tears-whit-friday |title=The real northern powerhouses: the brass bands that moved me to tears |date=2 June 2015 |first=Helen |last=Pidd |access-date=8 March 2017 |newspaper=The Guardian |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170309072605/https://www.theguardian.com/music/commentisfree/2015/jun/02/real-northern-powerhouses-brass-bands-moved-me-to-tears-whit-friday |archive-date= 9 March 2017 }}

Northern England also has a thriving popular music scene. Influential movements include Merseybeat from the Liverpool area, which produced The Beatles, Northern soul, which brought Motown to England, and Madchester, the precursor to the rave scene.{{cite book|title=The Cambridge Companion to Modern British Culture|first=John|last=Tomaney|chapter='Madchester': "Northernness" and mass culture|pages=85–86|isbn=978-1-139-82795-9|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2010}}{{cite book|title=MOD: From Bebop to Britpop, Britain's Biggest Youth Movement|first=Richard|last=Weight|page=186|year=2013|publisher=Random House|isbn=978-1-4481-8249-7}} Across the Pennines, Sheffield is the birthplace of influential electronic pop bands from Cabaret Voltaire to Pulp, the New Yorkshire indie rock movement of the 2000s gave the country the Kaiser Chiefs and the Arctic Monkeys, and Teesside has a rock scene stretching from Chris Rea to Maxïmo Park.{{cite web|url=https://www.britishcouncil.org.il/en/Rewind_Sheffield_story |title=Made In Sheffield: The Birth of Electronic Pop |website=British Council |access-date=8 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170309072110/https://www.britishcouncil.org.il/en/Rewind_Sheffield_story |archive-date= 9 March 2017 }}{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2006/sep/18/popandrock1 |title=Duels |first=Leonie |last=Cooper |date=18 September 2006 |access-date=8 March 2017 |newspaper=The Guardian |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170309064751/https://www.theguardian.com/music/2006/sep/18/popandrock1 |archive-date= 9 March 2017 }}{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/the-northerner/2013/feb/12/north-south-divide-music-industry |title=Is there a north-south divide in England's music industry? |first=Alan |last=Glenn |date=12 February 2013 |access-date=8 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170309072624/https://www.theguardian.com/uk/the-northerner/2013/feb/12/north-south-divide-music-industry |archive-date= 9 March 2017 }} The press frequently frames music stories and reviews in terms of cultural and class differences between North and South, notably in the 1960s rivalry between the Beatles and the Rolling Stones and the 1990s Battle of Britpop between Oasis and Blur.{{cite magazine|title=Take That|magazine=SPIN|first=Sarah|last=Pratt|date=January 1996|page=54}}

File:Funeral Procession (5969830903).jpg fans "mourn" relegation with the long-running Burial of the Coffin ceremony.|upright=1.2]]

File:Tetley's Festive Challenge (26th December 2014) 002.JPG, Leeds Rhinos host Wakefield Trinity for a local derby.|upright=1.1|alt=Two rugby league teams playing in front of full stands.]]

Sport has been both one of the most unifying cultural forces in Northern England and, thanks to local rivalries such as the Lancashire–Yorkshire Roses rivalry, one of the most divisive. As huge numbers of people moved into recently built cities with little cultural heritage, local sports teams offered the population a sense of place and identity that was otherwise absent.{{cite web|title=Sport and the Working Classes |first=Mona |last=Dobre-Laza |publisher=the British Council |access-date=6 March 2017 |pages=6–7 |url=http://www.pages.drexel.edu/~rosenl/sports%20Folder/Sport%20and%20the%20Working%20Classes.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151123055332/http://www.pages.drexel.edu/~rosenl/sports%20Folder/Sport%20and%20the%20Working%20Classes.pdf |archive-date=23 November 2015 }} Adapted from {{cite book|title=The British at Play – a social history of British sport from 1600 to the present|first=Nigel|last=Townson|year=1997|publisher=Cavallioti Publishers}}

Many early Northern sports players were working class and needed to miss work to play, with their teams compensating them for lost wages. By contrast, Southern teams, drawing from the traditions of public schools and Oxbridge, put great emphasis on amateurism and the Southern-dominated governing bodies forbade payments to players. This tension shaped the sports of association football and cricket, and led to the schism between the two main forms of rugby. The North is also associated with the animal sports of dog racing with whippets, pigeon racing and ferret legging, although these are now far more popular in stereotype than in reality.{{cite news|url=http://www.yorkshirepost.co.uk/news/opinion/andrew-vine-it-s-time-to-drop-the-yorkshire-stereotypes-1-6779681|title=It's time to drop the Yorkshire stereotypes|first=Andrew|last=Vine|date=12 August 2014|access-date=9 March 2017}}{{sfn|Holder|2005|page=49}}

Manchester hosted the 2002 Commonwealth Games, which left it a legacy of sporting facilities including the City of Manchester Stadium, Manchester Aquatics Centre and the National Cycling Centre, headquarters of British Cycling.{{cite news|url=https://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/sport/manchester-commonwealth-games-2002-legacy-7423361|title=Legacy of Commonwealth Games lives on in Manchester|date=15 July 2014|first=Alice|last=McKeegan|access-date=2 October 2018|newspaper=Manchester Evening News}} The Grand Départ for the 2014 Tour de France was in Leeds, and every year since Yorkshire has hosted the Tour de Yorkshire cycling event, part of the UCI Europe Tour.{{cite web|url=http://www.cyclist.co.uk/news/2760/tour-de-yorkshire-aims-to-add-fourth-day-for-2018|title=Tour de Yorkshire aims to add fourth day for 2018|first=Joseph|last=Delves|website=Cyclist|date=2 May 2017|access-date=2 October 2018}} Tyneside meanwhile hosts the Great North Run, the UK's biggest mass-participation sporting event and the most popular half marathon in the world.{{cite web|url=https://www.greatrun.org/news-and-media/news/stage-set-for-37th-simplyhealth-great-north-run|title=Stage Set For 37th Simplyhealth Great North Run|date=8 September 2017|access-date=2 October 2018|website=Great Runs|archive-date=2 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181002180528/https://www.greatrun.org/news-and-media/news/stage-set-for-37th-simplyhealth-great-north-run|url-status=dead}}

{{multiple images|perrow=2|total_width=300|header=

|image1= City of Manchester Stadium, October 2015 - 04.JPG|caption1= Manchester City's Stadium

|image2= The East Stand, Old Trafford Stadium 4555369 d41731ca.jpg|caption2= Manchester United's Old Trafford Stadium

|image3= Anfield Stadium, Liverpool (16).JPG|caption3= Liverpool FC's Anfield Stadium

|image5= Elland Road East Stand (geograph 5923678).jpg |caption5=Leeds United's Elland Road

|image6= Stade St James Park Newcastle Tyne 3.jpg|caption6= Newcastle United's St James' Park}}

The first football club in the UK was Sheffield F.C., founded in 1857. Early Northern football teams tended to adopt the Sheffield Rules rather than the Football Association Rules, but the two codes were merged in 1877. Many of the innovations of Sheffield Rules are now part of the global game, including corners, throw-ins, and free kicks for fouls.{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/south_yorkshire/7059900.stm |title=Potting shed birth of oldest team |date=24 October 2007 |publisher=BBC |access-date=15 March 2008 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090129111640/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/south_yorkshire/7059900.stm |archive-date=29 January 2009 }}

In 1883 Blackburn Olympic, a team composed mainly of factory workers, became the first Northern team to win the FA Cup, and the next year Preston North End won an FA Cup match against London-based Upton Park.{{cite book |last=Goldblatt |first=David |title=The Ball is Round: A Global History of Football |publisher=Penguin|location=London |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-14-101582-8| pages=43–47}}{{cite book | title= The F.A. Cup – The Complete Story|last1= Lloyd |first1= Guy |last2=Holt|first2= Nick |year= 2005|publisher= Aurum Press|isbn=978-1-84513-054-1|pages=22–24}} Upton Park protested that Preston had broken FA rules by paying their players. In response, Preston withdrew from the competition and fellow Lancashire clubs Burnley and Great Lever followed suit. The protest gathered momentum to the point where more than 30 clubs, predominantly from the North, announced that they would set up a rival British Football Association if the FA did not permit professionalism. A schism was avoided in July 1885 when professionalism was formally legalised in English football.{{cite news|url=https://www.fifa.com/classicfootball/history/the-game/global-growth.html |title=History of Football – The Global Growth |access-date=20 April 2014 |publisher=FIFA Official Website |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821083313/http://www.fifa.com/classicfootball/history/the-game/global-growth.html |archive-date=21 August 2014 }} The Football League was founded in 1888, and marked its independence from the London-based Football Association (FA) by establishing headquarters in Preston – the League retained a Northern identity even after it accepted several Southern teams into its ranks.{{cite book|title=The Leaguers: The Making of Professional Football in England, 1900–1939|first=Matthew|last=Taylor|pages=283–284|year=2005|isbn=978-0-85323-639-9|publisher=Liverpool University Press}}

Organised women's football followed as the workforces of majority-female factories of Northern England in the First World War entered the 1917–18 Tyne, Wear & Tees Munition Girls Cup – the world's first women's football tournament. However, the FA did not support women's football and banned it altogether in 1921.{{cite book|title=Girls with Balls – The Secret History of Women's Football|first=Tim|last=Tate|year=2013|publisher=John Blake|isbn=9781782196860}} Intense local derbies between neighbouring teams mean that there is less of a North–South rivalry than in some other sports.

Many of the powerhouses of English football came from the North – as of the 2022–23 season, of the 125 top-flight league titles since 1888, 85 (68%) have been won by teams based north of Crewe.{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/football/competitions/premier-league/11607929/Why-are-there-fewer-and-fewer-Premier-League-teams-from-the-North-of-England.html |title=Why are there fewer and fewer Premier League teams from the North of England? |first=Jonathan |last=Liew |date=15 May 2015 |access-date=6 March 2017 |newspaper=Daily Telegraph |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161223084545/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/football/competitions/premier-league/11607929/Why-are-there-fewer-and-fewer-Premier-League-teams-from-the-North-of-England.html |archive-date=23 December 2016 }} Since this article, which quotes 116 league titles, there have been nine more titles, six won by a Northern team. Everton, Liverpool, Manchester United and Manchester City are among the mainstays of the Premier League, while teams like Blackburn Rovers, Middlesbrough, Newcastle United and Sunderland have had more inconsistent runs in recent years, regularly being promoted and relegated from the top flight.

Northern England is also the birthplace of the largest proportion the country's top players – as of Euro 2016, 537 Northerners had played for the England team, compared to 266 Midlanders and 367 Southerners,{{cite news|url=http://www.skysports.com/football/news/18804/10278640/how-many-england-internationals-have-been-born-in-your-area|title=How many England internationals have been born in your area?|first=Adam|last=Smith|date=20 March 2016|publisher=Sky News}} and 15 of the 23 man squad for the 2018 World Cup, as well as 14 of the 2019 Women's World Cup squad, were born in the region.{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2018/jul/02/why-are-so-many-of-england-world-cup-footballers-from-yorkshire|title=Why are so many of England's World Cup footballers from Yorkshire?|first=Frances|last=Perraudin|date=2 July 2018|access-date=11 July 2018|newspaper=The Guardian}} The Guardian's figure includes Gary Cahill from Dronfield, which is part of the Sheffield City Region but is located in North East Derbyshire.

{{see also|History of Rugby League}}

{{multiple images|perrow=2|total_width=300|header=

|image1= Sewell Group Craven Park Entrance.jpg |caption1= Hull KR's Craven Park

|image2= The Fantastic Media Stand, Galpharm Stadium (geograph 2672646).jpg |caption2= Huddersfield Giants's Kirklees Stadium

|image3= The DW Stadium (18969560616).jpg |caption3= Wigan Warriors's Stadium }}

Rugby league culturally dominates rugby union in this part of the world, as exhibited by the fact that the largest sporting crowd ever in northern England was the 1954 rugby league Challenge Cup Final at Bradford, which hosted in excess of 120,000 spectators.

The Rugby Football Union (RFU), which enforced amateurism, suspended teams who compensated their players for missed work and injury, leading teams from Lancashire, Yorkshire and surrounding areas to split away in 1895 and form the Rugby Football League (RFL). Over time, the RFU and RFL adopted different rules and the two forms of the game – rugby union and rugby league – diverged. Rugby league's stronghold remains Northern England along the "M62 corridor" between Liverpool and Hull.{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/general/rugby-league/making-the-long-walk-from-hull-to-widnes-97925.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220621/https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/general/rugby-league/making-the-long-walk-from-hull-to-widnes-97925.html |archive-date=21 June 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live| first=Dave|last=Hadfield | title=Making the long walk from Hull to Widnes | date=28 July 2003|access-date=16 May 2017| newspaper=The Independent}} As of the 2023 season, 11 of the 12 teams in the Super League (the highest level of rugby league in the Northern Hemisphere) are from Northern England, with one team from France, and the 14-team Championship below it has 12 Northern teams, one London team and 1 French team.{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/sport/rugby-league/tables|title=Rugby League tables|work=BBC Sport|access-date=15 September 2023}}

Rugby union was not entirely driven from Northern England, and in the 1970s the region was home to several strong teams.{{cite news|last=Eykyn |first=Alastair |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby_union/13279854.stm |title=BBC Sport – Rugby union in the north of England is dying |work=BBC News |date=4 May 2011 |access-date=5 August 2011}} The high-water mark of rugby union in Northern England was the 1979 New Zealand tour during which the English Northern Division was the only team to defeat the All Blacks.{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/observer/osm/story/0,,391067,00.html |title=Do you remember when the North beat the mighty All Blacks? |newspaper=The Guardian |date=5 November 2000 |access-date=8 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604130536/http://www.theguardian.com/observer/osm/story/0%2C%2C391067%2C00.html |archive-date= 4 June 2016 }} In the 21st century the region's club sides have become less popular, with association football, cricket and rugby league attracting more spectators and talent. In the 2022–23 season, Sale Sharks and Newcastle Falcons play in the English Premiership, and Doncaster Knights play in the RFU Championship.{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/sport/rugby-union/tables|title=Rugby Union tables|work=BBC Sport|access-date=17 July 2019}}

{{multiple images|perrow=1/2|total_width=300|header=

|image3= The Carnegie Pavilion (geograph 4985611).jpg |caption3= Yorkshire CCC's Headingley Stadium

|image2= Old Trafford Pavilion.JPG |caption2= Lancashire CCC's Old Trafford Cricket Ground

|image1= Chester-le-Street- The Finchale End (geograph 6900908).jpg |caption1= Durham CCC's Riverside Ground}}

Cricket has a strong following in Northern England, and three counties are represented by first-class county cricket teams: Durham, Lancashire and Yorkshire. The Roses Match (named for the Red Rose of Lancaster and the White Rose of York) between Lancashire and Yorkshire is one of the hardest fought rivalries in the sport – the pride of both sides, and their determination not to lose, resulted in the teams developing a slow, stubborn and defensive style that proved unpopular elsewhere in the country.{{cite book|title=Sport and the English, 1918–1939|pages=150–151|year=2006|first1=Mike|last1=Huggins|first2=Jack|last2=Williams|publisher=Taylor and Francis|isbn=978-0-415-33185-2}} The London-based Marylebone Cricket Club, which controlled the game at the time, selected few Northern players for Test matches, and this was perceived as a snub to their playing style – the anger united Lancashire and Yorkshire against the South and helped cast a shared Northern identity that transcended the Roses rivalry.{{cite book|title=We Danced All Night: A Social History of Britain Between the Wars|pages=423–424|first=Martin|last=Pugh| author-link = Martin Pugh (author)|year=2013|isbn=978-1-4481-6274-1|publisher=Random House}} This divide was illustrated in the 1924 County Championship, when Yorkshire beat London-based Middlesex to claim the title. Surrey accused Yorkshire of scuffing the pitch and intimidating the bowlers, while the match with Middlesex was so vicious that the team threatened to never play in Yorkshire again. The Lancashire captain Jack Sharp on the other hand was quoted as saying "I'm real glad a rose won it. Red or white, it doesn't matter." Durham are a recent addition to top-flight cricket, having only achieved first-class status in 1992, but have won the County Championship three times.{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/sport/cricket/24153853|title=Durham win County Championship title with victory over Notts|first=Matt|last=Newsum|date=19 September 2013|access-date=6 March 2017|work=BBC Sport}}

Although Yorkshire and Lancashire were traditionally more relaxed about professionalism than other counties, cricket did not see the same regional schisms on the topic that rugby and football did – there were debates over amateur status in first-class cricket, but these tensions were given release in the Gentlemen v Players fixture.{{cite book |title= Amateurism in British Sport: It Matters Not Who Won Or Lost? |first=Jack |last= Williams |chapter= 'The Really Good Professional Captain Has Never Been Seen!': Perceptions of the Amateur/Professional Divide in County Cricket, 1900–39 |pages=87–91 |isbn= 978-1-136-80290-4 |publisher= Routledge|date=13 September 2013 }}. Nevertheless, the annual North v South games were among the most popular and competitive in the sport, running annually from 1849 until 1900 and intermittently thereafter.{{cite book |title= And God Created Cricket |first=Simon |last=Hughes |pages=64–65 |author-link= Simon Hughes (cricketer) |isbn= 978-1-4464-2247-2 |year= 2010 |publisher= Random House}}

{{see also|Politics of England}}

{{multiple images|perrow=2|total_width=300|header=

|image1= Bolton Town Hall (21928117529).jpg|caption1= Bolton Town Hall

|image2= Hôtel ville South Shields South Tyneside 27.jpg |caption2=South Shields Town Hall

|image3= Town Hall, Liverpool.jpg|caption3= Liverpool Town Hall

|image4= Bradford (8695831967).jpg|caption4= Bradford City Hall

|image5= Crewe Municipal Buildings - geograph.org.uk - 1546693.jpg|caption5= Crewe Municipal Buildings

|image6=The Guildhall, Kingston upon Hull - geograph.org.uk - 3544333.jpg|caption6= Hull Guildhall

}}

Northern England, as the first area in the world to industrialise, was the birthplace of much modern political thought. Marxism and, more generally, socialism were shaped by reports into the lives of the Northern working class, from Friedrich Engels' The Condition of the Working Class in England to George Orwell's The Road to Wigan Pier.{{cite news|url=http://www.vanityfair.com/culture/2012/08/christopher-hitchens-george-orwell |title=The Importance of Being Orwell |first=Christopher |last=Hitchens |newspaper=Vanity Fair |date=August 2012 |access-date=3 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161126091000/http://www.vanityfair.com/culture/2012/08/christopher-hitchens-george-orwell |archive-date=26 November 2016 }} Meanwhile, enterprise and trade at the North's ports influenced the birth of Manchester Liberalism, a laissez-faire free trade philosophy. Expounded by C. P. Scott and the Manchester Guardian, the movement's greatest success was the repeal of the Corn Laws, protests against which had led to the 1819 Peterloo Massacre in Manchester.{{cite book|title=The Transformation of Urban Liberalism|pages=15–16|first=James R. |last=Moore|year=2006|isbn=978-0-7546-5000-3|publisher=Ashgate Publishing}}

File:2019 UK general election constituency map.svg, but saw its traditional Northern heartlands reduced.{{Legend|#dc241f|Labour}}{{Legend|#0087dc|Conservative}}{{Legend|#fdbb30|Liberal Democrat}}|alt=A map of the United Kingdom, with all constituencies given equal area. In Northern England, Labour hold the majority of Northern seats, the Conservatives hold some rural seats, and the Liberal Democrats hold a single seat, as does the Speaker.|upright=0.9]]

The first Trades Union Congress was held in Manchester in 1868,{{cite book|title=Short History of the Trades Union Congress|page=7|year=1968|first1=John|last1=Lovell|first2=Benjamin Charles|last2=Roberts|isbn=978-1-349-00435-5|publisher=Springer}} and as of 2015 trade union membership in Northern England remained higher than in Southern England, although it is lower than in the other Home Nations.{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/525938/Trade_Union_Membership_2015_-_Statistical_Bulletin.pdf |title=TRADE UNION MEMBERSHIP 2015 |publisher=Office for National Statistics |date=May 2016 |page=17 |access-date=3 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224194322/https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/525938/Trade_Union_Membership_2015_-_Statistical_Bulletin.pdf |archive-date=24 February 2017 }} Since the Thatcher era, the Conservative Party struggled to gain support in the area.{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/news/briefing/21576418-diverging-politics-labour-north-and-conservative-south-make-england-look-ever-more |title=England's two nations: Divided kingdom |date=18 September 2013 |newspaper=The Economist |access-date=3 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161203112727/http://www.economist.com/news/briefing/21576418-diverging-politics-labour-north-and-conservative-south-make-england-look-ever-more |archive-date= 3 December 2016 }} Today, Northern England is generally described as a stronghold of the Labour Party – although the Conservatives hold some rural seats, they traditionally held almost no urban seats and as of the 2021 local elections there are no Conservative councillors on Liverpool City Council, Manchester City Council or Newcastle City Council, and only one on Sheffield City Council. During the 2019 general election, many traditionally Labour constituencies in Northern England swung heavily towards the Conservatives, and the collapse of the "red wall" of Northern Labour seats was a major factor in the Conservative victory.{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2019/dec/13/labours-red-wall-demolished-by-tory-onslaught|title=Labour's "red wall" demolished by Tory onslaught|work=The Guardian|date=12 December 2019|access-date=13 December 2019}} Historically the region was also a heartland for the Liberals, and between the 1980s and the 2010s their successors in the Liberal Democrats benefited from Conservative unpopularity by positioning themselves as the centrist alternative to Labour in the North.{{cite book|title=British Politics, 1910–1935: The Crisis of the Party System|first=David|last=Powell|page=37|year=2004|isbn=978-0-415-35106-5|publisher=Psychology Press}}{{cite book|title=Seats, Votes, and the Spatial Organisation of Elections|first1=Graham|last1=Gudgin|first2=Peter J.|last2=Taylor|page=xxix|year=2012|publisher=ECPR|isbn=978-1-907301-35-3}}

At the 2016 EU membership referendum, all three Northern England regions voted to leave, as did all English regions outside London. The largest Northern Remain vote was 60.4% in Manchester; the largest Leave vote was 69.9% in North East Lincolnshire.{{cite web|title=EU referendum results |url=http://www.electoralcommission.org.uk/find-information-by-subject/elections-and-referendums/upcoming-elections-and-referendums/eu-referendum/electorate-and-count-information |website=Electoral Commission |access-date=10 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170129082658/http://www.electoralcommission.org.uk/find-information-by-subject/elections-and-referendums/upcoming-elections-and-referendums/eu-referendum/electorate-and-count-information |archive-date=29 January 2017 }} In total, the Leave vote in the Northern England regions was 55.9% – higher than in the Southern England regions and the other Home Nations, but lower than in the Midlands or the East of England. The Eurosceptic UK Independence Party (UKIP) positioned themselves as the main challenger to Labour in Northern constituencies, and came second in many at the 2015 general election.{{cite news|url=http://www.newstatesman.com/politics/staggers/2016/07/after-brexit-red-ukip-prepares-take-labours-northern-heartlands |title=After Brexit, Red Ukip prepares to take on Labour's northern heartlands |first=Tim |last=Wigmore |date=4 July 2016 |access-date=3 March 2017 |newspaper=New Statesman |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160808021441/http://www.newstatesman.com/politics/staggers/2016/07/after-brexit-red-ukip-prepares-take-labours-northern-heartlands |archive-date= 8 August 2016 }}{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/ukip/12029975/Nigel-Farage-Ukip-will-wipe-out-Labour-in-the-north-just-as-the-SNP-did-in-Scotland.html |title=Nigel Farage: Ukip will wipe out Labour in the north – just as the SNP did in Scotland |first=Nigel |last=Farage |author-link=Nigel Farage |newspaper=Daily Telegraph |date=2 December 2015 |access-date=10 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160628151323/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/ukip/12029975/Nigel-Farage-Ukip-will-wipe-out-Labour-in-the-north-just-as-the-SNP-did-in-Scotland.html |archive-date=28 June 2016 }} UKIP originally struggled in the region due to vote splitting with the far-right British National Party (BNP), who exploited racial tensions in the wake of the 2001 Bradford riots and other riots in Northern towns. In 2006, 40% of BNP voters lived in Northern England and both BNP MEPs elected at the 2009 European elections came from Northern constituencies.{{cite book |last=Goodwin |first=Matthew J. |title=New British Fascism: Rise of the British National Party |year=2011 |publisher=Routledge |location=London and New York |isbn=978-0-415-46500-7|pages=84, 105}}{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2009/jun/08/labour-conservatives-condemn-bnp-europe |title=Major parties condemn BNP after election success |date=8 June 2009 |first=Mark |last=Tran |newspaper=The Guardian |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316205959/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2009/jun/08/labour-conservatives-condemn-bnp-europe |archive-date=16 March 2017 }} After 2013, BNP support in the region collapsed as most voters swung to UKIP.{{cite book|title=Revolt on the Right: Explaining Support for the Radical Right in Britain|first1=Robert|last1=Ford|first2=Matthew J|last2=Goodwin|year=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-93854-5}} The Northern UKIP vote in turn collapsed following the EU referendum, with most UKIP voters returning to their former allegiances.{{cite news|url=https://www.buzzfeed.com/hannahalothman/the-tories-have-had-a-truly-terrible-night-in-the-north-of|title=The Tories Have Had A Truly Terrible Night In The North Of England

|website=BuzzFeed News|first=Hannah|last=Al-Othman|date=9 June 2017|access-date=9 June 2017}}

Campaigns for Northern English devolution have seen little electoral support. Plans by Labour under Tony Blair to create devolved regional assemblies for the three Northern regions were abandoned after the government lost the 2004 North East England devolution referendum against a No vote of 78%.{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/3992435.stm |title=Prescott rules out regional polls |work=BBC News |date=8 November 2004 |access-date=3 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060614092127/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/3992435.stm |archive-date=14 June 2006 }} The regionalist Yorkshire Party and North East Party only hold seats at the local council level,{{cite news|url=https://www.buzzfeed.com/jimwaterson/more-sean-bean-as-geoff-boycott |title=Meet The Political Party That Wants Yorkshire To Have Its Own Parliament |first=Jim |last=Waterson |date=30 October 2016 |access-date=3 March 2017 |website=Buzzfeed News |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170304114947/https://www.buzzfeed.com/jimwaterson/more-sean-bean-as-geoff-boycott |archive-date= 4 March 2017 }} and the Northern Party, which campaigned for a devolved Northern government with the power to make laws and full control of taxation and spending, was wound up in 2016.{{cite news|title=Ex Tory MP forms the Northern Party |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/the-northerner/2015/apr/02/ex-tory-mp-forms-the-northern-party |access-date=3 March 2017 |newspaper=The Guardian |date=2 April 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170304115507/https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/the-northerner/2015/apr/02/ex-tory-mp-forms-the-northern-party |archive-date= 4 March 2017 }}{{cite web|title=The Northern Party |website=Registrations |url=http://search.electoralcommission.org.uk/English/Registrations/PP2664 |publisher=Electoral Commission |access-date=3 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509175641/http://search.electoralcommission.org.uk/English/Registrations/PP2664 |archive-date= 9 May 2016 }}

The Northern Independence Party was founded in October 2020, a secessionist and democratic socialist political party that seeks to make Northern England an independent nation, under the name of Northumbria.{{cite web|last=Maxwell|first=Kieran|date=21 January 2021|title=NIP it in the bud: the case against Northern independence|url=https://www.thesocialreview.co.uk/2021/01/21/nip-it-in-the-bud-the-case-against-northern-independence/|access-date=26 March 2021|website=The Social Review}}{{cite news|url=https://www.newstatesman.com/politics/devolution/2021/03/can-northern-independence-party-succeed|title=Can the Northern Independence Party succeed?|first=Freddie|last=Hayward|work=New Statesman|date=26 March 2021|access-date=26 March 2021}}{{cite news|last=Drury|first=Colin|date=3 November 2020|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/independent-north-england-devolution-yorkshire-manchester-north-east-b1481784.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220621/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/independent-north-england-devolution-yorkshire-manchester-north-east-b1481784.html |archive-date=21 June 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=An independent north? What an England severed in two might look like|work=The Independent|access-date=23 March 2021}}

{{see also|Religion in England}}

{{multiple image

|total_width = 300

|perrow=2

|image1 = York Minster - geograph.org.uk - 2878808.jpg

|caption1 =

|alt1 = A gothic cathedral with two towers.

|image2 = Liverpool RC Cathedral - panoramio.jpg

|caption2 =

|alt2 = A modernist cathedral shaped like a funnel.

|image3=Dioceses of Church of England.svg

|caption3=York Minster and the Anglican Province of York

|image4=Province of Liverpool.png

|caption4=Liverpool Metropolitan Cathedral and Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Liverpool

|footer = Cathedrals of the Archbishop of York (Anglican) and Archbishop of Liverpool (Roman Catholic), the highest-ranking church officials in the North.

}}

File:Catholics in England 1715-20.svg

Christianity has been the largest religion in the region since the Early Middle Ages; its existence in Britain dates back to the late Roman era and the arrival of Celtic Christianity. The Holy Island of Lindisfarne played an essential role in the Christianisation of Northumbria, after Aidan from Connacht founded a monastery there as the first Bishop of Lindisfarne at the request of King Oswald.{{cite web|title=The Religious History of Lindisfarne |url=http://www.lindisfarne.org.uk/general/aidan.htm |publisher=Lindisfarne.org.uk |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090827060045/http://www.lindisfarne.org.uk/general/aidan.htm |archive-date=27 August 2009 |access-date= 23 February 2009}} It is known for the creation of the Lindisfarne Gospels and remains a place of pilgrimage.{{cite web |title=The Easter Walking Pilgrimage to Holy Island |url=http://www.northerncross.co.uk/about.htm |publisher=NorthernCross.co.uk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090502023017/http://www.northerncross.co.uk/about.htm |archive-date=2 May 2009 |access-date= 23 February 2009}}{{cite web|title=The history of The Gospels |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/tyne/features/gospels/gospels_tense_past.shtml |publisher=BBC.co.uk |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100811032451/http://www.bbc.co.uk/tyne/features/gospels/gospels_tense_past.shtml |archive-date=11 August 2010 |access-date= 23 February 2009}} Saint Cuthbert, a monk of Lindisfarne, was venerated from Nottinghamshire to Cumberland, and is today sometimes named the patron saint of Northern England.{{cite book|title=The Secular Clergy in England, 1066–1216|first=Hugh M.|last=Thomas|page=337|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-870256-6|year=2014}}{{cite book |title=History of England |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w2EPAAAAYAAJ&q=%22patron+saint+of+the+north%22&pg=PA124 |last=Palgrave, Francis|year=1831|publisher=Harvard University}} The Synod of Whitby saw Northumbria break from Celtic Christianity and return to the Roman Catholic church, as calculations of Easter and tonsure rules were brought into line with those of Rome.{{cite book|author-link=Henry Mayr-Harting|last=Mayr-Harting|first=Henry|title=The Coming of Christianity to Anglo-Saxon England|edition=3rd|publisher=B. T. Batsford|year=1991|isbn=978-0-271-03851-3}}

After the English Reformation Northern England became a centre of Catholicism, and Irish immigration increased its numbers further, especially in North West cities like Liverpool and Manchester. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the area underwent a religious revival that ultimately produced Primitive Methodism,{{cite book|title=T&T Clark Companion to Methodism|page=475|first=Charles Jr.|last= Yrigoyen|year=2014|isbn=978-0-567-66246-0|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing}} and at its peak in the 19th century Methodism was the dominant faith in much of Northern England.{{cite book|title=Atlas of Industrializing Britain, 1780–1914|first1=John|last1=Langton|first2=R.J.|last2=Morris|isbn=978-1-135-83645-0|year=2002|publisher=Routledge}}

As of 2016, the list of places of worship registered for marriage for Northern England included at least 1,960 that are Methodist or Independent Methodist, 1,200 Roman Catholic, 370 United Reformed, 310 Baptist or Particular Baptist, 250 Jehovah's Witness and 240 Salvation Army, as well as many hundreds of churches from smaller denominations.{{efn|Anglican churches are not required to register and are not counted.{{cite web|url=http://www.brin.ac.uk/figures/number-of-registered-places-of-worship-england-and-wales-1999-2009/ |title=Number of Registered Places of Worship (England and Wales), 1999–2009 |website=British Religion in Numbers |access-date=18 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908140847/http://www.brin.ac.uk/figures/number-of-registered-places-of-worship-england-and-wales-1999-2009/ |archive-date= 8 September 2016 }}}} {{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/places-of-worship-registered-for-marriage |title=Places of worship registered for marriage |date=7 November 2016 |publisher=HM Passport Office |access-date=18 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170127131633/https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/places-of-worship-registered-for-marriage |archive-date=27 January 2017 }} Not all places of worship are registered, and some defunct churches remain on the list.

In the ecclesiastical administration of the Church of England the entire North is covered by the Province of York, which is represented by the Archbishop of York – the second-highest figure in the Church after the Archbishop of Canterbury. The unusual situation of having two archbishops at the top of Church hierarchy suggests that Northern England was seen as a sui generis.{{sfn|Dobson|1996|p=3}} Likewise, with the exception of parts of the Diocese of Shrewsbury and Diocese of Nottingham, the North is covered in Roman Catholic Church administration by the Province of Liverpool, represented by the Archbishop of Liverpool.{{cite web|url=http://www.r-c.org.uk/ |title=Roman Catholic Dioceses of Great Britain |access-date=13 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161028074215/http://www.r-c.org.uk/ |archive-date=28 October 2016 }}

File:Princes Road Synagogue.jpg]]

Small Jewish communities arose in Beverley, Doncaster, Grimsby, Lancaster, Newcastle, and York in the wake of the Norman Conquest but suffered massacres and pogroms, of which the largest was the York Massacre in 1190.{{cite web|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5764-england |title=England |website=Jewish Encyclopedia |access-date=14 March 2011 |date=March 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421040929/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5764-england |archive-date=21 April 2012 }} Jews were forcibly banished from England by the 1290 Edict of Expulsion until the Resettlement of the Jews in England in the seventeenth century, and the first synagogue in the North appeared in Liverpool in 1753.{{cite news|url=http://www.liverpoolecho.co.uk/news/liverpool-news/plaque-mark-liverpools-kosher-history-3480465|first=Rex|last=Makin|date=5 July 2008|title=Plaque to mark Liverpool's kosher history|access-date=14 March 2017}} Manchester also has a long-standing Jewish community: the now-demolished 1857 Manchester Reform Synagogue was the second Reform synagogue in the country,{{cite book|last=Frangopulo|first=N. J.|year=1962|title=Rich Inheritance|publisher=Education Committee|page=114}}{{cite news|url=http://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/news/greater-manchester-news/inside-historic-manchester-synagogue-demolished-7741849 |title=Inside the historic Manchester synagogue to be demolished in Gary Neville's luxury hotel and shops plan |first=Jennifer |last=Williams |date=9 September 2014 |access-date=14 March 2017 |newspaper=Manchester Evening News |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160518205558/http://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/news/greater-manchester-news/inside-historic-manchester-synagogue-demolished-7741849 |archive-date=18 May 2016 }} and Greater Manchester has the only eruv in the United Kingdom outside London.{{cite news|title=How Greater Manchester's eruv has changed life for Jews |first=Paul |last=Burnell |date=18 January 2014 |access-date=17 March 2017 |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-manchester-25687756 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141011222656/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-manchester-25687756 |archive-date=11 October 2014 }} Traditionally, there is also a large Jewish presence in Gateshead. In total, there are 84 synagogues in Northern England registered for marriages.

Spiritualism flourished in Northern England in the nineteenth century, in part as a backlash to the fundamentalist Primitive Methodist movement and in part driven by the influence of Owenist socialism.{{cite book|title=The Other World: Spiritualism and Psychical Research in England, 1850–1914|first=Janet|last=Oppenheim|pages=91–92|year=1988|isbn=978-0-521-34767-9|publisher=Cambridge University Press}} There remain 220 Spiritualist churches registered in the North, of which 40 identify as Christian Spiritualist.

File:Suffa Tul Islam Central Mosque, Horton Park Avenue, Bradford (6928840425).jpg]]

The first mosque in the United Kingdom was founded by the convert Abdullah Quilliam in the Liverpool Muslim Institute in 1889.{{cite news|author=Bartlett, David|title=Liverpool City Council's plans to restore Britain's first mosque|date=15 January 2010|newspaper=Liverpool Daily Post|url= http://www.liverpooldailypost.co.uk/liverpool-news/regional-news/2010/01/15/liverpool-city-council-s-plans-to-restore-britain-s-first-mosque-92534-25605763/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120930132856/http://www.liverpooldailypost.co.uk/liverpool-news/regional-news/2010/01/15/liverpool-city-council-s-plans-to-restore-britain-s-first-mosque-92534-25605763/|archive-date=30 September 2012|url-status=dead}} Today, there are around 500 mosques in Northern England.{{cite web|url=http://mosques.muslimsinbritain.org/index.php |title=UK Mosque/Masjid Directory |website=Muslims in Britain |access-date=18 March 2017 |first=Mehmood |last=Naqshbandi |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161101184304/http://mosques.muslimsinbritain.org/index.php |archive-date= 1 November 2016 }} The exact count is 591, but Naqshbandi estimates that around 20% of mosques in his list are defunct. {{cite web|url=http://www.brin.ac.uk/figures/number-of-registered-places-of-worship-england-and-wales-1999-2009/ |title=Number of Registered Places of Worship (England and Wales), 1999–2009 |website=British Religion in Numbers |access-date=18 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908140847/http://www.brin.ac.uk/figures/number-of-registered-places-of-worship-england-and-wales-1999-2009/ |archive-date= 8 September 2016 }} Indian religions are also represented: there are at least 45 gurdwaras, of which the largest is the Sikh Temple in Leeds, and 30 mandirs, of which the largest is Bradford Lakshmi Narayan Hindu Temple.{{cite news|url=http://www.yorkshireeveningpost.co.uk/news/faith-in-leeds-sikh-temple-visit-1-2241450|title=Faith in Leeds: Sikh temple visit|date=12 March 2010|first=Neil|last=Hudson|access-date=14 March 2017|newspaper=Yorkshire Evening Post}}{{cite web|first=Fiona |last=Evans |date=15 May 2006 |url=http://www.thetelegraphandargus.co.uk/search/display.var.760410.0.3m_hindu_temple_soon_to_take_shape.php |title=£3m Hindu temple soon to take shape |location=Bradford |work=Telegraph and Argus |access-date=14 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511173838/http://www.thetelegraphandargus.co.uk/search/display.var.760410.0.3m_hindu_temple_soon_to_take_shape.php |archive-date=11 May 2008 }}

Transport in the North has been shaped by the Pennines, creating strong north–south axes along each coast and an east–west axis across the moorland passes of the southern Pennines.{{cite web|url=http://www.citymetric.com/skylines/economic-history-north-england-part-2-cottage-industries-and-market-towns-1208 |title=An economic history of the north of England. Part 2: Cottage industries and market towns |first=Stephen |last=Caunce |date=8 July 2015 |access-date=5 March 2017 |website=CityMetric |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170306032829/http://www.citymetric.com/skylines/economic-history-north-england-part-2-cottage-industries-and-market-towns-1208 |archive-date= 6 March 2017 }} Northern England is a centre of freight transport and handles around one third of all British cargo.{{sfn|Highways England|2016|page=15}} Both passenger and freight links between Northern cities remain poor, which is a major weakness of the Northern economy.{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/505705/northern-transport-strategy-spring-2016.pdf |title=Northern Transport Strategy: Spring 2016 Report |author=Transport for the North |year=2016 |access-date=7 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160310105150/https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/505705/northern-transport-strategy-spring-2016.pdf |archive-date=10 March 2016 }}

The passenger transport executive (PTE) has become a major player in the organisation of public transport within Northern city regions; of the six PTEs in England, five (Transport for Greater Manchester, Merseytravel, Travel South Yorkshire, Nexus Tyne and Wear and West Yorkshire Metro) are located in the North.{{cite web|url=http://moderngov.merseytravel.uk.net/documents/s1607/PTE-80-11.pdf|title=Breaking down barriers to better local transport in the city regions|publisher=Merseytravel|date=24 November 2011|access-date=7 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170827173403/http://moderngov.merseytravel.uk.net/documents/s1607/PTE-80-11.pdf|archive-date=27 August 2017|url-status=dead}} These coordinate bus services, local trains and light rail in their regions. Following the passage of the Cities and Local Government Devolution Act 2016, Transport for the North became a statutory body in 2018 with powers to coordinate services and offer integrated ticketing throughout the region.

The Preston By-pass, opened in 1958, was the first motorway in the UK, and today an extensive network connects the major cities of the North.{{cn|date=September 2024}} The major north-south motorway routes are the western M6 and eastern M1/A1(M), the Great North Road became the modern A1 road with the M1 using an alternative route and the A1 (M) is the upgraded A1.{{cite book |title=Great North Road |first=Frank |last=Goddard|page=14|publisher=Frances Lincoln Ltd|year=2004 |isbn= 978-0-7112-2446-9}} The A19 is a major north-south A-road also in the east. The M62 (over the south Pennines) is the major east-west motorway, it follows the Roman road between York and Chester. The A59, A66 and A69 are also major east-west A-roads.{{sfn|Highways England|2016|page=8–9}}

Older streets in the north are called gates with a number of terms for small streets such as chare, wynd, tenfoot, vennel, snicket and ginnel. York goes as far as to merge the latter two terms with alleyway to form the term snickelways. These small streets can be cobbled or block-paved; pitched paving is a common in-between type of paving most often used.

Buses are an important part of the Northern transport mix, with bus ridership above the England and Wales average in all three Northern regions.{{cite news|title=Car, bike, train, or walk: how people get to work mapped |first=Simon |last=Rogers |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/interactive/2013/feb/01/cycle-drive-work-map-census-2011 |date=1 February 2013 |access-date=23 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113002923/http://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/interactive/2013/feb/01/cycle-drive-work-map-census-2011 |archive-date=13 January 2016 }} Many of the municipal bus companies were located in Northern England creating intense competition and bus wars following deregulation in the 1980s and 1990s.{{cite book|title=Competition Ownership of Bus and Coach Services|first=David A.|last=Hensher|page=279|year=1991|publisher=Taylor and Francis|isbn=978-2-88124-796-5}} Increasing car ownership in the same era caused bus use to decline, although it remains higher than in most areas of the South.{{cite book|title=People and Places: A 2001 Census Atlas of the UK|first1=Daniel|last1=Dorling|first2=Bethan|last2=Thomas|page=163|year=2004|publisher=Policy Press|isbn=978-1-86134-555-4}}

File:Oldham Bus Station - geograph.org.uk - 2932440.jpg|Oldham Bus Station

File:Haymarket Bus Station, Newcastle - geograph.org.uk - 3989964.jpg|Haymarket bus station, Newcastle upon Tyne

The North of England pioneered rail transport. Milestones include the 1758 Middleton Railway in Leeds, the first railway authorised by Act of Parliament and the oldest continually operating in the world; the 1825 Stockton and Darlington Railway, the first public railway to use steam locomotives; and the 1830 Liverpool and Manchester Railway, the first modern main line.{{cite book|title=Privatized Infrastructure: The Role of Government|pages=19–20|first=Adrian J.|last=Smith|year=1999|publisher=Thomas Telford|isbn=978-0-7277-2712-1}} Today the region retains many of its original railway lines, including the East Coast and West Coast main lines and the Cross Country Route. Passenger numbers on Northern routes increased over 50% between 2004 and 2016, and Northern England handles over half of total UK rail freight, but infrastructure is poorly funded compared to Southern railways: railways in London received £5426 per resident in 2015 while those in the North East received just £223 per resident, and journeys between major cities are slow and overcrowded.{{sfn|Highways England|2016|page=16}}{{cite news|url=http://www.railjournal.com/index.php/europe/northern-englands-railways-under-election-spotlight.html|title=Northern England's railways under election spotlight|first=Keith|last=Barrow|date=12 May 2015|access-date=4 March 2017|publisher=Rail Journal|archive-date=27 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170827214354/http://www.railjournal.com/index.php/europe/northern-englands-railways-under-election-spotlight.html|url-status=dead}}

To combat this, the Department of Transport has devolved many of its powers to Rail North, an alliance of local authorities from the Scottish Borders down to Staffordshire which manages the Northern Rail and TransPennine Express franchises that operate many routes in Northern England.{{cite web |url=http://www.railnorth.org/news/new-franchises-herald-new-era-for-norths-rail-passengers/ |title=New franchises herald new era for North's rail passengers |date=1 April 2016 |access-date=4 March 2017 |publisher=Rail North |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220175957/http://www.railnorth.org/news/new-franchises-herald-new-era-for-norths-rail-passengers/ |archive-date=20 December 2016 }} Meanwhile, new build such as the Northern Hub around Manchester and Northern Powerhouse Rail from Liverpool to Hull and Newcastle is planned to increase capacity on important Northern routes and decrease travel times. The planned High Speed 2 (HS2) line would have connected Manchester and Leeds to Birmingham and London, but cuts to HS2 saw all Northern branches of the line cancelled.{{cite news|url=https://www.politico.eu/article/rishi-sunak-hs2-rail-london-north-england/|title=Rishi Sunak scraps northern leg of HS2 rail line|date=4 October 2023|accessdate=30 November 2023|website=Politico|first=Bethany|last=Dawson}}

The first passenger tram line in the UK was built in Birkenhead and opened on 30 August 1860 (partially open intermittently as a heritage tramway).{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/local/liverpool/hi/people_and_places/newsid_8958000/8958230.stm|title=Birkenhead marks historic tramway |date=1 September 2010|access-date=7 March 2017|website=BBC News}} Trams turned out to be especially well suited for Northern cities, with their growing working-class suburbs, and by the turn of the century, most Northern towns had an extensive interconnected electric tram network.{{cite book|title=Modern Britain Third Edition: A Social History 1750–2011|pages=20–21|first=Edward|last=Royle|year=2016|isbn=978-1-84966-570-4|publisher=A&C Black}} At the network's height, it was possible to travel entirely by tram from Liverpool Pier Head to the village of Summit, outside Rochdale, a distance of {{convert|52|miles|km}}, and a gap of only {{convert|7|miles|km}} separated the North-Western network from the West Yorkshire network.{{cite magazine|year=1954|title=In the Shadow of the Pennines|page=154|magazine=Transport World|first=D.|last=Randall}} Starting in the 1930s, these were largely replaced by motor buses and trolley buses. With the closure of Sheffield Tramway in 1960 and Glasgow Tramway in 1962, Blackpool Tramway – popular as a tourist attraction as much as a means of transport – was left as the only public tram system in the UK until the Manchester Metrolink opened in 1992.{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/ahistoryoftheworld/objects/W0j2FVnARPGAHHuf5t2jaw|title=Last Day Glasgow Tram Tickets|first=Robert|last=Pool|website=BBC|year=2014|access-date=7 March 2017}} Today there are four light rail systems in the North – Blackpool Tramway, Manchester Metrolink, Sheffield Supertram and Tyne & Wear Metro.{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/527741/light-rail-notes.pdf|title=Light Rail and Tram Statistics: Notes and Definitions|publisher=Department for Transport|date=7 June 2016|access-date=18 May 2017}}{{Dead link|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}

File:St Helens railway station new building.jpg|St Helens Central railway station

File:Huddersfield Train Station - geograph.org.uk - 4199463.jpg|Huddersfield railway station

{{Location map many

| Northern England

| caption = International airports of Northern England

| alt = A map of Northern England, with the seven international airports highlighted.

| label1 = MAN

| link1 = Manchester Airport

| position1 = bottom

| coordinates1= {{coord|53|21|14|N|002|16|30|W}}

| mark1 = BSicon FLUG.svg

| label2 = NCL

| link2 = Newcastle International Airport

| coordinates2= {{coord|55|02|17|N|001|41|23|W}}

| position2 = top

| mark2 = BSicon FLUG.svg

| label3 = LPL

| link3 = Liverpool John Lennon Airport

| position3 = top

| coordinates3= {{coord|53|20|01|N|002|50|59|W}}

| mark3 = BSicon FLUG.svg

| label4 = LBA

| link4 = Leeds Bradford Airport

| position4 = top

| coordinates4= {{coord|53|51|58|N|001|39|39|W}}

| mark4 = BSicon FLUG.svg

| label6 = HUY

| link6 = Humberside Airport

| position6 = top

| coordinates6= {{coord|53|34|28|N|000|21|03|W}}

| mark6 = BSicon FLUG.svg

| label7 = MME

| link7 = Teesside Airport

| position7 = top

| coordinates7= {{coord|54|30|33|N|001|25|46|W}}

| mark7 = BSicon FLUG.svg

}}

In total, there are six international airports in the North; these are (in descending order of passenger traffic) Manchester, Newcastle, Liverpool John Lennon, Leeds Bradford, Teesside and Humberside.{{cite web|url=https://www.visitengland.com/northernengland/plan-your-visit/getting-northern-england#/ |title=Getting to northern England by air |access-date=6 March 2017 |publisher=Visit England |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161021164115/https://www.visitengland.com/northernengland/plan-your-visit/getting-northern-england |archive-date=21 October 2016 |date=28 September 2015 }}

Manchester Airport is a major hub and the busiest airport anywhere in the UK outside London, handling 23.3 million people in 2022 (10.5% of all UK passengers), and Newcastle (4.1 million), Liverpool (3.5 million) and Leeds-Bradford (3.3 million) serve their city regions.{{cite web|url=https://www.caa.co.uk/Documents/Download/9116/47a460b2-0592-4ef7-b24b-aa5e27ccfce4/5619|title=Size of Reporting Airports January 2022 – December 2022 |publisher=Civil Aviation Authority |access-date=30 November 2023}}

Other airports in the North have struggled. Teesside and Humberside both see very little traffic while other airports have closed to commercial flights entirely: Blackpool closed in 2014, Carlisle Lake District in 2020 and Doncaster Sheffield in 2022.{{sfn|IPPR North|2012|pages=117–120}}{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2014/oct/08/sad-loss-holidaymakers-workers-blackpool-airport-closure |title='A sad loss for Blackpool' as unprofitable airport to close |first1=Helen |last1=Pidd |first2=Chloe |last2=Campbell |date=8 October 2014 |access-date=6 March 2017 |newspaper=The Guardian |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160416091423/http://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2014/oct/08/sad-loss-holidaymakers-workers-blackpool-airport-closure |archive-date=16 April 2016 }}{{cite web|url=https://www.airport-technology.com/features/last-call-for-doncaster-why-is-the-airport-closing/|title=Last call for Doncaster: why is the airport closing?|date=24 October 2022|accessdate=30 November 2023|first=Luke|last=Christou|website=Airport Technology}} Many of these airports were developed during the boom in low-cost air travel during the early 2000s and suffered following the Great Recession and COVID lockdowns.{{cite news|url=https://www.thetimes.com/travel/advice/boom-left-britain-with-pointless-regional-airports-says-flight-chief-7sqnpm0hnpm|title=Boom left Britain with pointless regional airports, says flight chief|first=Andrew|last=Clark|date=1 April 2013|access-date=6 March 2017|newspaper=The Times}}

The devolution of Air Passenger Duty in Scotland allows Scottish airports to offer cheaper flights than their English rivals{{cite news|url=https://www.ft.com/content/5222f380-a324-11e4-bbef-00144feab7de |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221211/https://www.ft.com/content/5222f380-a324-11e4-bbef-00144feab7de |archive-date=11 December 2022 |url-access=subscription|title=English airports fear Scottish tax competition|date=25 January 2015|first1=Roger|last1=Blitz|first2=Chris |last2=Tighe|first3=Andrew|last3=Bounds|newspaper=Financial Times|access-date=6 March 2017}} as well as London airports turning Northern airports to spoke airports, forcing connecting passengers to travel via London or continental European airports for major destinations.

File:Reflection on Liverpool John Lennon Airport - geograph.org.uk - 4227976.jpg|Liverpool John Lennon Airport

File:Newcastle Airport Arrivals.jpg|Newcastle International Airport

The first modern canal in England was Sankey Brook, opened in 1757 to connect Liverpool's ports to the St Helens coalfields.{{cite book|pages=[https://archive.org/details/transportinindus0000unse/page/189 189–190]|title=Transport in the Industrial Revolution|first=Derek Howard|last=Aldcroft|publisher=Manchester University Press|year=1983|isbn=978-0-7190-0839-9|url=https://archive.org/details/transportinindus0000unse/page/189}} By 1777, the Grand Trunk Canal had opened, linking the rivers Mersey and Trent and making it possible for boats to travel directly from Liverpool to Hull. Manchester, {{convert|40|miles|km}} inland, was connected to the Irish Sea by the Manchester Ship Canal in 1894, although the canal never saw the success that was hoped for.{{citation |last1=Willan |first1=Thomas Stuart |editor1-last=Chaloner |editor1-first=W. H. |editor2-last=Ratcliffe | editor2-first=Barrie M. |title=Trade and Transport: Essays in Economic History in Honour of T. S. Willan |publisher=Manchester University Press |year=1977 |isbn=978-0-8476-6013-1|pages=179–190}} The North retains many navigable canals, including the Cheshire, North Pennine and South Pennine canal rings, although they are now used mostly for pleasure rather than transport – the Aire and Calder Navigation, which carries over 2 million tons of oil, sand and gravel per year, is a rare exception.{{cite web|url=https://canalrivertrust.org.uk/enjoy-the-waterways/canal-and-river-network/aire-and-calder-navigation-main-line |title=Aire & Calder Navigation Main Line |website=Canal and River Trust |access-date=6 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160730074539/https://canalrivertrust.org.uk/enjoy-the-waterways/canal-and-river-network/aire-and-calder-navigation-main-line |archive-date=30 July 2016 }}

Many Northern coastal towns were built on trade, and retain large sea ports. The Humber ports of Grimsby and Immingham (counted as a single port for statistical purposes) are the busiest in the UK in terms of tonnage, serving 59.1 million tons as of 2015, and Teesport and the Port of Liverpool are also among the country's largest – in total, 35% of British freight was shipped through Northern ports.{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/555338/port-freight-statistics-2015.pdf|title=UK Port Freight Statistics: 2015|date=21 September 2016|publisher=Department for Transport|access-date=6 March 2017}}{{sfn|Highways England|2016|page=16}} Roll-on/roll-off ferries offer passenger and freight connections to the Isle of Man and Ireland along the west coast,{{cite web|url=http://www.directferries.co.uk/liverpool_birkenhead_ferry.htm |title=Liverpool Birkenhead Ferry |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170209155612/http://www.directferries.co.uk/liverpool_birkenhead_ferry.htm |archive-date= 9 February 2017 }}, {{cite web|url=http://www.directferries.co.uk/liverpool_ferry.htm |title=Liverpool Ferry |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170209050646/http://www.directferries.co.uk/liverpool_ferry.htm |archive-date= 9 February 2017 }}, {{cite web|url=http://www.directferries.co.uk/heysham_ferry.htm |title=Heysham Ferry |website=Direct Ferries |access-date=6 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170209062649/http://www.directferries.co.uk/heysham_ferry.htm |archive-date= 9 February 2017 }} while east coast ports connect to Belgium and the Netherlands,{{cite web|url=http://www.directferries.co.uk/newcastle_ferry.htm |title=Newcastle Ferry |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160129030434/http://www.directferries.co.uk/newcastle_ferry.htm |archive-date=29 January 2016 }}, {{cite web|url=http://www.directferries.co.uk/hull_ferry.htm |title=Hull Ferry |website=Direct Ferries |access-date=6 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170209093150/http://www.directferries.co.uk/hull_ferry.htm |archive-date= 9 February 2017 }} although Northern ports handle only a small percentage of the UK's vehicle traffic.{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/566073/final-sea-passenger-statistics-2015.pdf|title=Sea Passenger Statistics: Final 2015|date=9 November 2016|publisher=Department for Transport|access-date=6 March 2017}} Liverpool Cruise Terminal opened in 2007, cruises also operate out of Port of Hull and Newcastle International Ferry Terminal.

File:MV Horizon and Manannan, Liverpool Cruise Terminal (geograph 4581187).jpg|Liverpool Cruise Terminal|alt=A large cruise ship and smaller high-speed ferry in central Liverpool

File:Boats on the Leeds and Liverpool Canal - geograph.org.uk - 3942901.jpg|Leeds and Liverpool Canal

• Black Country
• Convention of the North
• Cornwall
• Devolution to the North of England
• East Anglia
• Greater London
• Home counties
• The Midlands
• Southern England
• Welsh Marches
• West Country
• West of England

{{notelist|40em}}

{{Reflist}}

{{refbegin|40em}}

• {{cite book |title=The Literary North |first=K. |last=Cockin |year=2012 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-137-02687-3}}
• {{cite book |title=Church and Society in the Medieval North of England |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rR_rCgAAQBAJ |first=R. B. |last=Dobson |publisher=A&C Black |year=1996 |isbn=978-1-85285-120-0 }}
• {{cite book |title=Thinking Northern: Textures of Identity in the North of England |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7MKDBu1L_5MC |last=Ehland |first=Christoph |year=2007 |publisher=Editions Rodopi BV |isbn=978-90-420-2281-2 }}
• {{cite book |title=The Iron Age in Northern Britain: Celts and Romans, Natives and Invaders |url=https://archive.org/details/ironageinnorther0000hard |url-access=registration |first=D. W. |last=Harding |publisher=Routledge |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-134-41786-5 }}
• {{cite book |title=Researching Northern English |last=Hickey |first=Raymond |year=2015 |publisher=John Benjamins |isbn=978-90-272-6767-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pNf4CgAAQBAJ }}
• {{cite book |last=Holder |first=Judith |year=2005 |title=It's Not Grim Up North |publisher=BBC Books |isbn=978-0-563-52281-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yGJ32aAxSdoC }}
• {{cite book |title=The North-south Divide: The Origins of Northern Consciousness in England |last=Jewell |first=Helen |year=1994 |publisher=Manchester University Press |isbn=978-0-7190-3804-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LvbBAAAAIAAJ }}
• {{cite book |author-link=Stuart Maconie |last=Maconie |first=Stuart |year=2007 |title=Pies and Prejudice: In Search of the North |publisher=Ebury Press |isbn=978-0-09-191022-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AFL7O5nj0bUC }}
• {{cite book |title=The British Palaeolithic: Human Societies at the Edge of the Pleistocene World |first1=Paul |last1=Pettit |first2=Mark |last2=White |publisher=Routledge |year=2012 |location=Abingdon, UK |isbn=978-0-415-67455-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U7VYXridvUgC }}
• {{cite book |title=Looking North: Northern England and the National Imagination |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fGI3Bgy54OcC |last=Russell |first=Dave |year=2004 |publisher=Manchester University Press |isbn=978-0-7190-5178-4 }}
• {{cite book |title=Northern English: A Social and Cultural History |last=Wales |first=Katie |year=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-511-48707-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IaOuTaQ5zq4C}}
• {{cite book |url=http://www.transportforthenorth.com/wp-content/uploads/northern-trans-pennine-strategic-study-stage-3-report.pdf |title=Northern Trans-Pennine Routes Strategic Study |publisher=Department for Transport |year=2016 |author=Highways England }}
• {{cite book |url=http://www.ippr.org/files/images/media/files/publication/2012/12/northern-prosperity_NEFC-final_Nov2012_9949.pdf?noredirect=1 |title=Northern Prosperity is National Prosperity |author=IPPR North |year=2012 |publisher=Institute for Public Policy Research |access-date=6 March 2017 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910174951/http://www.ippr.org/files/images/media/files/publication/2012/12/northern-prosperity_NEFC-final_Nov2012_9949.pdf?noredirect=1 |url-status=dead }}
• {{cite book |url=http://www.ippr.org/files/publications/pdf/northern-powerhouse-in-action-feb2017.pdf?noredirect=1 |title=The Northern Powerhouse in Action |author=IPPR North |year=2016 |publisher=Institute for Public Policy Research |access-date=16 May 2017 |archive-date=17 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220617180847/https://www.ippr.org/files/publications/pdf/northern-powerhouse-in-action-feb2017.pdf?noredirect=1 |url-status=dead }}

{{refend}}

{{refbegin}}

• {{Cite book |last=Turner |first=Graham |year=1967 |title=The North Country |publisher=Eyre & Spottiswoode}}
• {{Cite book |last=Wainwright |first=Martin |year=2009 |title=True North |publisher=Guardian Books |isbn=978-0-85265-113-1}}

{{refend}}

• {{Commons category inline}}

{{England topics}}

{{Authority control}}

Category:Cultural regions

Category:Geography of England

Category:Northumbria

Category:Regions of England