Science and technology in Italy

As early as the 1st century AD, Rome had become one of the biggest and most advanced cities in the world. The ancient Romans invented new technologies to improve the city's sanitation systems, roads, and buildings.{{cite web|url=https://www.romanoimpero.com/2017/11/idraulica-romana.html|title=IDRAULICA ROMANA|access-date=1 June 2022|language=it}}{{cite web|url=https://www.lettere.uniroma1.it/sites/default/files/400/MACHINA%20Technologia%20Roma%20Antica.pdf|title=Tecnologia dell'antica Roma|access-date=1 June 2022|language=it}} They developed a system of aqueducts that piped freshwater into the city, and they built sewers that removed the city's waste. The wealthiest Romans lived in large houses with gardens. Most of the population lived in apartment buildings made of stone, concrete, or limestone. The Romans developed new techniques and used materials such as volcanic soil from Pozzuoli, a village near Naples, to make their cement harder and stronger.{{cite web|url=https://www.darioflaccovio.it/blog/informazione-tecnica/composizione-cemento-romano-formula|title=La composizione del cemento romano è la Formula perfetta|access-date=1 June 2022|language=it}} This concrete allowed them to build large apartment buildings called insulae.

Italy had a scientific "golden age" during the Renaissance. Leonardo da Vinci, was trained to be a painter, but his interests and achievements spread into an astonishing variety of fields that are now considered scientific specialties. He conceived ideas vastly ahead of his time. Notably, he invented concepts for the helicopter, an armed fighting vehicle, the use of concentrated solar power, the calculator, a rudimentary theory of plate tectonics, the double hull, and many others, using inspiration from Chinese ideas.[http://www.macchinedileonardo.com/index.php] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180519120454/http://www.macchinedileonardo.com/index.php |date=19 May 2018 }} Le macchine di Leonardo da Vinci. macchinedileonardo.com. Web. 29 Sep. 2011. In addition, he greatly advanced the fields of knowledge in anatomy, astronomy, civil engineering, optics, and hydrodynamics.

The scientist Galileo Galilei is called the first modern scientist.Rowland, Wade. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WWyF4vS8P7UC&pg=PA43 Galileo's mistake: a new look at the epic confrontation between Galileo and the Church.] Arcade Publishing, 2003. p. 43. Web. 29 Sep. 2011. His work constitutes a significant break from that of Aristotle and medieval philosophers and scientists (who were then referred to as "natural philosophers"). Galileo's achievements include improvements to the telescope, various astronomical observations, and initial formulation of the first and second laws of motion. Galileo was suppressed by the Catholic Church, but was a founder of modern science.Jerome J. Langford, Galileo, science, and the church (U of Michigan Press, 1992)

Other astronomers, such as Giovanni Domenico Cassini and Giovanni Schiaparelli, made discoveries about the Solar System. In mathematics, Joseph Louis Lagrange was active before leaving Italy. Giuseppe Peano, Lagrange, Fibonacci, and Gerolamo Cardano, whose Ars Magna is generally recognized as the first modern treatment on mathematics, made fundamental advances to the field.{{Citation |title=Cardano, Gerolamo |volume=II |page=777 |year=1970 |publisher=Treccani |language=it |encyclopedia=Dizionario enciclopedico italiano}} Luca Pacioli established accounting principles. Physicist Enrico Fermi, a Nobel prize laureate, led the team in Chicago that developed the first nuclear reactor. He is considered an "architect of the atomic bomb".{{Cite news |date=29 November 1954 |title=Enrico Fermi Dead at 53; Architect of Atomic Bomb |url=https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0929.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190314034514/https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0929.html |archive-date=14 March 2019 |access-date=21 January 2013 |work=The New York Times}} Italian physicists Emilio Segrè, who discovered the elements technetium and astatine, and the antiproton; Bruno Rossi, a pioneer in Cosmic Rays and X-ray astronomy; and other physicists were forced to leave Italy in the 1930s due to Fascist laws against Jews.Lucia Orlando, "Physics in the 1930s: Jewish Physicists' Contribution to the Realization of the" New Tasks" of Physics in Italy." Historical studies in the physical and biological sciences (1998): 141–181. {{JSTOR|27757806}}

Other physicists include Amedeo Avogadro (contributions to molecular theory), Evangelista Torricelli (inventor of the barometer), Alessandro Volta (inventor of the electric battery), Guglielmo Marconi (inventor of radio), Galileo Ferraris and Antonio Pacinotti (pioneers of the induction motor), Alessandro Cruto (pioneer of the light bulb), and Innocenzo Manzetti (pioneer of automatons and robotics), Ettore Majorana (discovered Majorana fermions), Carlo Rubbia (1984 Nobel Prize in physics), and Antonio Meucci (developing voice-communication device sometimes credited as the first telephone).Wheen, Andrew. [https://books.google.com/books?id=B6shu_hAiGkC&pg=PA45 Dot-Dash to Dot.com: How Modern Telecommunications Evolved from the Telegraph to the Internet.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429211228/https://books.google.com/books?id=B6shu_hAiGkC&pg=PA45& |date=29 April 2016}} Springer, 2010. p. 45. Web. 23 September 2011.; Cleveland, Cutler (Lead Author); Saundry, Peter (Topic Editor). [http://www.eoearth.org/article/Meucci,_Antonio Meucci, Antonio.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130526094228/http://www.eoearth.org/article/Meucci,_Antonio |date=26 May 2013}} Encyclopedia of Earth, 2006. Web. 22 July 2012. In 1964, Pier Giorgio Perotto designed one of the first desktop programmable calculators, the Programma 101.{{Cite web |title=Olivetti Programma 101 Electronic Calculator |url=https://www.oldcalculatormuseum.com/c-programma101.html |website=The Old Calculator Web Museum |quote=technically, the machine was a programmable calculator, not a computer.}}; {{Cite web |title=2008/107/1 Computer, Programma 101, and documents (3), plastic / metal / paper / electronic components, hardware architect Pier Giorgio Perotto, designed by Mario Bellini, made by Olivetti, Italy, 1965–1971 |url=http://www.powerhousemuseum.com/collection/database/?irn=378406 |access-date=20 March 2016 |website=powerhousemuseum.com}}; {{Cite web |title=Olivetti Programma 101 Electronic Calculator |url=https://www.oldcalculatormuseum.com/c-programma101.html |website=The Old Calculator Web Museum |quote=It appears that the Mathatronics Mathatron calculator {{Sic|prec|eeded|nolink=y}} the Programma 101 to market.}}

In biology, Francesco Redi was the first to challenge the theory of spontaneous generation by demonstrating that maggots come from eggs of flies. Marcello Malpighi founded microscopic anatomy; his student Antonio Maria Valsalva became famous for his research focused on the anatomy of the ears, and Valvasia pupil Giovanni Battista Morgagni is the anatomist generally regarded as the father of modern anatomical pathology. Lazzaro Spallanzani conducted research in bodily functions, animal reproduction, and cellular theory. Camillo Golgi, whose many achievements include the discovery of the Golgi complex. Rita Levi-Montalcini, who discovered the nerve growth factor, was awarded the 1986 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine). Giulio Natta received the 1963 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for work on high polymers. Giuseppe Occhialini received the 1979 Wolf Prize in Physics for the discovery of the pion or pi-meson decay in 1947. Ennio De Giorgi, a Wolf Prize in Mathematics recipient in 1990, solved Bernstein's problem about minimal surfaces and the 19th Hilbert problem on the regularity of solutions of elliptic partial differential equations.{{Cite web |title=De Giorgi, Ennio |url=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/ennio-de-giorgi_%28Dizionario-Biografico%29 |access-date=31 December 2021 |language=it}}

The first internal combustion engine was invented by Eugenio Barsanti and Felice Matteucci, the Barsanti-Matteucci engine, in 1852.{{cite web|title=The Historical Documents|work=Barsanti e Matteucci|publisher=Fondazione Barsanti & Matteucci|year=2009|url=http://www.barsantiematteucci.it/inglese/documentiStorici.html|accessdate=2013-11-01|archive-date=25 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170225042248/http://www.barsantiematteucci.it/inglese/documentiStorici.html|url-status=dead}}{{cite book|author=Ricci, G.|chapter=The First Internal Combustion Engine|title=The Piston Engine Revolution|editor=Starr, Fred |display-editors=etal |location=London|publisher=Newcomen Society|year=2012|isbn=978-0-904685-15-2|pages=23–44|display-authors=etal}} It was fueled by a mix of air and hydrogen. The first gasoline internal combustion engine motor vehicle was invented by Enrico Bernardi in 1884.{{cite web|url=http://web.ncf.ca/fm120/History/Cars/History_of_Automobiles_and_Early_Transmissions.htm|title=History of Automobiles and Early Transmissions|access-date=1 June 2022}} The first pc (personal computer), the Olivetti P6040 and the P6060 was invented by Olivetti engineer Pier Giorgio Perotto in 1975.{{cite web|url=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/pier-giorgio-perotto_%28Dizionario-Biografico%29/|title=PEROTTO, Pier Giorgio|access-date=1 June 2022|language=it}}

{{main|Accademia dei Lincei}}

File:Palazzo Corsini rear entrance angle AvL.JPG in Rome, seat of the Accademia dei Lincei]]

The Accademia dei Lincei ({{IPA|it|akkaˈdɛːmja dei linˈtʃɛi}}; literally the "Academy of the Lynx-Eyed", but anglicised as the Lincean Academy) is one of the oldest and most prestigious European scientific institutions,{{cite web|url=https://www.esteri.it/en/sala_stampa/archivionotizie/approfondimenti/2021/06/visita-del-ministro-luigi-di-maio-all-accademia-dei-lincei/|title=Visit by Minister Luigi Di Maio to the Accademia dei Lincei|access-date=1 June 2022}} located at the Palazzo Corsini on the Via della Lungara in Rome, Italy.

Founded in the Papal States in 1603 by Federico Cesi, the academy was named after the lynx, an animal whose sharp vision symbolizes the observational prowess that science requires. Galileo Galilei was the intellectual centre of the academy and adopted "Galileo Galilei Linceo" as his signature. "The Lincei did not long survive the death in 1630 of Cesi, its founder and patron",Quoted from: Peter M.J Hess, Paul L. Allen. Catholicism and Science. {{ISBN|9780313021954}}. Page 39. and "disappeared in 1651".Quoted from: Agustín Udías. Searching the Heavens and the Earth: The History of Jesuit Observatories. Springer, 2003. {{ISBN|9781402011894}}. Page 5.

During the nineteenth century, it was revived, first in the Vatican and later in the nation of Italy. Thus the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, established in 1936, claims this heritage as the Accademia Pontificia dei Nuovi Lincei ("Pontifical Academy of the New Lynxes"), founded in 1847, descending from the first two incarnations of the academy. Similarly, a lynx-eyed academy of the 1870s became the national academy of Italy, encompassing both literature and science among its concerns.Thomas G. Bergin (ed.), Encyclopedia of Renaissance Italy (Oxford and New York: New Market Books, 1987).

{{main|List of universities in Italy}}

Image:ICub sciencefestival 1.jpg robot at the Genoa Science Festival, Italy, in 2009]]

The National Research Council ({{Langx|it|Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche}}, CNR) is the main Italian public research body. Supervised by the Ministry of university and Research,{{Cite web|url=https://www.mur.gov.it/it/aree-tematiche/ricerca/il-sistema-della-ricerca/enti-di-ricerca-pubblici|title=Enti di ricerca pubblici|access-date=30 May 2022|language=it}} has the task of carrying out, promoting, disseminating, transferring and enhancing scientific and technological research activities in the main sectors of knowledge development and their applications, promoting scientific progress, technological, economic and social.{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnr.it/it/chi-siamo|title=CNR - Chi siamo|access-date=30 May 2022|language=it}} According to the scientific journal Nature, in 2018 the CNR ranked 10th among the most innovative public research bodies in the world for the number of scientific articles published in about 80 journals monitored by the same journal.{{cite web| url=http://www.ansa.it/canale_scienza_tecnica/notizie/ricerca_istituzioni/2019/08/23/nature-infn-e-cnr-fra-i-dieci-enti-piu-innovativi-del-mondo_7d6ed88d-22eb-4473-86fb-17850e208219.html|title=Nature, Infn e Cnr fra i dieci enti pubblici più innovativi del mondo|date=23 August 2019 |access-date=30 May 2022|language=it}}

Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso (LNGS) is the largest underground research center in the world.{{cite web|url=https://www.lngs.infn.it/it/descrizione-generale|title=I Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso|access-date=15 January 2018|language=it}} Situated below Gran Sasso mountain in Italy, it is well known for particle physics research by the INFN.{{cite web|url=https://www.agi.it/cronaca/news/2022-02-15/ricerca-fisica-laboratori-record-nel-cuore-gran-sasso-15634197/|title=Cosa si studia nei laboratori del Gran Sasso dove andrà il premier Draghi|date=15 February 2022 |access-date=1 June 2022|language=it}} In addition to a surface portion of the laboratory, there are extensive underground facilities beneath the mountain.{{cite journal|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d43978-021-00112-8|title=La materia oscura verrà scoperta al Gran Sasso?|year=2021 |doi=10.1038/d43978-021-00112-8 |access-date=1 June 2022|language=it|last1=Catanzaro |first1=Michele |journal=Nature Italy |s2cid=239131992 }} The nearest towns are L'Aquila and Teramo.{{cite web|url=https://www.lngs.infn.it/images/REIS/educational/img_varie/educational/cartellina_LNGS.pdf|title=Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso - LNGS - INFN|access-date=1 June 2022|language=it}} The facility is located about 120 km from Rome. The primary mission of the laboratory is to host experiments that require a low background environment in the fields of astroparticle physics and nuclear astrophysics and other disciplines that can profit of its characteristics and of its infrastructures. The LNGS is, like the three other European underground astroparticle laboratories (Laboratoire Souterrain de Modane, Laboratorio subterráneo de Canfranc, and Boulby Underground Laboratory), a member of the coordinating group ILIAS.{{cite book|chapter-url=https://www.worldscientific.com/doi/10.1142/9789812701848_0065|doi=10.1142/9789812701848_0065 |access-date=1 June 2022|chapter=Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso and the Ilias Initiative |title=The Identification of Dark Matter |year=2005 |last1=Ferrari |first1=N. |pages=432–439 |isbn=978-981-256-344-6 }}

ELETTRA, Eurac Research, ESA Centre for Earth Observation, Institute for Scientific Interchange, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Centre for Maritime Research and Experimentation and the International Centre for Theoretical Physics conduct basic research. Trieste has the highest percentage of researchers in Europe in relation to the population.G. Bar "Trieste, è record europeo di ricercatori: 37 ogni mille abitanti. Più della Finlandia", In: il Fatto Quotidiano, 26 April 2018. Italy was ranked 26th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023.{{Cite book |last=WIPO |title=Global Innovation Index 2023, 15th Edition |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2023/index.html |access-date=2023-10-23 |website=www.wipo.int |date=2022 |publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization |doi=10.34667/tind.46596 |isbn=978-92-805-3432-0 |language=en}} The country and especially the Italian Institute of Technology have produced some ingenious humanoid robots like iCub.

{{main|CINECA}}

File:Fermi BlueGene Q Room.jpg IBM Blue Gene/Q supercomputer in Cineca]]

CINECA is a non-profit consortium, made up of 69 Italian universities, 27 national public research centres, the Italian Ministry of Universities and Research (MUR) and the Italian Ministry of Education (MI), and was established in 1969 in Casalecchio di Reno, Bologna.

It is the most powerful supercomputing centre for scientific research in Italy,[https://www.top500.org/lists/top500/list/2021/11/ TOP500 List – November 2021], retrieved 15 December 2021 as stated in the TOP500 list of the most powerful supercomputers in the world: Marconi100, is ranked at the 18th position of the list as of November 2021, with about 30 P/FLOPS.

The consortium's institutional mission is to support the Italian scientific community through supercomputing and scientific visualisation tools. Since the end of the 1980s, Cineca has broadened the scope of its mission by embracing other IT sectors, developing management and administrative services for universities and designing ICT systems for the exchange of information between the MIUR and the Italian national academic system. The consortium is also strongly committed to transfer technology to many categories of users, from public administration to the private enterprises.

Today it merges the specificities and competences of the other two Italian high performance computing consortia, CILEA and Caspur: as a unique reference point for technology innovation in Italy, with its services Cineca supports the whole higher education and research system.

Cineca takes part in several research projects funded by the European Union for the promotion and development of IT technologies (grid computing, bioinformatic, digital content, the promotion of transnational access to European supercomputing centres, etc.).

{{main|Italian Space Agency}}

File:Sede ASI.jpg in Rome]]

The Italian Space Agency ({{langx|it|Agenzia Spaziale Italiana}}; ASI) is a government agency established in 1988 to fund, regulate and coordinate space exploration activities in Italy.{{cite web | author= Asif Siddiqi | title= International Space Agencies | url= http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/SPACEFLIGHT/space_agencies/SP45.htm | publisher= U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission | access-date= 2010-08-22 | url-status= dead | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100730115221/http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/SPACEFLIGHT/space_agencies/SP45.htm | archive-date= 2010-07-30 }}{{cite web | title= Italian Space Agency | url= http://cordis.europa.eu/erawatch/index.cfm?fuseaction=org.documentAjax&uuid=7D87D669-A64C-090E-C0A5A26C010F99E1 | publisher= European Commission - CORDIS (Community Research and Development Information Service) | access-date= 2010-08-22}} The agency cooperates with numerous national and international entities who are active in aerospace research and technology.

Nationally, ASI is responsible for both drafting the National Aerospace Plan and ensuring it is carried out. To do this the agency operates as the owner/coordinator of a number of Italian space research agencies and assets such as CIRA as well as organising the calls and opportunities process for Italian industrial contractors on spaceflight projects. Internationally, the ASI provides Italy's delegation to the Council of the European Space Agency and to its subordinate bodies as well as representing the country's interests in foreign collaborations.

ASI's main headquarters are located in Rome, Italy,"[http://www.asi.it/en/contacts Contacts] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170908213843/http://www.asi.it/en/contacts |date=2017-09-08 }}." Italian Space Agency. Retrieved on February 27, 2016. "Via del Politecnico snc 00133 Rome, Italy" and the agency also has direct control over two operational centres: the Centre for Space Geodesy (CGS) located in Matera in Italy, and its own spaceport, the Broglio Space Centre (formerly the {{lang|it|San Marco Equatorial Range}}) on the coastal sublittoral of Kenya, currently used only as a communications ground station.{{cite web | title= The San Marco Project Research Centre | url= http://crpsm.psm.uniroma1.it/ | publisher= Centro di Ricerca Progetto San Marco - University of Rome "La Sapienza" | access-date= 2010-08-22}} One further balloon launch base located in Trapani was permanently closed in 2010.{{cite web| url=http://stratocat.com.ar/bases/64e.htm | title=Base Luigi Broglio, Trapani |publisher=StratoCat| access-date=17 September 2020}} In 2020, ASI's annual revenues budget was approximately €2.0 billion{{Cite web| title=Parte primo space, il primo fondo Italiano che investe nell'economia spaziale | language=it | trans-title=Parte Primo Space, the first Italian fund investing in the space economy | url=https://www.asi.it/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/CS_PrimoSpace_24lug20_DEF.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200730091536/https://www.asi.it/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/CS_PrimoSpace_24lug20_DEF.pdf | archive-date=2020-07-30}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.asi.it/2019/06/rinasce-il-gruppo-interparlamentare-dello-spazio/|title=(Ri)Nasce il gruppo interparlamentare dello spazio|date=25 June 2019}} and it directly employed around 200 workers.

The three Space Shuttle Multi-Purpose Logistics Module cargo containers Leonardo, Raffaello and Donatello, were manufactured at the Cannes Mandelieu Space Center in Turin, Italy by Alcatel Alenia Space, now Thales Alenia Space.{{cite web|url=http://www.aeromedia.it/mplm.html|title=MPLM: A Thales Alenia Space Success Story|access-date=1 June 2022}} They provide a key function in storing equipment and parts for transfer to the International Space Station.{{cite web|url=https://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Space_Engineering_Technology/Agenzia_Spaziale_Italiana_ASI|title=Agenzia Spaziale Italiana (ASI)|access-date=1 June 2022}} A number of ISS modules have also been made in Italy. As part of ESA's contribution to the costs of the International Space Station, Alcatel Alenia Space manufactured Tranquility, Harmony as well as the Cupola observation deck for NASA.{{cite web|url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/sailing_with_nasa/tag/cupola/|title=ET-134's Mission, STS-130: Launching Tranquility|date=20 October 2009 |access-date=1 June 2022}} ESA's Columbus module, Western Europe's primary scientific lab on board the ISS, was again built in Turin based on Italy's previous experience in space station module construction.{{cite web|url=https://www.asi.it/en/life-in-space/international-space-station/columbus/|title=COLUMBUS|access-date=1 June 2022}}

On 15 December 1964, the first Italian satellite was launched, the San Marco 1,{{cite web|url=https://www.media.inaf.it/2020/12/14/lancio-san-marco-1/|title=15 Dicembre 1964: l'Italia entra nello Spazio|date=14 December 2020 |access-date=25 July 2022|language=it}} while on 31 July 1992, Franco Malerba, following the STS-46 space mission, was the first Italian to go into space.{{cite web|url=https://www.ansa.it/canale_scienza_tecnica/notizie/spazio_astronomia/2017/07/31/25-anni-fa-volava-il-primo-astronauta-italiano-_1cdadab1-550d-491b-9391-9c700351b5f5.html|title=25 anni fa volava il primo astronauta italiano

|date=31 July 2017

|access-date=25 July 2022|language=it}} On 23 November 2014 Samantha Cristoforetti, following the Expedition 42 mission, was the first Italian woman to go into space.{{cite web|url=https://www.repubblica.it/scienze/2014/11/23/news/samantha-101249386/|title=Samantha Cristoforetti è partita con la Soyuz, è la prima donna italiana nello spazio|date=23 November 2014 |access-date=25 July 2022|language=it}}

File:Panoramica Chiostro MuseoScienzaTecnologiaDaVinci Milano.jpg in Milan]]

There are numerous science museums such as the Museo Nazionale Scienza e Tecnologia Leonardo da Vinci in Milan, the Natural History Museum in Milan, the Città della Scienza in Naples, the Institute and Museum of the History of Science in Florence, the Planetario di Milano in Milan, the Museo di Storia Naturale di Firenze in Florence and the La Specola in Florence.

Other Italian science museums are the Museo Civico di Zoologia in Rome, the Civico Museo di Storia Naturale di Trieste, the Faraggiana Ferrandi Natural History Museum in Novara, the Federico Eusebio Civic Museum of Archaeology and Natural Sciences in Alba, the Museo Civico di Storia Naturale Giacomo Doria in Genoa and the Museo del fiore in Acquapendente.

Other museums are the Museo Civico Scienze Naturali Enrico Caffi in Bergamo, the Museo di storia naturale della Maremma in Grosseto, the Museo di Storia Naturale di Venezia in Venice, the Natural History Museum of the University of Pisa in Pisa, the Museum Gherdëina in Ortisei, the Natural History Museum in Pavia, the Turin Museum of Natural History and the Zoological Museum of Naples.

File:Lodi - Parco Tecnologico Padano - 01.jpg in Lodi]]

There are numerous technology parks in Italy such as the Science and Technology Parks Kilometro Rosso (Bergamo), the AREA Science Park (Trieste), The VEGA-Venice Gateway for Science and Technology (Venice), the Toscana Life Sciences (Siena), the Technology Park of Lodi Cluster (Lodi), Bioindustry Park Silvano Fumero (Canavese) and the Technology Park of Navacchio (Pisa).{{Cite web|url=https://easst.net/science-and-technology-parks-in-italy/|title=Science and Technology Parks in Italy|work=EASST }}

Other technology parks in the Northern Italy are the "NOI Techpark Südtirol-Alto Adige" technology park (Bolzano), the "Techno Innovation Park South Tyrol" (Bolzano), the "Trentino Sviluppo" technology park (Rovereto), the "ComoNExT - Innovation Hub" science and technology park (Lomazzo), the "Servitec" science and technology park (Dalmine), the Technological pole (Pavia), the Cremona Technological Pole (Cremona), the CSMT Innovative Contamination Hub (Brescia), the "Bioindustry Park Silvano Fumero" science and technology park (Colleretto Giacosa), the "Tecnogranda" science and technology park (Dronero), the Novara Development Foundation (Novara), the "Environment Park" technology park (Turin), the Science and technology park in the Scrivia Valley (Tortona), the "Galileo" Science and Technology Park (Padua), the "Star" science park (Verona), the Technological center (Pordenone), the "Luigi Danieli" Science and Technology Park (Udine), the "Great Campus" science and technology park (Genoa) and the Torricelli Park of Arts and Science Faventia (Ravenna).{{Cite web|url=https://easst.net/science-and-technology-parks-in-italy/|title=Parchi Scientifici e Tecnologici: 22 motori di innovazione italiana|work=EASST |access-date=30 May 2022}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.confindustria.it/wcm/connect/7500d36e-39bc-4a10-ae0a-0520a08ce09a/Mappa+competenze.pdf?MOD=AJPERES&CONVERT_TO=url&CACHEID=ROOTWORKSPACE-7500d36e-39bc-4a10-ae0a-0520a08ce09a-mnIp4dM|title=Mappa delle competenze delle imprese in Ricerca & Innovazione|access-date=30 May 2022}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.teknoring.com/news/internet-of-things/parchi-scientifici-e-tecnologici-a-cosa-servono-e-cosa-fanno/|title=Parchi scientifici e tecnologici, a cosa servono e cosa fanno|access-date=30 May 2022}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.economyup.it/startup/parchi-tecnologici-ecco-dove-sono-e-che-cosa-fanno/|title=Parchi tecnologici: ecco dove sono e che cosa fanno|date=6 August 2015 |access-date=30 May 2022}}

Other technology parks in the Central and the Southern Italy are the Magona Technological Pole Consortium (Cecina), the Technological and archaeological park of the Grosseto Metalliferous Hills in the province of Grosseto, the Lucca technology center (Lucca), the Technological Pole (Navacchio), the "3A-PTA" technology park (Todi), the "Hub21" scientific, technological and cultural center (Ascoli Piceno), the "Pa.L.Mer" technology park (Latina), the Roman scientific pole (Rome), the "Tecnopolo" technological hub (Rome), the Idis-City of Science Foundation (Naples), the TechNapoli" technology park (Pozzuoli), the Science and Technology Park (Salerno), the "Tecnopolis" science and technology park (Valenzano), the "CALPARK" science and technology park (Rende), the "Magna Graecia" scientific, the technological and multisectoral park (Crotone), the Science and technology park of Sicily (Catania) and the Technology park of Sardinia (Pula).

File:Fibonacci2.jpg|Leonardo Fibonacci, referred to as "the most talented Western mathematician of the Middle Ages"Eves, Howard. An Introduction to the History of Mathematics. Brooks Cole, 1990: {{ISBN|0-03-029558-0}} (6th ed.), p. 261.

File:Francesco Redi.jpg|alt=Francesco Redi, the founder of experimental biology, is referred to as the father of modern parasitology.|Francesco Redi, the founder of experimental biology, is referred to as the father of modern parasitology.{{cite journal|author= Roncalli Amici R|title= The history of Italian parasitology|url= http://his.library.nenu.edu.cn/upload/soft/haoli/114/367.pdf|journal= Veterinary Parasitology|volume= 98|issue= 1–3|pages= 3–10|year= 2001|pmid= 11516576|doi= 10.1016/S0304-4017(01)00420-4|url-status= dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131023060404/http://his.library.nenu.edu.cn/upload/soft/haoli/114/367.pdf|archive-date= 2013-10-23}}{{cite book |author= Mehlhorn H|title= Encyclopedia of Parasitology, Volumes 1-2|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Jpg1ysgVn-AC|pages=610 |edition=3 |year=2008 |publisher= Springer-Verlag |isbn= 978-3540489948}}

File:Evangelista Torricelli by Lorenzo Lippi (circa 1647, Galleria Silvano Lodi & Due).jpg|Evangelista Torricelli, the inventor of barometer, made various advances in optics and work on the method of indivisibles.

File:Alessandro Volta.jpeg|Alessandro Volta, the inventor of the electrical battery and discover of methane, and did substantial work with electric currents

File:Antonio Meucci.jpg|Antonio Meucci developed a voice-communication apparatus that several sources credit as the first telephoneWheen, Andrew. [https://books.google.com/books?id=B6shu_hAiGkC&pg=PA45 Dot-Dash to Dot.com: How Modern Telecommunications Evolved from the Telegraph to the Internet.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429211228/https://books.google.com/books?id=B6shu_hAiGkC&pg=PA45& |date=29 April 2016}} Springer, 2010. p. 45. Web. 23 September 2011.; Cleveland, Cutler (Lead Author); Saundry, Peter (Topic Editor). [http://www.eoearth.org/article/Meucci,_Antonio Meucci, Antonio.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130526094228/http://www.eoearth.org/article/Meucci,_Antonio |date=26 May 2013}} Encyclopedia of Earth, 2006. Web. 22 July 2012.

File:Guglielmo Marconi.jpg|Guglielmo Marconi, inventor of the radio and the father of the wireless communication{{cite book|url=https://monoskop.org/images/f/f4/Hong_Sungook_Wireless_From_Marconis_Black-Box_to_the_Audion.pdf|ref =Hong|author=Hong, Sungook|title=Wireless: From Marconi's Black-Box to the Audion|place=Cambridge, Mass.|publisher= MIT Press|year= 2001|isbn=0-262-08298-5|page=1}}"[http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1909/marconi-bio.html Guglielmo Marconi: The Nobel Prize in Physics 1909]". nobelprize.org

File:Enrico Fermi 1943-49.jpg|alt=Enrico Fermi, creator of the world's first nuclear reactor. He has been called the "architect of the nuclear age" and the "architect of the atomic bomb".|Enrico Fermi, creator of the world's first nuclear reactor. He has been called the "architect of the nuclear age"{{cite news|url=http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/enrico-fermi-architect-of-the-nuclear-age-dies|title=Enrico Fermi, architect of the nuclear age, dies|date=Autumn 1954|access-date=2 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117014820/http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/enrico-fermi-architect-of-the-nuclear-age-dies|archive-date=17 November 2015|url-status=dead}} and the "architect of the atomic bomb".

Through the centuries, Italy has fostered the scientific community that produced many major discoveries in physics and the other sciences. During the Renaissance Italian polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519), Michelangelo (1475–1564) and Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472) made contributions in a variety of fields, including biology, architecture, and engineering. Galileo Galilei (1564–1642), an astronomer, physicist, engineer, and polymath, played a major role in the Scientific Revolution. He is considered the "father" of observational astronomy, modern physics,{{cite book |last=Weidhorn |first=Manfred |title=The Person of the Millennium: The Unique Impact of Galileo on World History |date=2005 |publisher=iUniverse |isbn=978-0-595-36877-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/personofmillenni0000weid/page/155 155] |url=https://archive.org/details/personofmillenni0000weid }} the scientific method, modern science.

Other astronomers such as Giovanni Domenico Cassini (1625–1712) and Giovanni Schiaparelli (1835–1910) made discoveries about the Solar System. In mathematics, Joseph Louis Lagrange (born Giuseppe Lodovico Lagrangia, 1736–1813) was active before leaving Italy. Fibonacci (c. 1170 – c. 1250), and Gerolamo Cardano (1501–1576) made fundamental advances in mathematics.{{Citation|year=1970|title=Cardano, Gerolamo|encyclopedia=Dizionario enciclopedico italiano|volume=II|page=777|publisher=Treccani|language=it}} Luca Pacioli established accounting to the world. Physicist Enrico Fermi (1901–1954), a Nobel prize laureate, led the team in Chicago that developed the first nuclear reactor. He is considered the "architect of the nuclear age" and the "architect of the atomic bomb". He, Emilio G. Segrè (1905–1989) who discovered the elements technetium and astatine, and the antiproton), Bruno Rossi (1905–1993) a pioneer in Cosmic Rays and X-ray astronomy) and a number of Italian physicists were forced to leave Italy in the 1930s by Fascist laws against Jews.Lucia Orlando, "Physics in the 1930s: Jewish Physicists' Contribution to the Realization of the" New Tasks" of Physics in Italy." Historical studies in the physical and biological sciences (1998): 141–181. {{JSTOR|27757806}}

Other prominent physicists include Amedeo Avogadro (most noted for his contributions to molecular theory, in particular the Avogadro's law and the Avogadro constant), Evangelista Torricelli (inventor of barometer), Alessandro Volta (inventor of electric battery), Guglielmo Marconi (inventor of radio), Galileo Ferraris and Antonio Pacinotti, pioneers of the induction motor, Alessandro Cruto, pioneer of light bulb and Innocenzo Manzetti, eclectic pioneer of auto and robotics, Ettore Majorana (who discovered the Majorana fermions), Carlo Rubbia (1984 Nobel Prize in Physics for work leading to the discovery of the W and Z particles at CERN). Antonio Meucci is known for developing a voice-communication device which is often credited as the first telephone.Wheen, Andrew. [https://books.google.com/books?id=B6shu_hAiGkC&pg=PA45 Dot-Dash to Dot.com: How Modern Telecommunications Evolved from the Telegraph to the Internet.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429211228/https://books.google.com/books?id=B6shu_hAiGkC&pg=PA45& |date=29 April 2016 }} Springer, 2010. p. 45. Web. 23 September 2011.Cleveland, Cutler (Lead Author); Saundry, Peter (Topic Editor). [http://www.eoearth.org/article/Meucci,_Antonio Meucci, Antonio.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130526094228/http://www.eoearth.org/article/Meucci,_Antonio |date=26 May 2013 }} Encyclopedia of Earth, 2006. Web. 22 July 2012.

Pier Giorgio Perotto in 1964 designed one of the first desktop programmable calculators, the Programma 101.{{cite web |url=https://www.oldcalculatormuseum.com/c-programma101.html |title=Olivetti Programma 101 Electronic Calculator |website=The Old Calculator Web Museum |quote=technically, the machine was a programmable calculator, not a computer.}}{{Cite web |title=2008/107/1 Computer, Programma 101, and documents (3), plastic / metal / paper / electronic components, hardware architect Pier Giorgio Perotto, designed by Mario Bellini, made by Olivetti, Italy, 1965–1971 |website=www.powerhousemuseum.com |language=en |url=http://www.powerhousemuseum.com/collection/database/?irn=378406 | access-date= 20 March 2016}}{{cite web |url=https://www.oldcalculatormuseum.com/c-programma101.html |title=Olivetti Programma 101 Electronic Calculator |website=The Old Calculator Web Museum |quote=It appears that the Mathatronics Mathatron calculator {{sic|prec|eeded|nolink=y}} the Programma 101 to market.}} In biology, Francesco Redi has been the first to challenge the theory of spontaneous generation by demonstrating that maggots come from eggs of flies and he described 180 parasites in details and Marcello Malpighi founded microscopic anatomy, Lazzaro Spallanzani conducted research in bodily functions, animal reproduction, and cellular theory, Camillo Golgi, whose many achievements include the discovery of the Golgi complex, paved the way to the acceptance of the Neuron doctrine, Rita Levi-Montalcini discovered the nerve growth factor (awarded 1986 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine). In chemistry, Giulio Natta received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1963 for his work on high polymers. Giuseppe Occhialini received the Wolf Prize in Physics for the discovery of the pion or pi-meson decay in 1947. Ennio De Giorgi, a Wolf Prize in Mathematics recipient in 1990, solved Bernstein's problem about minimal surfaces and the 19th Hilbert problem on the regularity of solutions of Elliptic partial differential equations.{{cite web|url=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/ennio-de-giorgi_%28Dizionario-Biografico%29/|title=DE GIORGI, Ennio|access-date=31 December 2021|language=it}}

{{main|List of Italian inventions and discoveries}}

File:Motore a combustione interna Barsanti - Matteucci - Museo scienza tecnologia Milano 08149 2012.jpg, the first proper internal combustion engine]]

Italian inventions and discoveries are objects, processes or techniques invented, innovated or discovered, partially or entirely, by Italians.

Italian people – living in the Italic peninsula or abroad – have been throughout history{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Italy|title=Italy {{!}} Facts, Geography, & History|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=24 December 2019|quote=Italian history begins with the Etruscans}} the source of important inventions and innovations in the fields of writing,{{Cite web|url=https://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/digitalegypt/craft/codex.html|title=Codex|website=www.ucl.ac.uk|access-date=22 October 2019|quote=The codex may have been more a Roman innovation than a Greek or Eastern Mediterranean development}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-world-s-most-popular-writing-scripts.html|title=The World's Most Popular Writing Scripts|website=WorldAtlas|date=23 October 2019|access-date=28 October 2019}} calendar,{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/Julian-calendar|title=Julian calendar {{!}} History & Difference from Gregorian Calendar|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=22 October 2019}} mechanical{{Cite web|url=https://worldwide.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB&NR=185701655A&KC=A&FT=D&ND=3&date=18571201&DB=EPODOC&locale=en_EP|title=Espacenet - Original document|website=worldwide.espacenet.com|access-date=22 October 2019}} and civil engineering,{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-40494248|title=Scientists solve Roman concrete puzzle|last=McGrath|first=Matt|date=4 July 2017|access-date=22 October 2019}}{{Cite web|url=http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/ingegneria/|title=ingegneria nell'Enciclopedia Treccani|website=www.treccani.it|language=it-IT|access-date=28 November 2019|quote=Translation from source (not lit.) The oldest Italian document in which the term 'engineer' appears [dates back] [...] in Genoa, 19 April 1195 [...] The first printed engineering book is Italian [...]. [Comparable with] the French Jacques Besson and the Germans Georg Agricola and Zeising, are Agostino Ramelli, Bonaiuto Lorini, Fausto Veranzio, Mariano Zonca, Famiano Strada, Giovanni Branca. The Italian engineer is often called abroad as a consultant ...}}{{Cite web|url=https://historylists.org/other/list-of-5-greatest-feats-of-roman-engineering.html|title=List of 5 Greatest Feats of Roman Engineering - History Lists|website=historylists.org|access-date=28 October 2019}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/man-who-invented-nitroglycerin-was-horrified-dynamite-180965192/|title=The Man Who Invented Nitroglycerin Was Horrified By Dynamite|last=Eschner|first=Kat|website=Smithsonian|access-date=23 October 2019}} musical notation,{{Cite web|url=https://www.classicfm.com/discover-music/music-theory/why-italian-words-in-music-notation/|title=Why do we use Italian words in music notation?|website=Classic FM|access-date=22 October 2019}} celestial observation,{{Cite web|url=https://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/telescopiogalileo/etel.asp?c=50011|title=GALILEO'S TELESCOPE - Galileo, the Instrument-Maker|website=brunelleschi.imss.fi.it|access-date=22 October 2019}} perspective,{{Cite web|url=https://math.dartmouth.edu/~matc/math5.geometry/unit11/unit11.html|title=Geometry in Art & Architecture Unit 11|website=math.dartmouth.edu|access-date=22 October 2019}} warfare,{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Quintus-Fabius-Maximus-Verrucosus|title=Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus {{!}} Roman statesman and commander|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=28 October 2019|quote=Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, byname Cunctator, [...] Roman military commander and statesman whose cautious delaying tactics (whence the nickname "Cunctator," meaning "delayer")...}}{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UmOCDwAAQBAJ|title=The World of Beretta: An International Legend|last=Wilson|first=Robert L.|date=10 November 2015|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-1-5107-0930-0|language=en|quote=Introductory summary Fabbrica d'Armi Pietro Beretta, S.p.A., the oldest industrial firm and the oldest gunmaker in the world. From source Italy’s importance in the history of art, government, politics, warfare, and sport is recognized worldwide. [...] the advancement of technology [is] no less significant. No area of the world [played] a greater role in the evolution of firearms than the ancient Italian valley region known as Val Trompia}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.forgottenweapons.com/early-semiauto-rifles/cei-rigotti/|title=Cei-Rigotti|date=24 October 2012|website=Forgotten Weapons|access-date=22 October 2019|quote=Amerigo Cei-Rigotti was a major in the Italian Bersaglieri (light infantry) in 1900, when his innovative self-loading rifle design was first introduced. Unlike many or the very early semiauto rifle designs, the Cei-Rigotti is a light, handy, and pretty compact rifle.}}{{Cite web|url=http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/giovanni-battista-luppis|title=Lùppis, Giovanni Battista in "Enciclopedia Italiana"|website=www.treccani.it|language=it-IT|access-date=22 October 2019|quote=Translation creator of the torpedo; he realized a prototype, which he named salvacoste.}} long distance communication,{{Cite web|url=http://www.house.gov/fossella/Press/pr020611.htm|title=Press Release - Congressman Vito J. Fossella - New York, 13th Congressional District|date=24 January 2005|access-date=22 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050124005929/http://www.house.gov/fossella/Press/pr020611.htm|archive-date=24 January 2005}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.congress.gov/bill/107th-congress/house-resolution/269/text|title=Text - H.Res.269 - 107th Congress (2001-2002): Expressing the sense of the House of Representatives to honor the life and achievements of 19th Century Italian-American inventor Antonio Meucci, and his work in the invention of the telephone.|last=Fossella|first=Vito|date=11 June 2002|website=www.congress.gov|access-date=22 October 2019}}{{Cite web|url=http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/guglielmo-marconi_(Dizionario-Biografico)|title=Marconi, Guglielmo in "Dizionario Biografico"|website=www.treccani.it|language=it-IT|access-date=22 October 2019}} storage{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/technology/battery-electronics|title=Battery - Development of batteries|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=22 October 2019}} and production{{Cite web|url=http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/enrico-fermi-architect-of-the-nuclear-age-dies|title=Enrico Fermi, architect of the nuclear age, dies - Nov 28, 1954 - HISTORY.com|work=HISTORY |date=17 November 2015|access-date=22 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117014820/http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/enrico-fermi-architect-of-the-nuclear-age-dies|archive-date=17 November 2015}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.iop.org/activity/groups/subject/env/prize/file_52570.pdf|title=Nuclear Power|access-date=24 December 2023|archive-date=23 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191023095536/https://www.iop.org/activity/groups/subject/env/prize/file_52570.pdf|url-status=dead}} of energy, modern medicine,{{Cite web|url=https://www.focus.it/cultura/storia/tiberio-litaliano-che-scopri-la-penicillina-molto-prima-di-fleming|title=Tiberio, l'italiano che scoprì la penicillina prima di Fleming|website=Focus.it|access-date=22 October 2019}} polymerization{{Cite web|url=http://www.ansa.it/canale_scienza_tecnica/notizie/tecnologie/2018/12/10/55-anni-fa-il-nobel-a-giulio-natta-papa-della-plastica-_a7724fd9-7f20-4bef-a126-8392e08868d3.html|title=55 anni fa il Nobel a Giulio Natta, papà della plastica - Scienza & Tecnica|date=12 October 2018|website=ANSA.it|language=it|access-date=22 October 2019}}{{cite journal |last1=Ketley |first1=A. D. |last2=Werber |first2=F. X. |title=Stereospecific Polymerization: A revolution in polymer synthesis has occurred in the last decade. |journal=Science |date=14 August 1964 |volume=145 |issue=3633 |pages=667–673 |doi=10.1126/science.145.3633.667 |pmid=14163799 |s2cid=21604946 }} and information technology.{{Cite web|url=https://www.inexhibit.com/case-studies/olivetti-programma-101-at-the-origins-of-the-personal-computer/|title=Olivetti Programma 101: at the origins of the Personal Computer|website=Inexhibit|access-date=22 October 2019}}{{Cite web|url=http://www.intel4004.com/The_MOS_Silicon_Gate_Technology_and_the_First_Microprocessors.pdf|title=The_MOS_Silicon_Gate_Technology_and_the_First_Microprocessors|website=intel4004.com}}

Italians also contributed in theorizing civil law,{{Cite web|url=https://onlinelaw.wustl.edu/blog/common-law-vs-civil-law/|title=What is the Difference Between Common Law and Civil Law?|date=28 January 2014|website=onlinelaw.wustl.edu}}{{Cite web|url=https://europeanconservative.com/2019/05/the-contribution-of-roman-law-to-modern-legal-systems/|title=the-contribution-of-roman-law-to-modern-legal-systems|last=G. Hall|first=Eamonn|date=25 May 2019|access-date=24 December 2023|archive-date=29 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210629142438/https://europeanconservative.com/2019/05/the-contribution-of-roman-law-to-modern-legal-systems/|url-status=dead}} scientific method (particularly in the fields of physics and astronomy),{{Cite web|url=https://www.biography.com/scholar/galileo|title=Galileo|website=Biography|access-date=23 October 2019}} double-entry bookkeeping,{{Cite book|title=Summa de arithmetica, geometria, proportioni et proportionalità|last=Pacioli|first=Luca|publisher=Paganino de Paganini|year=1523}} mathematical algebra{{Cite web|url=http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/niccolo-tartaglia_%28Il-Contributo-italiano-alla-storia-del-Pensiero:-Scienze%29/|title=Tartaglia, Niccolo in "Il Contributo italiano alla storia del Pensiero: Scienze"|website=www.treccani.it|language=it-IT|access-date=23 October 2019}} and analysis,{{Cite web|url=https://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Cavalieri.html|title=Bonaventura Cavalieri (1598-1647)|website=www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk|access-date=23 October 2019}}{{Cite book|title=Ricci and Levi-Civita's Tensor Analysis Paper|publisher=Math Sci Press|year=1975}} classical and celestial mechanics.{{Cite web|url=http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/giuseppe-luigi-lagrange_%28Dizionario-Biografico%29/|title=Lagrange, Giuseppe Luigi nel Dizionario Biografico Treccani|website=www.treccani.it|language=it-IT|access-date=23 October 2019}}{{Cite web|url=http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/formalismo-lagrangiano_%28Enciclopedia-della-Scienza-e-della-Tecnica%29/|title=formalismo lagrangiano|website=www.treccani.it}} Often, things discovered for the first time are also called inventions and in many cases, there is no clear line between the two.

{{Portal|Italy|Science|Technology}}

• Internet in Italy
• Telecommunications in Italy
• List of Italian inventions
• Roman technology

{{reflist}}

• Cocco, Sean. [https://books.google.com/books?id=qKud9TM-Fb4C Watching Vesuvius: A History of Science and Culture in Early Modern Italy] (2012)
• Cocco, Sean. "Locating the Natural Sciences in Early Modern Naples," ch 20 in A Companion to Early Modern Naples (2013) pp: 453+.
• Galdabini, Silvana, and Giuseppe Giuliani. "Physics in Italy between 1900 and 1940: The universities, physicists, funds, and research." Historical studies in the physical and biological sciences (1988): 115–136. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/27757618 in JSTOR]
• Miele, Aldo, ed. Gli Scienziati Italiani dall'Inizio del Medio Eno ai Nostri Giorni. Vol. 1, Part 1 (Nardecchia, 1921)
• {{cite journal|author=Archibald, R. C.|author-link=Raymond Clare Archibald|title=Review: Gli Scienziati Italiani dall'Inizio del Medio Eno ai Nostri Giorni, ed. by Aldo Miele|journal=The American Mathematical Monthly|volume=28|date=April 1921|pages=173–174|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.32044102896305;view=1up;seq=195|doi=10.2307/2972288|jstor=2972288 }}
• Orlando, Lucia. "Physics in the 1930s: Jewish Physicists' Contribution to the Realization of the" New Tasks" of Physics in Italy." Historical studies in the physical and biological sciences (1998): 141-181. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/27757806 in JSTOR]
• Pancaldi, Giuliano. "Vito volterra: Cosmopolitan ideals and nationality in the Italian scientific community between the belle époque and the first world war." Minerva (1993) 31#1 pp: 21–37.
• Schmitt, Charles B. Science in the Italian universities in the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries (Macmillan, 1975)
• Turchetti, Simone. The Pontecorvo Affair: A Cold War Defection and Nuclear Physics (University of Chicago Press, 2012)

• [https://web.archive.org/web/20081227144027/http://sciencewatch.com/dr/sci/08/jul13-08_1/ SCI-BYTES - WHAT'S NEW IN RESEARCH: 2008], Science in Italy, 2003–07. sciencewatch.com. Web. 29 Sep. 2011.

{{Italy topics}}

{{Economy of Italy}}

{{Europe topic|Science and technology in}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Science And Technology In Italy}}