Somaliland#Prehistory

{{see also|Somalis#Etymology}}

File:Annali del Museo civico di storia naturale di Genova (1895) (18411100885).jpg

The name Somaliland is derived from two words: "Somali" and "land". The area was named when Britain took control from the Egyptian administration in 1884, after signing successive treaties with the ruling Somali Sultans from the Isaaq, Issa, Gadabursi, and Warsangali clans. The British established a protectorate in the region referred to as British Somaliland. In 1960, when the protectorate became independent from Britain, it was called the State of Somaliland. Five days later, on 1 July 1960, Somaliland united with the Trust Territory of Somaliland under Italian Administration (the former Italian Somaliland). The name "Republic of Somaliland" was adopted upon the declaration of independence following the Somali Civil War in 1991.{{cite web |title = The Constitution of the Republic of Somaliland |publisher = Government of Somaliland |date = 1 May 2001 |url = http://www.chr.up.ac.za/undp/domestic/docs/c_Somaliland.pdf |access-date = 2 February 2010 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120227110751/http://www.chr.up.ac.za/undp/domestic/docs/c_Somaliland.pdf |archive-date = 27 February 2012 }}

At the Grand conference in Burao held in 1991, many names for the country were suggested, including Puntland, in reference to Somaliland's location in the ancient Land of Punt and which is now the name of the Puntland state in neighbouring Somalia, and Shankaroon, meaning "better than five" in Somali, in reference to the five regions of Greater Somalia.{{Cite book|last=Walls|first=Michael|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nPv0SAAACAAJ|title=Peace in Somaliland: An Indigenous Approach to State-building: Burao, Borama, and Sanaag Conferences|publisher=Academy for Peace and Development (APD)|year=2008|page=38}}

{{Main|History of Somaliland}}

{{Main|Caves in Somaliland}}

{{hatnote|See the Laas Geel, Dhambalin and Dhaymoole}}

File:Dhaymoole Rock art in Somaliland.jpg depicted in the caves of Dhaymoole, many of which have gone extinct in the region]]

The area of Somaliland was inhabited around 10,000 years ago during the Neolithic age.{{Cite journal| last1=Bradley|first1=D G|last2=MacHugh| first2=D E|last3= Cunningham| first3=P| last4=Loftus|first4=R T|date=14 May 1996|title=Mitochondrial diversity and the origins of African and European cattle.|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America| volume= 93| issue=10|pages=5131–5135| doi= 10.1073/pnas.93.10.5131|issn=0027-8424|pmid=8643540|pmc=39419|bibcode=1996PNAS...93.5131B|doi-access= free}}{{Cite news |last=Bearak |first=Max |title=Somaliland's quest for recognition passes through its ancient caves |url= https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2021/02/01/somaliland-independence-laas-geel-rock-paintings/ |newspaper= Washington Post |language=en}} The ancient shepherds raised cows and other livestock and created vibrant rock art paintings. During the Stone Age, the Doian and Hargeisan cultures flourished here.{{cite book|author=Peter Robertshaw|title=A History of African Archaeology|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofafrican0000unse_j3c5/page/105|year=1990|publisher=J. Currey|isbn=978-0-435-08041-9|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofafrican0000unse_j3c5/page/105 105]}} The oldest evidence of burial customs in the Horn of Africa comes from cemeteries in Somaliland dating back to the 4th millennium BCE.{{cite journal |title=Early Holocene Mortuary Practices and Hunter-Gatherer Adaptations in Southern Somalia|jstor=124524|pmid=16470993|pages=40–56|last=Brandt |first=S. A. |volume=20|issue=1|journal=World Archaeology|year=1988|doi=10.1080/00438243.1988.9980055}} The stone implements from the Jalelo site in the north were also characterised in 1909 as important artefacts demonstrating the archaeological universality during the Paleolithic between the East and the West.{{cite journal |url=https://archive.org/stream/mananth9a10royauoft/mananth9a10royauoft_djvu.txt|title=Prehistoric Implements From Somaliland|author=H. W. Seton-Karr|journal=Man |volume=9|issue=106|pages=182–183|year=1909|author-link=Henry Seton-Karr|doi=10.2307/2840281|jstor=2840281}}

According to linguists, the first Afroasiatic-speaking populations arrived in the region during the ensuing Neolithic period from the family's proposed urheimat ("original homeland") in the Nile Valley,Zarins, Juris (1990), "Early Pastoral Nomadism and the Settlement of Lower Mesopotamia", (Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research) or the Near East.{{cite journal | last1 = Diamond | first1 = J | last2 = Bellwood | first2 = P | year = 2003 | title = Farmers and Their Languages: The First Expansions | journal = Science | volume = 300| issue = 5619| pages = 597–603| doi = 10.1126/science.1078208 | pmid = 12714734 | bibcode = 2003Sci...300..597D | s2cid = 13350469}}

The Laas Geel complex on the outskirts of Hargeisa dates back around 5,000 years, and has rock art depicting both wild animals and decorated cows.{{cite news |last=Bakano|first=Otto|url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jMNd90UAafsRNEDPyelL7Hee1ydw?docId=CNG.82196a5b15ef45a2d4e744675740cd6a.6e1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921061703/https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jMNd90UAafsRNEDPyelL7Hee1ydw?docId=CNG.82196a5b15ef45a2d4e744675740cd6a.6e1|archive-date=21 September 2013 |title=Grotto galleries show early Somali life |agency=Agence France-Presse |date=24 April 2011|access-date=11 May 2013}} Other cave paintings are found in the northern Dhambalin region, which feature one of the earliest known depictions of a hunter on horseback. The rock art is in the distinctive Ethiopian-Arabian style, dated to 1,000 to 3,000 BCE.{{cite journal|last=Mire|first=Sada|title=The Discovery of Dhambalin Rock Art Site, Somaliland|journal=African Archaeological Review|year=2008|volume=25|issue=3–4|pages=153–168|url=http://www.mbali.info/doc494.htm|access-date=22 June 2013|doi=10.1007/s10437-008-9032-2|s2cid=162960112|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130627100400/http://www.mbali.info/doc494.htm|archive-date=27 June 2013|url-access=subscription}}{{cite news |last=Alberge|first=Dalya|title=UK archaeologist finds cave paintings at 100 new African sites|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/sep/17/cave-paintings-found-in-somaliland|access-date=25 June 2013|newspaper=The Guardian|date=17 September 2010}} Additionally, between the towns of Las Khorey and El Ayo in eastern Somaliland lies Karinhegane, the site of numerous cave paintings of real and mythical animals. Each painting has an inscription below it, which collectively have been estimated to be around 2,500 years old.{{cite book |last=Hodd|first=Michael|title=East African Handbook|year=1994|publisher=Trade & Travel Publications|isbn=0-8442-8983-3|page=640|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bL8tAQAAIAAJ}}{{cite book |last=Ali|first=Ismail Mohamed|title=Somalia Today: General Information|year=1970|publisher=Ministry of Information and National Guidance, Somali Democratic Republic|page=295|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tMVAAAAAYAAJ}}

{{Main|Somali architecture}}

File:Sheekh Isaaq.jpg, the founding father of the Isaaq clan, in Maydh, Sanaag]]

Ancient pyramidical structures, mausoleums, ruined cities and stone walls, such as the Wargaade Wall, are evidence of civilisations thriving in the Somali peninsula.{{cite book |last=Njoku|first=Raphael Chijioke|title=The History of Somalia|year=2013|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-37857-7|pages=29–31|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FlL2vE_qRQ8C}}{{cite book |last=Dalal|first=Roshen|title=The Illustrated Timeline of the History of the World|year=2011|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|isbn=978-1-4488-4797-6|page=131|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RO4kS1IR71sC}} Ancient Somaliland had a trading relationship with ancient Egypt and Mycenaean Greece dating back to at least the second millennium BCE, supporting the hypothesis that Somalia or adjacent regions were the location of the ancient Land of Punt.{{cite book |first=Abdel Monem A. H. |last=Sayed|editor-first=Zahi A.|editor-last=Hawass|title=Egyptology at the Dawn of the Twenty-first Century: Archaeology|chapter=The Land of Punt: Problems of the Archaeology of the Red Sea and the Southeastern Delta|year=2003|publisher=American Univ in Cairo Press|isbn=977-424-674-8|pages=432–433|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1E13DorsFMEC}} The Puntites traded myrrh, spices, gold, ebony, short-horned cattle, ivory and frankincense with the Egyptians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Indians, Chinese and Romans through their commercial ports. An Egyptian expedition sent to Punt by the 18th dynasty Queen Hatshepsut is recorded on the temple reliefs at Deir el-Bahari, during the reign of the Puntite King Parahu and Queen Ati. In 2015, isotopic analysis of ancient baboon mummies from Punt that had been brought to Egypt as gifts indicated that the specimens likely originated from an area encompassing eastern Somalia and the Eritrea-Ethiopia corridor.{{cite web|first1=Nathaniel J.|last1=Dominy|first2=Salima|last2=Ikram|first3=Gillian L.|last3=Moritz|first4=John N.|last4=Christensen|first5=Patrick V.|last5=Wheatley|first6=Jonathan W.|last6=Chipman|title=Mummified baboons clarify ancient Red Sea trade routes|url=http://meeting.physanth.org/program/2015/session45/dominy-2015-mummified-baboons-clarify-ancient-red-sea-trade-routes.html|publisher=American Association of Physical Anthropologists|access-date=18 June 2016|archive-date=30 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160730055118/http://meeting.physanth.org/program/2015/session45/dominy-2015-mummified-baboons-clarify-ancient-red-sea-trade-routes.html}}

The camel is believed to have been domesticated in the Horn region sometime between the 2nd and 3rd millennium BCE. From there, it spread to Egypt and the Maghreb.{{Cite book |last=Richard |first=Suzanne |date=2003 |title=Near Eastern archaeology: a reader |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=khR0apPid8gC&pg=PA120 |publisher=Eisenbrauns |page=120 |isbn=1-57506-083-3 |access-date=24 August 2021}} During the classical period, the northern Barbara city-states of Mosylon, Opone, Mundus, Isis, Malao, Avalites, Essina, Nikon, and Sarapion developed a lucrative trade network, connecting with merchants from Ptolemaic Egypt, Ancient Greece, Phoenicia, Parthian Persia, Saba, the Nabataean Kingdom, and the Roman Empire. They used the ancient Somali maritime vessel known as the beden to transport their cargo.{{cite web|url=https://www.somalispot.com/threads/beden-ship.30581|title=Beden Ship, ancient Somali maritime vessel and ship|website=Somali Spot|language=en|date=11 September 2017|access-date=12 March 2020}}

After the Roman conquest of the Nabataean Empire and the establishment of a Roman naval presence at Aden to curb piracy, Arab and Somali merchants cooperated with the Romans to bar Indian ships from trading in the free port cities of the Arabian peninsula{{Harvnb|Warmington|1995|p=54}}. to protect the interests of Somali and Arab merchants in the lucrative commerce between the Red and Mediterranean Seas.{{Harvnb|Warmington|1995|p=229}}. However, Indian merchants continued to trade in the port cities of the Somali peninsula, which was free from Roman interference.{{Harvnb|Warmington|1995|p=187}}.

For centuries, Indian merchants brought large quantities of cinnamon to Somalia and Arabia from Ceylon and the Spice Islands. The source of the spices is said to have been the best-kept secret of Arab and Somali merchants in their trade with the Roman and Greek world; the Romans and Greeks believed the source to have been the Somali peninsula.{{Harvnb|Warmington|1995|pp=185–6}}. The collaboration between Somali and Arab traders inflated the price of Indian and Chinese cinnamon in North Africa, the Near East, and Europe, and made the spice trade profitable, especially for the Somali merchants through whose hands large quantities were shipped across sea and land routes.

In 2007, more rock art sites with Sabaean and Himyarite writings in and around Hargeisa were found, but some were bulldozed by developers.{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1007/s10437-015-9184-9|title = Mapping the Archaeology of Somaliland: Religion, Art, Script, Time, Urbanism, Trade and Empire|year = 2015|last1 = Mire|first1 = Sada|journal = African Archaeological Review|volume = 32|pages = 111–136|s2cid = 162067194|doi-access = free}}

{{Main|Somali aristocratic and court titles|Ifat Sultanate|Adal Sultanate|Isaaq migrations}}

File:YagbeaSionBattlingAdaSultan.JPG (right) and King Yagbea-Sion and his men (left). From Le livre des Merveilles.]]

The Isaaq people traditionally claim to have descended from Sheikh Ishaaq bin Ahmed, an Islamic scholar who purportedly traveled to Somaliland in the 12th or 13th century and married two women; one from the local Dir clan and the other from the neighboring Harari people.I.M. Lewis, A Modern History of the Somali, fourth edition (Oxford: James Currey, 2002), pp. 31 & 42 He is said to have sired eight sons who are the common ancestors of the clans of the Isaaq clan-family. He remained in Maydh until his death.{{Cite book |last=Adam |first=Hussein M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a1gMAQAAIAAJ&q=%22sheikh+isaaq%22 |title=Somalia and the World: Proceedings of the International Symposium Held in Mogadishu on the Tenth Anniversary of the Somali Revolution, October 15–21, 1979 |date=1980 |publisher=Halgan |language=en}}

As the Isaaq clan-family grew in size and numbers during the 12th century, the clan-family migrated and spread from their core area in Mait (Maydh) and the wider Sanaag region in a southwestward expansion over a wide portion of present-day Somaliland by the 15th and 16th centuries.{{Cite book |last=Abdi |first=Mohameddeq Ali |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=erprEAAAQBAJ&dq=isaaq+clan+expansion&pg=PA25 |title=Why Somalia does not get the right direction |date=2022-04-19 |publisher=BoD – Books on Demand |isbn=978-3-7543-5218-2 |pages=25 |language=en}}{{Cite book |title=The invention of Somalia |date=1995 |publisher=Red Sea Press |isbn=978-0-932415-99-8 |editor-last=Ahmed |editor-first=Ali J. |edition=1. print |location=Lawrenceville, NJ |pages=251}}{{Cite web |title=The great Somali migrations |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Somalia/The-great-Somali-migrations |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240225232716/https://www.britannica.com/place/Somalia/The-great-Somali-migrations |archive-date=25 February 2024 |access-date=2024-02-29 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}{{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=I. M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P5AZyEhMtbkC&dq=isaaq+clan+expansion&pg=PA94 |title=Saints and Somalis: Popular Islam in a Clan-based Society |date=1998 |publisher=The Red Sea Press |isbn=978-1-56902-103-3 |pages=94 |language=en}} As the Isaaq expanded the earlier Dir communities of Mait and the wider Sanaag region were driven westwards and to the south towards their present positions.{{cite journal |last=Lewis |first=I. M. |date=1959 |title=The Galla in Northern Somaliland |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41299539 |url-status=live |journal=Rassegna di Studi Etiopici |publisher=Istituto per l'Oriente C. A. Nallino |volume=15 |pages=21–38 |jstor=41299539 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428082817/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41299539 |archive-date=28 April 2021 |access-date=28 April 2021}} In this general expansion the Isaaq split up into their present component segments, however one fraction of the Habar Yunis clan, the Muse 'Arre, remains behind in Mait as the custodians of the tomb of Sheikh Ishaaq. By the 1300s the Isaaq clans united to defend their inhabited territories and resources during clan conflicts against migrating clans.{{Cite book |last1=Minahan |first1=James B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uwTHEAAAQBAJ |title=Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Ethnic and National Groups around the World |date=August 2016 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |isbn=979-8-216-14892-0 |pages=184–185 |accessdate=2025-01-11}}

After the war, the Isaaq clans (along with other tribes like the Daarood) grew in numbers and territory in the northeast, causing them to began to vie with their Oromo neighbours, who were expanding northwards themselves after the Great Oromo Migrations, thus creating a general thrust toward the southwest. The Isaaq, along with Darood subclans pushed westwards into the plains of Jigjiga and further, beyond where they played a important role in the Adal Sultanate's campaigns against Christian Abyssinia.{{Cite book |last=Asiwaju |first=A. I. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Wr6GUxdelcC&dq=isaaq+migration&pg=PA159 |title=Partitioned Africans: Ethnic Relations Across Africa's International Boundaries, 1884-1984 |date=1985 |publisher=C. Hurst |isbn=978-0-905838-91-5 |language=en}} By the 16th to 17th century the movements that followed seem to have established the Isaaqs on coastal Somaliland.{{Cite web |title=The great Somali migrations |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Somalia/The-great-Somali-migrations |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240225232716/https://www.britannica.com/place/Somalia/The-great-Somali-migrations |archive-date=25 February 2024 |access-date=2024-02-29 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}

Various Somali Muslim kingdoms were established in the area in the early Islamic period.{{cite book|last=Lewis|first=I.M.|title=Peoples of the Horn of Africa: Somali, Afar and Saho|year=1955|publisher=International African Institute|page=140|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cd0mAQAAMAAJ}} In the 14th century, the Zeila-based Adal Sultanate battled the forces of the Ethiopian emperor Amda Seyon I.{{cite book|last=Pankhurst|first=Richard|title=The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zpYBD3bzW1wC&pg=PA45|year=1997|publisher=The Red Sea Press|isbn=978-0-932415-19-6}}, page 45 The Ottoman Empire later occupied Berbera and environs in the 1500s. Muhammad Ali, Pasha of Egypt, subsequently established a foothold in the area between 1821 and 1841.{{cite journal |last=Clifford |first=E.H.M. |date=1936 |title=The British Somaliland-Ethiopia Boundary |journal=Geographical Journal |volume=87 |issue=4 |pages=289–302 |doi=10.2307/1785556 |jstor=1785556|bibcode=1936GeogJ..87..289C }}

The Sanaag region is home to the ruined Islamic city of Maduna near El Afweyn, which is considered the most substantial and accessible ruin of its type in Somaliland.{{Cite web |last=Dev |first=Bradt Guides |title=Maduna ruins |url=https://www.bradtguides.com/destinations/africa/somaliland/madana-ruins/ |access-date=4 March 2022 |website=Bradt Guides |date=16 March 2020 |language=en-GB |archive-date=4 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220304224300/https://www.bradtguides.com/destinations/africa/somaliland/madana-ruins/ |url-status=dead }}{{Cite book |last=Briggs |first=Philip |title=Somaliland: with Addis Ababa & Eastern Ethiopia |date=2012 |publisher=Bradt Travel Guides |isbn=978-1-84162-371-9 |location=Chalfont St. Peter, Bucks, England |pages=128–129 |oclc=766336307}} The main feature of the ruined city is a large rectangular mosque, its 3-metre high walls still standing, which include a mihrab and possibly several smaller arched niches. Swedish-Somali archaeologist Sada Mire dates the ruined city to the 15th–17th centuries.{{Cite web |title=Somaliland: archaeology in a breakaway state {{!}} Sada Mire |url=https://www.sadamire.com/somaliland-archaeology-in-a-breakaway-state/ |access-date=4 March 2022 |language=en-US}}

{{Main|Dervish movement (Somali)|Isaaq Sultanate|British Somaliland}}

File:Isaaq Flag.svg

In the early modern period, successor states to the Adal Sultanate began to flourish in Somaliland. These included the Isaaq Sultanate and Habr Yunis Sultanate.British Somaliland by Ralph E. Drake-Brockman. Drake-Brockman, Ralph E. (Ralph Evelyn), 1875–1952. p. 275 The Isaaq Sultanate was a Somali kingdom that ruled parts of the Horn of Africa during the 18th and 19th centuries. It spanned the territories of the Isaaq clan, descendants of the Banu Hashim clan,I. M. Lewis, A pastoral democracy: a study of pastoralism and politics among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa, (LIT Verlag Münster: 1999), p. 157. in modern-day Somaliland and Ethiopia. The sultanate was governed by the Rer Guled branch established by the first sultan, Sultan Guled Abdi, of the Eidagale clan. The sultanate is the pre-colonial predecessor to the modern Republic of Somaliland.{{Cite web|title=Taariikhda Beerta Suldaan Cabdilaahi ee Hargeysa |work=Somali Diaspora News|url=http://www.qurbejoog.com/taariikhda-beerta-suldaan-cabdilaahi-ee-hargeysa/|access-date=9 January 2021}}{{cite book|title=Genealogies of the Somal|date=1896|publisher=Eyre and Spottiswoode (London)|language=english}}{{Cite web|title=Taariikhda Saldanada Reer Guuleed Ee Somaliland.Abwaan:Ibraahim-rashiid Cismaan Guure (aboor)|work=Togdheer News Network|url=http://togdheernews.com/articles/31/05/2016/taariikhda-saldanada-reer-guuleed-ee-somaliland-abwaanibraahim-rashiid-cismaan-guure-aboor/|access-date=9 August 2021|archive-date=11 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210111020220/http://togdheernews.com/articles/31/05/2016/taariikhda-saldanada-reer-guuleed-ee-somaliland-abwaanibraahim-rashiid-cismaan-guure-aboor/|url-status=dead}}

According to oral tradition, prior to the Guled dynasty the Isaaq clan-family were ruled by a dynasty of the Tolje'lo branch descending from Ahmed nicknamed Tol Je'lo, the eldest son of Sheikh Ishaaq's Harari wife. There were eight Tolje'lo rulers in total, starting with Boqor Harun ({{Langx|so|Boqor Haaruun}}) who ruled the Isaaq Sultanate for centuries starting from the 13th century.{{Cite web|date=7 October 2017|title=Degmada Cusub Ee Dacarta Oo Loogu Wanqalay Munaasibad Kulmisay Madaxda Iyo Haldoorka Somaliland|url=https://www.hubaalmedia.net/degmada-cusub-ee-dacarta-oo-loogu-wanqalay-munaasibad-kulmisay-madaxda-iyo-haldoorka-somaliland/|access-date=11 August 2021|website=Hubaal Media|archive-date=11 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210811205734/https://www.hubaalmedia.net/degmada-cusub-ee-dacarta-oo-loogu-wanqalay-munaasibad-kulmisay-madaxda-iyo-haldoorka-somaliland/}}{{Cite web|title=Taariikhda Toljecle|url=https://www.tashiwanaag.com/toljecle-taariikh-ahaan.html|access-date=9 August 2021|website=Tashiwanaag}} The last Tolje'lo ruler Garad Dhuh Barar ({{langx|so|Dhuux Baraar}}) was overthrown by a coalition of Isaaq clans. The once strong Tolje'lo clan were scattered and took refuge among the Habr Awal with whom they still mostly live.{{Citation|title=Taariikhda Boqortooyadii Axmed Sheikh Isaxaaq ee Toljecle 1787| date=23 February 2020 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6MfB4XvREbI| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/6MfB4XvREbI| archive-date=11 December 2021 | url-status=live|language=en|access-date=15 August 2021}}{{cbignore}}Guido Ambroso, "Pastoral society and transnational refugees: population movements in Somaliland and eastern Ethiopia 1988–2000", New Issues in Refugee Research, Working Paper No. 65, Table 1, p. 5

The Sultan of Isaaq regularly convened shirs (meetings) where he would be informed and advised by leading elders or religious figures on what decisions to make. In the case of the Dervish movement, Sultan Deria Hassan had chosen not to join after receiving counsel from Sheikh Madar. He addressed early tensions between the Saad Musa and Eidagale upon the former's settlement into the growing town of Hargeisa in the late 19th century.F.O.78/5031, Sayyid Mohamad to the Aidagalleh, Enclosed Sadler to Salisbury. 69, 20 August 1899 The Sultan was also responsible for organising grazing rights and, in the late 19th century, new agricultural spaces.Elia Vitturini, The Gaboye of Somaliland: Legacies of Marginality, Trajectories of Emancipation, p. 129 The allocation of resources and sustainable use of them was also a matter that Sultans concerned themselves with and was crucial in this arid region. In the 1870s, at a famous meeting between Sheikh Madar and Sultan Deria, it was proclaimed that hunting and tree cutting in the vicinity of Hargeisa would be banned,{{cite book|last=WSP Transition Programme|first=War-torn Societies Project|title=Rebuilding Somaliland: Issues and Possibilities, Volume 1|publisher=Red Sea Press|year=2005|page=214}} and that the holy relics from Aw Barkhadle would be brought and oaths would be sworn on them by the Isaaqs in the presence of the Sultan whenever internal combat broke out.{{cite web|year=1849|title=The Journal of the Royal Geographical Society Volume 19 p.61-62|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZCBDAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA62}}

Aside from the leading Sultan of Isaaq there were numerous Akils, Garaads and subordinate Sultans alongside religious authorities that constituted the Sultanate; occasionally these would declare their independence or simply break from its authority.

The Isaaq Sultanate had 5 rulers prior to the creation of British Somaliland in 1884. Historically, Sultans would be chosen by a committee of several important members of the various Isaaq subclans. Sultans were usually buried at Toon, south of Hargeisa, which was a significant site and the capital of the Sultanate during Farah Guled's rule.Transactions of the Bombay Geographical Society 1850, Volume 9, p.133

{{Main|British attack on Berbera (1827)}}

The first engagement between Somalis of the region and the British was in 1825 and led to hostilities,{{cite book|title=Politics, Language, and Thought: The Somali Experience|year=1977|page=70|isbn=978-0-226-46791-7|publisher=9780226467917|first=David D.|last=Laitin}} ending in the Battle of Berbera and a subsequent trade agreement between the Habr Awal and the United Kingdom.{{cite book|title=Royal Naval Biography: Or, Memoirs of the Services of All the Flag-officers, Superannuated Rear-admirals, Retired-captains, Post-captains, and Commanders, Whose Names Appeared on the Admiralty List of Sea Officers at the Commencement of the Present Year, Or who Have Since Been Promoted, Illustrated by a Series of Historical and Explanatory Notes ... with Copious Addenda: Captains. Commanders|year=1832|author=James Marshall|page=438|publisher=Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown}}Hertslet's Commercial Treaties: A Complete Collection of the Treaties and Conventions, and Reciprocal Regulations, at Present Subsisting Between Great Britain and Foreign Powers, and of the Laws, Decrees, and Orders in Council, Concerning the Same, So Far as They Relate to Commerce and Navigation, to the Repression and Abolition of the Slave Trade, and to the Privileges and Interests of the Subjects of the High Contracting Parties, Volume 13, pg 5 This was followed by a British treaty with the Governor of Zeila in 1840. An engagement was then started between the British and elders of Habar Garhajis and Habar Toljaala clans of the Isaaq in 1855, followed a year later by the conclusion of the "Articles of Peace and Friendship" between the Habar Awal and East India Company. These engagements between the British and Somali clans culminated in the formal treaties the British signed with the henceforth 'British Somaliland' clans, which took place between 1884 and 1886 (treaties were signed with the Habar Awal, Gadabursi, Habar Toljaala, Habar Garhajis, Esa, and the Warsangali clans), and paved the way for the British to establish a protectorate in the region referred to as British Somaliland.Hugh Chisholm (ed.), The Encyclopædia Britannica: a dictionary of arts, sciences, literature and general information, Volume 25, (At the University press: 1911), p.383. The British garrisoned the protectorate from Aden and administered it as part of British India until 1898. British Somaliland was then administered by the Foreign Office until 1905, and afterwards by the Colonial Office.{{cite web|url=https://www.britishempire.co.uk/maproom/britishsomaliland.htm|title=British Somaliland Protectorate|website=British Empire|access-date=19 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191025062635/https://www.britishempire.co.uk/maproom/britishsomaliland.htm|archive-date=25 October 2019}}

{{Main|Somaliland campaign|Somaliland campaign (1920)|Italian conquest of British Somaliland}}

File:Corriere Della Sera - 17 agosto 1940 - Offensiva in Africa - titolo.JPG covering the start of the British Somaliland offensive}}]]

The Somaliland Campaign, also called the Anglo-Somali War or the Dervish War, was a series of military expeditions that took place between 1900 and 1920 in the Horn of Africa, pitting the Dervishes led by Mohammed Abdullah Hassan (nicknamed the "Mad Mullah") against the British.Nicolle (1997), 5. The British were assisted in their offensives by the Ethiopians and Italians. During the First World War (1914–1918), Hassan also received aid from the Ottomans, Germans and, for a time, from the Emperor Iyasu V of Ethiopia. The conflict ended when the British aerially bombed the Dervish capital of Taleh in February 1920.{{cite web|url=https://ww2db.com/battle_spec.php?battle_id=249|title=Italian Invasion of British Somaliland|website=WW2DB.com|date=10 February 2017|access-date=19 February 2020}}

The Fifth Expedition of the Somaliland campaign in 1920 was the final British expedition against the Dervish forces of Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, the Somali religious leader. Although most of the combat took place in January of the year, British troops had begun preparations for the assault as early as November 1919. The British forces included elements of the Royal Air Force and the Somaliland Camel Corps. After three weeks of battle, Hassan's Dervishes were defeated, bringing an effective end to their 20-year resistance.{{cite book |title=From Biplane to Spitfire |last=Baker |first=Anne |author-link=Anne Baker (author) |year=2003 |publisher=Pen And Sword Books |isbn=0-85052-980-8 |pages=161–162}} It was one of the bloodiest and longest militant movements in sub-Saharan Africa during the colonial era, one that overlapped with World War I. The battles between various sides over two decades killed nearly a third of Somaliland's population and ravaged the local economy.{{cite book|author1=Richard H. Shultz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NswzCgAAQBAJ|title=Insurgents, Terrorists, and Militias: The Warriors of Contemporary Combat|author2=Andrea J. Dew|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-231-12983-1|pages=67–68}}{{cite book|author1=Michel Ben Arrous|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4PQK68LNtjcC|title=African Studies in Geography from Below|author2=Lazare Ki-Zerbo|publisher=African Books|year=2009|isbn=978-2-86978-231-0|page=166}}{{cite journal|author=Robert L. Hess|year=1964|title=The 'Mad Mullah' and Northern Somalia|journal=The Journal of African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|volume=5|pages=415–433|doi=10.1017/S0021853700005107|jstor=179976|number=3|s2cid=162991126}}

The Italian conquest of British Somaliland was a military campaign in East Africa, which took place in August 1940 between forces of Italy and those of several British and Commonwealth countries. The Italian attack was part of the East African campaign.{{cite web|url=https://medium.com/raf-caps/air-power-in-british-somaliland-1920-the-arrival-of-gordons-bird-men-independent-operations-35cd9191f445|title=Air Power In British Somaliland, 1920: The Arrival Of Gordon's Bird-Men, Independent Operations And Unearthly Retributions|website=Medium.com|date=18 October 2019|access-date=19 February 2020}}

{{main|1922 Burao tax revolt}}

File:Captainallangibb.jpg

The people of Burao clashed with the British in 1922. They revolted in opposition to a new tax that was imposed upon them, rioting and attacking British government officials. This led to a shootout between the British and Burao residents in which Captain Allan Gibb, a Dervish war veteran and district commissioner, was shot and killed. The British requested Sir Winston Churchill, then Secretary of State for the Colonies, to send troops from Aden and Air Force bombers Burao the revolting clans' livestock.Colonial Office, 11 April 1922 The RAF planes arrived at Burao within two days and proceeded to bomb the town with incendiaries, effectively burning the entire settlement to the ground.The British Empire as a Superpower By Anthony Clayton pp.223Public Record Office file CO 1069/13 Part 1, by the first officer commanding "B" (Nyasaland) Company SCC.

The King's African Rifles by H. Moyse-BartlettCorrespondence between Governor of British Somaliland and Secretary of State for the Colonies. Colonial Office, 26 March 1922.

Telegram from Sir Geoffrey Archer, Governor of British Somaliland to Sir Winston Churchill the Secretary of State for the Colonies:

I deeply regret to inform that during an affray at Burao yesterday between Rer Sugulleh and Akils of other tribes Captain Gibb was shot dead. Having called out Camel corps company to quell the disturbance, he went forward himself with his interpreter, whereupon fire opened on him by some Rer segulleh riflemen and he was instantly killed..Miscreants then disappeared under the cover of darkness.

To meet the situation created by the Murder of Gibb, we require two aeroplanes for about fourteen days. I have arranged with resident, Aden, for these. And made formal application, which please confirm. It is proposed they fly via Perim, confining sea crossing to 12 miles. We propose to inflict fine of 2,500 camels on implicated sections, who are practically isolated and demand surrender of man who killed Gibbs. He is known. Fine to be doubled in failure to comply with latter conditions and aeroplanes to be used to bomb stock on grazing grounds.Correspondence between Governor of British Somaliland and Secretary of State for the Colonies. Colonial Office, 28th February, 1922

Sir Winston Churchill reporting on the Burao incident at the House of Commons:

On 25th February the Governor of Somaliland telegraphed that an affray between tribesmen had taken place at Burao on the previous day, in the course of which Captain Allan Gibb, D.S.O., D.C.M., the District Commissioner at Burao, had been shot dead. Captain Gibb had advanced with his interpreter to quell the disturbance, when 1954 fire was opened upon him by some riflemen, and he was instantly killed. The murderers escaped under cover of falling darkness.

Captain Gibb was an officer of long and valued service in Somaliland, whose loss I deeply regret. From the information available, his murder does not appear to have been premeditated, but it inevitably had a disturbing effect upon the surrounding tribes, and immediate dispositions of troops became necessary to ensure the apprehension and punishment of those responsible for the murder. On 27th February the Governor telegraphed that, to meet the situation which had arisen, he required two aeroplanes for purposes of demonstration, and suggested that two aeroplanes from the Royal Air Force Detachment at Aden should fly over to Berber a from Aden. He also telegraphed that in certain circumstances it might become necessary to ask for reinforcements of troops to be sent to the Protectorate.1922 Commons sitting. HC Deb 14 March 1922 vol 151 cc1953-4

James Lawrence author of Imperial Rearguard: Wars of Empire writes

[Gibb]..was murdered by rioters during a protest against taxation at Burao. Governor Archer immediately called for aircraft which were at Burao within two days. The inhabitants of the native township were turned out of their houses, and the entire area was razed by a combination of bombing, machine-gun fire and burning.Imperial Rearguard: Wars of Empire, 1919–1985 pp.168

After the RAF aircraft bombed Burao to the ground, the leaders of the rebellion acquiesced, agreeing to pay a fine for Gibb's death, but they refused to identify and apprehend the accused individuals. Most of the men responsible for Gibb's shooting evaded capture. In light of the failure to implement the taxation without provoking a violent response, the British abandoned the policy altogether.British Somaliland: An Administrative History, 1920–1960 pp.110{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=tW_eEVbVxpEC&q=Gibbs&pg=PA991|title=Dictionary of battles and sieges P-Z, p.991|isbn=978-0-313-33539-6|last1=Jaques|first1=Tony|year=2007|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic }}

{{main|1945 Sheikh Bashir Rebellion}}

File:Sheikh Bashir praying.jpg, 1920]]

The 1945 Sheikh Bashir Rebellion was a rebellion waged by tribesmen of the Habr Je'lo clan in the former British Somaliland protectorate against British authorities in July 1945 led by Sheikh Bashir, a Somali religious leader.{{Cite thesis|title=Constructing colonial hegemony in the Somaliland protectorate, 1941–1960|url=https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/handle/1807/14169|date=1996|degree=Thesis|language=en-US|first=Jama|last=Mohamed}}

On 2 July, Sheikh Bashir collected 25 of his followers in the town of Wadamago and transported them on a lorry to the vicinity of Burao, where he distributed arms to half of his followers. On the evening of 3 July, the group entered Burao and opened fire on the police guard of the central prison in the city, which was filled with prisoners arrested for previous demonstrations. The group also attacked the house of the district commissioner of Burao District, Major Chambers, resulting in the death of Major Chamber's police guard before escaping to Bur Dhab, a strategic mountain south-east of Burao, where Sheikh Bashir's small unit occupied a fort and took up a defensive position in anticipation of a British counterattack.{{Cite book|last=of Rodd|first=Lord Rennell|title=British Military Administration in Africa 1941–1947|publisher=HMSO|year=1948|page=481}}

The British campaign against Sheikh Bashir's troops proved abortive after several defeats as his forces kept moving from place to place and avoiding any permanent location. No sooner had the expedition left the area, than the news travelled fast among the Somali nomads across the plain. The war had exposed the British administration to humiliation. The government came to a conclusion that another expedition against him would be useless; that they must build a railway, make roads and effectively occupy the whole of the protectorate, or else abandon the interior completely. The latter course was decided upon, and during the first months of 1945, the advance posts were withdrawn, and the British administration confined to the coast town of Berbera.{{Cite web|title=Taariikhdii Halgamaa: Sheekh Bashiir Sh. Yuusuf. W/Q: Prof Yaxye Sheekh Caamir {{!}} Laashin iyo Hal-abuur|date=11 January 2018 |url=https://laashin.com/taariikhdii-halgamaa-sheekh-bashiir-sh-yuusuf-wq-prof-yaxye-sheekh-caamir/|access-date=31 May 2021|language=en-US}}

Sheikh Bashir settled many disputes among the tribes in the vicinity, which kept them from raiding each other. He was generally thought to settle disputes through the use of Islamic Sharia and gathered around him a strong following.{{Cite journal|last=Sheekh Caamir|first=Yaxye|date=11 January 2018|title=Taariikhdii Halgamaa: Sheekh Bashiir Sh. Yuusuf|journal=Laashin}}

The British administration recruited Indian and South African troops, led by police general James David, to fight against Sheikh Bashir and had intelligence plans to capture him alive. The British authorities mobilised a police force, and eventually on 7 July found Sheikh Bashir and his unit in defensive positions behind their fortifications in the mountains of Bur Dhab. After clashes Sheikh Bashir and his second-in-command, Alin Yusuf Ali, nicknamed Qaybdiid, were killed. A third rebel was wounded and was captured along with two other rebels. The rest fled the fortifications and dispersed. On the British side the police general leading the British troops as well as a number of Indian and South African troops perished in the clashes, and a policeman was injured.

After his death, Sheikh Bashir was widely hailed by locals as a martyr and was held in great reverence. His family took quick action to remove his body from the place of his death at Geela-eeg mountain, about 20 miles from Burao.{{cite book|last1=Akyeampong|first1=Emmanuel. K|title=Dictionary of African Biography, Volumes 1–6|date=2012|publisher=OUP US|page=107|language=english}}

{{Main|State of Somaliland|Independence Day (State of Somaliland)}}

File:Somaliland Flying for the first time The White and Blue Somali Flag at the Independence Celebrations on 26 June 1960.jpg at the Independence ceremony on 26 June 1960. The then Prime Minister of the State of Somaliland Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal salutes the flag.]]

Initially the British government planned to delay protectorate of British Somaliland independence in favour of a gradual transfer of power. The arrangement would allow local politicians to gain more political experience in running the protectorate before official independence. However, strong pan-Somali nationalism and a landslide victory in the earlier elections encouraged them to demand independence and unification with the Trust Territory of Somaliland under Italian Administration (the former Italian Somaliland).{{cite web |title=Central Intelligence Bulletin 26th Feb 1960 |url=https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP79T00975A004900470001-6.pdf |website=CIA |access-date=19 April 2021}}

In May 1960, the British government stated that it would be prepared to grant independence to the then protectorate of British Somaliland, with the intention that the territory would unite with the Italian-administered Trust Territory of Somaliland.{{cite web|url=http://www.somalilandlaw.com/Somaliland_Act_of_Union.htm|title=SOMALILAND & SOMALIA: THE 1960 ACT OF UNION – An early lesson for Somaliland|website=Somaliland Law|access-date=19 February 2018}} The Legislative Council of British Somaliland passed a resolution in April 1960 requesting independence and union with the Trust Territory of Somaliland, which was scheduled to gain independence on 1 July that year. The legislative councils of both territories agreed to this proposal following a joint conference in Mogadishu.{{cite web |url=http://wardheernews.com/Articles_09/June/Roobdoon_Forum/29_Independence_week_series.html |title=Somali Independence Week – Roobdoon Forum June 21, 2009 |access-date=25 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928052641/http://wardheernews.com/Articles_09/June/Roobdoon_Forum/29_Independence_week_series.html |archive-date=28 September 2011 }}

On 26 June 1960, the former British Somaliland protectorate briefly obtained independence as the State of Somaliland, with the Trust Territory of Somaliland following suit five days later. During its brief period of independence, the State of Somaliland garnered recognition from thirty-five sovereign states.{{cite journal|last1=Kaplan|first1=Seth|title=The Remarkable Story of Somaliland|journal=Journal of Democracy|date=July 2008|volume=19|issue=3 |page=257|doi=10.1353/jod.0.0009 |s2cid=153442685 |url=http://www.sethkaplan.org/doc/JOD,%20Democratization%20in%20Africa%20chapter%203.10.pdf|access-date=6 August 2017|archive-date=7 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807065437/http://www.sethkaplan.org/doc/JOD,%20Democratization%20in%20Africa%20chapter%203.10.pdf}} However, the United States merely acknowledged Somaliland's independence:

The United States did not extend formal recognition to Somaliland, but Secretary of State Herter sent a congratulatory message dated June 26 to the Somaliland Council of Ministers.{{cite web |url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1958-60v14/d62 |title=Editorial Note |work=Foreign Relations of the United States, 1958–1960, Africa, Volume XIV |publisher=United States Department of State |access-date=30 March 2022}}

The following day, on 27 June 1960, the newly convened Somaliland Legislative Assembly approved a bill that would formally allow for the union of the State of Somaliland with the Trust Territory of Somaliland on 1 July 1960.

{{Main|Somali Republic|Greater Somalia}}

{{further|1961 revolt in Somalia}}

On 1 July 1960, the State of Somaliland and the Trust Territory of Somaliland (the former Italian Somaliland) united as planned to form the Somali Republic.{{cite web|url=http://www.buluugleey.com/warkiidanbe/Governance.htm|title=The dawn of the Somali nation-state in 1960|publisher=Buluugleey.com|access-date=25 February 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090116055005/http://www.buluugleey.com/warkiidanbe/Governance.htm|archive-date=16 January 2009|url-status=usurped}}{{cite web|url=http://www.strategypage.com/htmw/htwin/articles/20060809.aspx|title=The making of a Somalia state|publisher=Strategy page.com|date=9 August 2006|access-date=25 February 2009}} Inspired by Somali nationalism, the northerners were initially enthusiastic about the union.{{sfnp|Richards|2014|pp=84–85}} A government was formed by Abdullahi Issa, with Aden Abdullah Osman Daar as President and Abdirashid Ali Shermarke as Prime Minister (later becoming president, from 1967 to 1969). On 20 July 1961 and through a popular referendum, the Somali people ratified a new constitution, which was first drafted in 1960.Greystone Press Staff, The Illustrated Library of The World and Its Peoples: Africa, North and East, (Greystone Press: 1967), p.338 The constitution had little support in the former Somaliland and was believed to favour the south. Many northerners boycotted the referendum in protest, and over 60% of those who voted in the north were against the new constitution. Regardless, the referendum passed, and Somaliland became quickly dominated by southerners. As result, dissatisfaction became widespread in the north, and support for the union plummeted. British-trained Somaliland officers attempted a revolt to end the union in December 1961. Their uprising failed, and Somaliland continued to be marginalised by the south during the next decades.{{sfnp|Richards|2014|pp=84–85}}

In 1967, Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal became Prime Minister, a position to which he was appointed by Shermarke. Shermarke was assassinated two years later by one of his own bodyguards. His murder was quickly followed by a military coup d'état on 21 October 1969 (the day after his funeral), in which the Somalian Army seized power without encountering armed opposition. The putsch was spearheaded by Major General Mohamed Siad Barre, who at the time commanded the army.Moshe Y. Sachs, Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations, Volume 2, (Worldmark Press: 1988), p.290. The new regime would go on to rule Somalia for the next 22 years.{{cite web|url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/dated-event/dictator-siad-barre-flees-somalia-ending-his-22-year-rule|title=Dictator Siad Barre flees Somalia ending his 22 year rule|website=SAHO|date=28 January 2019|access-date=18 February 2018}}

{{Main|Somali National Movement|Isaaq genocide|Somaliland War of Independence|Page 4 = 1988 Hargeisa-Burao offensive}}

[[File:Somaliland, fighters of the Somali National Movement (SNM), 1980s.jpg|thumb|250px|right|

SNM fighters, late 1980s]]

File:4z2.jpg) was destroyed by the Somali government.]]

The moral authority of Barre's government was gradually eroded, as many Somalis became disillusioned with life under military rule. By the mid-1980s, resistance movements supported by Ethiopia's communist Derg administration had sprung up across the country, which led to the Somaliland War of Independence. Barre responded by ordering punitive measures against those he perceived as locally supporting the guerrillas, especially in the northern regions. The clampdown included bombing of cities, with the northwestern administrative centre of Hargeisa, a Somali National Movement (SNM) stronghold, among the targeted areas in 1988.{{cite web|title=Somalia{{snd}}Government|url=http://countrystudies.us/somalia/65.htm|publisher=Library of Congress|access-date=15 February 2014}}{{cite web |url=http://sites.tufts.edu/reinventingpeace/2013/10/22/state-sponsored-violence-and-conflict-under-mahamed-siyad-barre-the-emergence-of-path-dependent-patterns-of-violence/ |title=State-sponsored violence and conflict under Mahamed Siyad Barre: the emergence of path dependent patterns of violence |last1=Compagnon |first1=Daniel |date=22 October 2013 |publisher=World Peace Foundation, The Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy |access-date=7 October 2014 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002022805/https://sites.tufts.edu/reinventingpeace/2013/10/22/state-sponsored-violence-and-conflict-under-mahamed-siyad-barre-the-emergence-of-path-dependent-patterns-of-violence/ |url-status=dead }} The bombardment was led by General Mohammed Said Hersi Morgan, Barre's son-in-law.{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/1747697.stm#mshm |title=Analysis: Somalia's powerbrokers |date=8 January 2002 |work=BBC News |access-date=7 October 2014}}

In May 1988, the SNM launched a major offensive on the cities of Hargeisa and Burao,{{Cite web|last=Refugees|first=United Nations High Commissioner for|title=Refworld {{!}} Pastoral society and transnational refugees: population movements in Somaliland and eastern Ethiopia 1988 – 2000|url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/4ff3fa8b2.html|access-date=14 January 2022|website=Refworld|page=6|language=en}}{{Cite book|last=Abdullahi|first=Mohamed Diriye|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Nu918tYMB8C&pg=PA37|title=Culture and Customs of Somalia|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=2001|isbn=978-0-313-31333-2|page=37|language=en}}{{Cite book|last=Waller|first=David|title=Rwanda: which way now?|date=1993|publisher=Oxfam|isbn=0-85598-217-9|location=Oxford|pages=10–12|oclc=29513928}} then the second and third largest cities of Somalia.{{Cite book|last=Binet|first=Laurence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LboiAQAAQBAJ|title=Somalia 1991-1993: Civil War, Famine Alert and a UN "Military-Humanitarian" Intervention|date=3 October 2013|publisher=Médecins Sans Frontières|page=214|language=en}}{{Cite book|last=Tekle|first=Amare|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xbQTEF0rd7wC&pg=PA152|title=Eritrea and Ethiopia: From Conflict to Cooperation|date=1 January 1994|publisher=The Red Sea Press|isbn=978-0-932415-97-4|page=152}} The SNM captured Burao on 27 May within two hours,{{Cite book|title=Somalia : a government at war with its own people: testimonies about the killings and the conflict in the north.|date=1990|publisher=Africa Watch Committee |isbn=0-929692-33-0|location=New York |page=128|oclc=24108168}} while the SNM entered Hargeisa on 29 May, overrunning most of the city apart from its airport by 1 June.

According to Abou Jeng and other scholars, the Barre regime rule was marked by a targeted brutal persecution of the Isaaq clan.{{cite book|author=Abou Jeng|title=Peacebuilding in the African Union: Law, Philosophy and Practice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bUKxfDKkKi0C&pg=PA245 |year=2012|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-01521-0|page=245}}{{cite book|author=Marleen Renders|title=Consider Somaliland: State-Building with Traditional Leaders and Institutions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wPlgycWcpzAC&pg=PA59 |year=2012|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=978-90-04-21848-2|pages=59–60}} Mohamed Haji Ingiriis and Chris Mullin state that the clampdown by the Barre regime against the Hargeisa-based Somali National Movement targeted the Isaaq clan, to which most members of the SNM belonged. They refer to the clampdown as the Isaaq Genocide or "Hargeisa Holocaust".{{Cite journal |last= Ingiriis |first= Mohamed Haji |date= 2 July 2016 |title= "We Swallowed the State as the State Swallowed Us": The Genesis, Genealogies, and Geographies of Genocides in Somalia|journal= African Security |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages= 237–258 |doi= 10.1080/19392206.2016.1208475 |s2cid= 148145948 |issn=1939-2206}}{{Cite book |url= https://archive.org/details/viewfromfoothill0000mull|url-access= registration|page= [https://archive.org/details/viewfromfoothill0000mull/page/504 504]|title=A View From The Foothills: The Diaries of Chris Mullin |last=Mullin |first= Chris |date= 1 October 2010 |publisher= Profile Books |isbn= 978-1-84765-186-0 |language=en}} A United Nations investigation concluded that the crime of genocide was {{qi|conceived, planned and perpetrated by the Somali Government against the Isaaq people}}.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7w8VAQAAIAAJ |title=Past human rights abuses in Somalia: report of a preliminary study conducted for the United Nations (OHCHR/UNDP-Somalia)|last1=Mburu|first1=Chris|last2=Rights|first2=United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human|last3=Office|first3=United Nations Development Programme Somalia Country|date=1 January 2002|publisher=s.n.|language=en}} The number of civilian casualties is estimated to be between 50,000 and 100,000 according to various sources,{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tOgOwSXB164C&pg=PA23 |title=Stopping Mass Killings in Africa: Genocide, Airpower, and Intervention|last=Peifer|first=Douglas C.|date=1 May 2009|publisher=DIANE Publishing|isbn=978-1-4379-1281-4|language=en}}{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mKWiBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT149 |title=Making and Unmaking Nations: The Origins and Dynamics of Genocide in Contemporary Africa|last=Straus|first=Scott|date=24 March 2015|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=978-0-8014-5567-4|language=en}}{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZybbAAAAMAAJ|title=Genocide, war crimes and the West: history and complicity|last=Jones|first=Adam|date=22 January 2017|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-191-4|language=en}} while some reports estimate the total civilian deaths to be upwards of 200,000 Isaaq civilians.{{Cite news|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2014/2/6/investigating-genocide-in-somaliland|title=Somaliland massacre|first=James|last=Reinl|website=www.aljazeera.com}} Along with the deaths, Barre regime bombarded and razed the second and third largest cities in Somalia, Hargeisa and Burao, respectively.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xbQTEF0rd7wC&pg=PA152 |title=Eritrea and Ethiopia: From Conflict to Cooperation|last=Tekle|first=Amare|date=1 January 1994|publisher=The Red Sea Press|isbn=978-0-932415-97-4|language=en}} This displaced an estimated 400,000 local residents to Hart Sheik in Ethiopia;{{Cite report |title=Conflict in Somalia: Drivers and Dynamics |url=https://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTSOMALIA/Resources/conflictinsomalia.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190326060340/https://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTSOMALIA/Resources/conflictinsomalia.pdf |archive-date=26 March 2019 |work=The World Bank |page=10}}{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-s0VcsSW2rAC&pg=PA154 |title=The New Africa: Dispatches from a Changing Continent|last=Press|first=Robert M.|date=1 January 1999|publisher=University Press of Florida|isbn=978-0-8130-1704-4|language=en}}{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WV0TAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA57 |title=The Early Morning Phonecall: Somali Refugees' Remittances|last=Lindley|first=Anna|date=15 January 2013|publisher=Berghahn Books|isbn=978-1-78238-328-4|language=en}} another 400,000 individuals were also internally displaced.{{cite book|last1=Gajraj|first1=Priya|title=Conflict in Somalia: Drivers and Dynamics|date=2005|publisher=World Bank|page=10|url=https://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTSOMALIA/Resources/conflictinsomalia.pdf}}{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=52m9OsGODRUC&pg=PA227 |title=Racism and Ethnicity: Global Debates, Dilemmas, Directions|last=Law|first=Ian|date=1 January 2010|publisher=Longman|isbn=978-1-4058-5912-7|language=en}}{{cite journal|title=Africa Watch|journal=Volume 5|date=1993|page=4}}

The counterinsurgency by the Barre regime against the SNM targeted the rebel group's civilian base of support, escalating into a genocidal onslaught against the Isaaq clan. This led to anarchy and violent campaigns by fragmented militias, which then wrested power at a local level.{{cite journal|first1=Alex|last1=de Waal|first2=Jens|last2=Meierhenrich|first3=Bridget|last3=Conley-Zilkic|title=How Mass Atrocities End: An Evidence-Based Counter-Narrative|journal=Fetcher Forum of World Affairs|volume=36|issue=1|pages=15–31|year=2012|url=http://www.fletcherforum.org/home/2016/9/14/how-mass-atrocities-end-an-evidence-based-counter-narrative}} The Barre regime's persecution was not limited to the Isaaq, as it targeted other clans such as the Hawiye.{{cite book|author=Mohamed Haji Ingiriis|title=The Suicidal State in Somalia: The Rise and Fall of the Siad Barre Regime, 1969–1991|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vzi6CwAAQBAJ |year=2016|publisher=University Press of America|isbn=978-0-7618-6720-3|pages=236–239}}{{cite book|author=Rebecca Richards|title=Understanding Statebuilding: Traditional Governance and the Modern State in Somaliland|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vz6gCwAAQBAJ |year=2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-00466-0|pages=98–100 with footnotes}} The Barre regime collapsed in January 1991. Thereafter, as the political situation in Somaliland stabilised, the displaced people returned to their homes, the militias were demobilised or incorporated into the army, and tens of thousands of houses and businesses were reconstructed from rubble.{{cite book|title=Somaliland: Democratisation and Its Discontents|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=UmoWAQAAIAAJ |year=2003|publisher= International Crisis Group| page= 6| access-date= 15 May 2017}}

{{Main|Somaliland Peace Process|Somaliland Declaration of Independence}}

File:Hargeisa War Memorial 2012.jpg commemorating Somaliland's breakaway from the rest of Somalia in 1991]]

Although the SNM at its inception had a unionist constitution, it eventually began to pursue independence, looking to secede from the rest of Somalia.{{cite web|url=http://wardheernews.com/Articles_2010/June/Buh/29_Somaliland_recognition_&_the_HBM-SSC_Factor.html|title=Somaliland's Quest for International Recognition and the HBM-SSC Factor|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120528122058/http://wardheernews.com/Articles_2010/June/Buh/29_Somaliland_recognition_%26_the_HBM-SSC_Factor.html|archive-date=28 May 2012}} Under the leadership of Abdirahman Ahmed Ali Tuur, the local administration declared the northwestern Somali territories independent at a conference held in Burao between 27 April 1991 and 15 May 1991.{{cite web|url=http://www.somalilandlaw.com/Somaliland_Constitution/body_somaliland_constitution.htm#Chapter1|title=Somaliland Constitution|access-date=28 March 2016}} Tuur then became the newly established Somaliland polity's first President, but subsequently renounced the separatist platform in 1994 and began instead to publicly seek and advocate reconciliation with the rest of Somalia under a power-sharing federal system of governance. A brief armed conflict had begun in January 1992 against rebels against Tuur in the period that he was in power, lasting until August 1992, when it was settled by a conference at the town of Sheikh.{{Cite web|title=Somalia: Civil War, Intervention and Withdrawal 1990 – 1995|url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6a6c98.html|access-date=13 April 2023}}

Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal was appointed as Tuur's successor in 1993 by the Grand Conference of National Reconciliation in Borama, which met for four months, leading to a gradual improvement in security, as well as a consolidation of the new territory.Lewis, A Modern History, pp. 282–286 Another armed conflict between the Somaliland government, now under Egal, and rebels began, as militias of the Eidagalley clan occupied Hargeisa airport for some time. Conflict re-erupted when troops of the government attacked the airport to drive out the Eidagalley militias in October 1994, sparking a new war that would spread out of Hargeisa and last until around April 1995, with a rebel defeat. Around the same time, Djiboutian-backed forces of the Issa-dominated United Somali Front attempted and failed to carve out Issa-inhabited areas of Somaliland. Egal was reappointed in 1997, and remained in power until his death on 3 May 2002. The vice-president, Dahir Riyale Kahin, who was during the 1980s the highest-ranking National Security Service (NSS) officer in Berbera in Siad Barre's government, was sworn in as president shortly afterward.Human Rights Watch (Organization), Chris Albin-Lackey, Hostages to peace: threats to human rights and democracy in Somaliland, (Human Rights Watch: 2009), p.13. In 2003, Kahin became the first elected president of Somaliland.{{cite web|url=https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2012/somaliland|title=FREEDOM IN THE WORLD – Somaliland Report|date=18 May 2012|access-date=19 February 2018|archive-date=10 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161110061308/https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2012/somaliland}}

The war in southern Somalia between Islamist insurgents on the one hand, and the Federal Government of Somalia and its African Union allies on the other, has for the most part not directly affected Somaliland, which, like neighbouring Puntland, has remained relatively stable.{{cite web|url=http://www.garoweonline.com/artman2/publish/Somalia_27/Somalia_Somaliland_appeals_for_cooperation_with_Puntland_a_second_time.shtml|title=Somalia: Somaliland appeals for 'cooperation with Puntland' a second time|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140131003947/http://www.garoweonline.com/artman2/publish/Somalia_27/Somalia_Somaliland_appeals_for_cooperation_with_Puntland_a_second_time.shtml|archive-date=31 January 2014}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b082x79f|title=BBC Radio 4 – Start the Week, Rewriting the Past: from Empire to ivory|website=BBC}}

{{Main|2001 Somaliland constitutional referendum}}

In August 2000, Egal's government distributed thousands of copies of the proposed constitution throughout Somaliland for consideration and review by the people. One critical clause of the 130 individual articles of the constitution would ratify Somaliland's self-declared independence and final separation from Somalia, restoring the nation's independence for the first time since 1960. In late March 2001, Egal set the date for the referendum on the Constitution for 31 May 2001.{{Cite web|url=https://www.c-r.org/accord/somalia/making-somaliland-constitution-and-its-role-democratisation-and-peace|title=Making the Somaliland constitution and its role in democratisation and peace | Conciliation Resources|website=www.c-r.org}}{{Cite news|date=14 December 2017|title=Somaliland profile|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-14115069|access-date=20 June 2020}} 99.9% of eligible voters took part in the referendum and 97.1% of them voted in favour of the constitution.{{Cite web|title=Elections in Somaliland|url=http://africanelections.tripod.com/somaliland.html#2001_Constitutional_Referendum|access-date=20 June 2020|website=africanelections.tripod.com}}

{{Main|Government of Somaliland|Politics of Somaliland}}

{{See also|List of Somaliland politicians}}

{{Multiple image

| total_width = 300

| image1 = Abdirahaamn Abdullahi cirro (cropped).jpg

| alt1 = Refer to caption

| caption1 = Abdirahman Mohamed Abdullahi
20x20px President

| image2 = Mohamed Aw-Ali Abdi delivering a speech (cropped).jpg

| alt2 = Refer to caption

| caption2 = Mohamed Aw-Ali Abdi
15x15px Vice President

}}

The Constitution of Somaliland defines the political system; the Republic of Somaliland is a unitary state and Presidential Republic, based on peace, co-operation, democracy and a multi-party system.{{Cite web|url=http://www.somalilandlaw.com/somaliland_constitution.htm|title = Somaliland Constitution}}

{{Main|President of Somaliland|Cabinet of Somaliland}}

The executive is led by an elected president, whose government includes a vice-president and a Council of Ministers.{{cite web|url=http://somalilandgov.com/the-administration/ |title=Somaliland Government |publisher=The Somaliland Government |access-date=28 July 2012}} The Council of Ministers, who are responsible for the normal running of government, are nominated by the President and approved by the Parliament's House of Representatives.{{cite web|url=http://somalilandgov.com/the-administration/ |title=Somaliland Cabinet |publisher=The Somaliland Government |access-date=28 July 2012}} The President must approve bills passed by the Parliament before they come into effect. Presidential elections are confirmed by the National Electoral Commission of Somaliland.{{cite news |title=Opposition leader elected Somaliland president |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5j8hma5FaM4Jn8UUVlRwwK18hpStQ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120525021524/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5j8hma5FaM4Jn8UUVlRwwK18hpStQ |url-status=dead |archive-date=25 May 2012 |agency=AFP |access-date=1 July 2010}} The President can serve a maximum of two five-year terms. The official residence and administrative headquarters of the President is the Somaliland Presidential Palace or State House in the capital city of Hargeisa.{{Cite news |title=The president of Somaliland is bargaining for recognition |url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2024/06/13/the-president-of-somaliland-is-bargaining-for-recognition |access-date=2025-02-24 |work=The Economist |issn=0013-0613}}{{Cite web |title=The System Worked: Somaliland’s 2024 Presidential and Political Party Elections – De facto states research unit |url=https://defactostates.ut.ee/the-system-worked-somalilands-2024-presidential-and-political-party-elections/ |access-date=2025-02-24 |website=defactostates.ut.ee |language=en-US}}{{Cite book |last=Collins |first=Gregory Allen |url=https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Connected/l9FVZiDVIyEC?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=%22somaliland+presidential+palace%22&dq=%22somaliland+presidential+palace%22&printsec=frontcover |title=Connected: Developing Somalia's Telecoms Industry in the Wake of State Collapse |date=2009 |publisher=University of California, Davis |language=en}}

{{Main|Parliament of Somaliland}}

File:House of Representatives of the Republic of Somaliland.jpg (Lower House) of the Somaliland Parliament.]]

Legislative power is held by the Parliament, which is bicameral. Its upper house is the House of Elders, chaired by Suleiman Mohamoud Adan, and the lower house is the House of Representatives, chaired by Yasin Haji Mohamoud.{{Cite web|url=http://www.hiiraan.com/news4/2021/aug/183439/somaliland_speaker_of_house_of_representatives_elected.aspx|title=Somaliland: Speaker of House of Representatives elected|website=Hiiraan}} Each house has 82 members. Members of the House of Elders are elected indirectly by local communities for six-year terms. The House of Elders shares power in passing laws with the House of Representatives, and also has the role of solving internal conflicts, and exclusive power to extend the terms of the President and representatives under circumstances that make an election impossible. Members of the House of Representatives are directly elected by the people for five-year terms. The House of Representatives shares voting power with the House of Elders, though it can pass a law that the House of Elders rejects if it votes for the law by a two-thirds majority and has absolute power in financial matters and confirmation of Presidential appointments (except for the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court).{{cite web|url=http://www.somalilandlaw.com/body_somaliland_parliament.html|title=Somaliland Parliament|access-date=28 March 2016}}

{{Main|Law of Somaliland}}

File:Supreme Court of Somaliland Building.jpg]]

The judicial system is divided into district courts (which deal with matters of family law and succession, lawsuits for amounts up to 3 million SLSH, criminal cases punishable by up to 3 years' imprisonment or 3 million SL fines, and crimes committed by juveniles), regional courts (which deal with lawsuits and criminal cases not within the jurisdiction of district courts, labour and employment claims, and local government elections), regional appeals courts (which deal with all appeals from the district and regional courts), and the Supreme court (which deals with issues between courts and in government, and reviews its own decisions), which is the highest court and also functions as the Constitutional Court.{{cite web|url=http://www.somalilandlaw.com/somaliland_judicial_system.html|title=Somaliland Judicial System|access-date=28 March 2016}}d

{{anchor|Citizenship}}Somaliland nationality law defines who is a Somaliland citizen,{{cite book | last=Manby | first=B. | title=Citizenship Law in Africa: A Comparative Study | publisher=Open Society Foundations | year=2012 | isbn=978-1-936133-29-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xKhONykaQKYC&pg=PA46 | access-date=2 August 2016 | page=46}} as well as the procedures by which one may be naturalised into Somaliland citizenship or renounce it.{{cite web|url=http://www.somalilandlaw.com/Xeerka_Jinsiyadda.htm|title=Xeerka Jinsiyadda (Xeer Lr. 22/2002) |trans-title=Nationality Law (Regulation No. 22/2023) |website=Somaliland Law|date=31 May 2001|language=so|access-date=19 February 2018}}

The Somaliland government continues to apply the 1962 penal code of the Somali Republic. As such, homosexual acts are illegal in the territory.{{Cite web |last1=Itaborahy |first1=Lucas |last2=Zhu |first2=Jingshu |date=May 2014 |publisher=International Lesbian Gay Bisexual Trans and Intersex Association |url=http://old.ilga.org/Statehomophobia/ILGA_SSHR_2014_Eng.pdf |title=A world survey of laws: Criminalisation, protection and recognition of same-sex love |access-date=16 June 2017 |archive-date=20 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161020202330/http://old.ilga.org/Statehomophobia/ILGA_SSHR_2014_Eng.pdf |url-status=dead }}

{{Main|Political parties in Somaliland|Elections in Somaliland}}

File:Somaliland Kulmiye party elections.jpg prior to parliamentary elections in 2021]]

The guurti worked with rebel leaders to set up a new government, and was incorporated into the governance structure, becoming the Parliament's House of Elders.{{cite news|title=Somaliland is an overlooked African success story|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/07/world/africa/07iht-somalia.4826198.html|work=The New York Times|date=7 March 2007|access-date=27 July 2012|first=Jeffrey|last=Gettleman}} The government became in essence a {{qi|power-sharing coalition of Somaliland's main clans}}, with seats in the Upper and Lower houses proportionally allocated to clans according to a predetermined formula, although not all clans are satisfied with their representation.{{Citation needed|date=December 2021}} In 2002, after several extensions of this interim government, Somaliland transitioned to multi-party democracy.{{cite web|url=https://www.iri.org/sites/default/files/flip_docs/Somaliland%20Democratization%20Strategy%20Blog%20Post%20-%20E%20Lewis%20OME/files/assets/basic-html/page105.html|title=Somaliland International Democratization Support Strategy|website=IRI.org|date=1 May 2008|access-date=18 February 2018}} The election was limited to three parties, in an attempt to create ideology-based elections rather than clan-based elections. As of December 2014, Somaliland has three political parties: the Peace, Unity, and Development Party, the Justice and Development Party, and Wadani. Under the Somaliland Constitution, a maximum of three political parties at the national level is allowed.{{cite web|url=http://www.somalilandlaw.com/body_xeerka_xisbiyadda.htm|title=Somaliland Political Parties Law|last=website|publisher=Somalliland Law|access-date=30 June 2017}} The minimum age required to vote is 15.

Freedom House ranks the Somaliland government as partly free.{{cite web|url=https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2017/somaliland|title=Somaliland * – Country report – Freedom in the World – 2017|publisher=Freedom House|access-date=11 May 2017|archive-date=9 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170509183937/https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2017/somaliland}} Seth Kaplan (2011) argues that in contrast to southern Somalia and adjacent territories, Somaliland, the secessionist northwestern portion of Somalia, has built a more democratic mode of governance from the bottom up, with virtually no foreign assistance.{{cite journal|last1=Kaplan|first1=Seth|title=The Remarkable Story of Somaliland|journal=Journal of Democracy|date=July 2008|volume=19|issue=3 |pages=248, 252|doi=10.1353/jod.0.0009 |s2cid=153442685 |url=http://www.sethkaplan.org/doc/JOD,%20Democratization%20in%20Africa%20chapter%203.10.pdf|access-date=6 August 2017|quote=The Republic of Somaliland, the secessionist northwestern slice of Somalia that declared independence in 1991, has a far better democratic track record than any of its neighbors despite—or, perhaps, because of—a dearth of assistance from the international community. ... Whereas attempts to build stable state structures in Mogadishu have mostly been top-down, with outsiders in the lead, Somaliland has constructed a functioning government from the bottom up, on its own, with little outside assistance.|archive-date=7 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807065437/http://www.sethkaplan.org/doc/JOD,%20Democratization%20in%20Africa%20chapter%203.10.pdf}} Specifically, Kaplan suggests that Somaliland has the most democratic political system in the Horn of Africa because it has been largely insulated from the extremist elements in the rest of Somalia and has viable electoral and legislative systems as well as a robust private sector-dominated economy, unlike neighbouring authoritarian governments. He largely attributes this to Somaliland's integration of customary laws and tradition with modern state structures, which he indicates most post-colonial states in Africa and the Middle East have not had the opportunity to do. Kaplan asserts that this has facilitated cohesiveness and conferred greater governmental legitimacy in Somaliland, as has the territory's comparatively homogeneous population, relatively equitable income distribution, a common fear of the south, and absence of interference by outside forces, which has obliged local politicians to observe a degree of accountability.{{cite journal|last1=Kaplan|first1=Seth|title=The Remarkable Story of Somaliland|journal=Journal of Democracy|date=July 2008|volume=19|issue=3 |pages=248–249, 253|doi=10.1353/jod.0.0009 |s2cid=153442685 |url=http://www.sethkaplan.org/doc/JOD,%20Democratization%20in%20Africa%20chapter%203.10.pdf|access-date=6 August 2017|quote=Abutting the Gulf of Aden just south of the Red Sea, across the water from Yemen and Saudi Arabia, and bordered by Ethiopia and the rest of Somalia, this strategically important territory is not even recognised by the international community but undoubtedly has the most democratic political system in the entire Horn of Africa. In contrast to the chaos and extremist threats that continue to plague much of the rest of Somalia—and unlike the authoritarian regimes that throng its neighborhood—Somaliland has held three consecutive competitive elections since its constitutional referendum in 2001, has a parliament controlled by opposition parties, and boasts a vibrant economy dominated by the private sector. Somaliland has achieved these successes by constructing a set of governing bodies rooted in traditional Somali concepts of governance by consultation and consent. In contrast to most postcolonial states in Africa and the Middle East, Somaliland has had a chance to administer itself using customary norms, values, and relationships. In fact, its integration of traditional ways of governance within a modern state apparatus has helped it to achieve greater cohesion and legitimacy and— not coincidentally—create greater room for competitive elections and public criticism than exists in most similarly endowed territories. ... Somaliland has profited from a unity conferred by its comparatively homogeneous population, modest disparities in personal wealth, widespread fear of the south, and a lack of outside interference that might have undermined the accountability that has been forced on its leaders. This cohesiveness—which makes Somaliland sharply distinct from both Somalia and most other African states—has combined with the enduring strength of traditional institutions of self-governance to mold a unique form of democracy.|archive-date=7 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807065437/http://www.sethkaplan.org/doc/JOD,%20Democratization%20in%20Africa%20chapter%203.10.pdf}}

{{Main|Foreign relations of Somaliland}}

File:The President of Somaliland, Musa Bihi Abdi And the Guinean Foreign minister, Mamadi Toure.jpg during a visit to the Republic of Guinea. He received a high-ranking delegation headed by the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Guinea Mamadi Touré in 2019.]]

Somaliland has political contacts with its neighbours Ethiopia{{cite web | title=Somaliland closer to recognition by Ethiopia | url=http://www.afrol.com/articles/25633 | publisher=Afrol News | access-date=19 October 2014}} and Djibouti,{{cite web | title=Somaliland, Djibouti in bitter port feud | url=http://www.afrol.com/articles/23556 | publisher=Afrol News | access-date=22 July 2007}} non-UN member state Republic of China (Taiwan),{{cite news | url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-taiwan-somaliland/outflanked-by-china-in-africa-taiwan-eyes-unrecognised-somaliland-idUSKBN2424UI | title=Outflanked by China in Africa, Taiwan eyes unrecognised Somaliland | publisher=Reuters | date=1 July 2020 | access-date=31 August 2020}}{{cite news |title = Taiwan Throws a Diplomatic Curveball by Establishing Ties With Somaliland|newspaper = The Diplomat|date=10 July 2020|url= https://thediplomat.com/2020/07/taiwan-throws-a-diplomatic-curveball-by-establishing-ties-with-somaliland/|access-date=31 August 2010|first= Nick |last= Aspinwall}} as well as with South Africa, Sweden,{{cite web | title=Somaliland Diplomatic Mission in Sweden | url=http://www.somalilandembassy.se/ | access-date=2 April 2010 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090510080355/http://www.somalilandembassy.se/ | archive-date=10 May 2009 | df=dmy-all}} and the United Kingdom.{{cite web | title=Somaliland | url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200304/cmhansrd/vo040204/halltext/40204h03.htm | publisher=United Kingdom Parliament | date=4 February 2004 | access-date=23 July 2007 | archive-date=7 February 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207145331/http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200304/cmhansrd/vo040204/halltext/40204h03.htm }} On 17 January 2007, the European Union (EU) sent a delegation for foreign affairs to discuss future co-operation.{{cite web | title=EU Breaks Ice on Financing Somaliland | url=http://www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/168/29775.html | publisher=Global Policy Forum | date=11 February 2003 | access-date=23 February 2007}} The African Union (AU) has also sent a foreign minister to discuss the future of international acknowledgment, and on 29 and 30 January 2007, the ministers stated that they would discuss acknowledgement with the organisation's member states.{{cite web | title=AU supports Somali split | url=http://www.mg.co.za/article/2006-02-10-au-supports-somali-split | publisher=Mail and Guardian | date=10 February 2006 | access-date=23 February 2007}}

In early 2006, the National Assembly for Wales extended an official invitation to the Somaliland government to attend the royal opening of the Senedd building in Cardiff. The move was seen as an act of recognition by the Welsh Assembly of the breakaway government's legitimacy. The Foreign and Commonwealth Office made no comment on the invitation. Wales is home to a significant Somali expatriate community from Somaliland.{{cite news | last=Shipton | first=Martin | title=Wales strikes out on its own in its recognition of Somaliland | work=Wales Online | date=3 March 2006 | url=http://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/welsh-politics/welsh-politics-news/tm_objectid=16766640&method=full&siteid=50082-name_page.html | access-date=25 June 2010 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120126004952/https://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/welsh-politics/welsh-politics-news/tm_objectid%3D16766640%26method%3Dfull%26siteid%3D50082-name_page.html | archive-date=26 January 2012 }}

In 2007, a delegation led by President Kahin was present at the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting in Kampala, Uganda. Although Somaliland has applied to join the Commonwealth under observer status, its application is still pending.{{cite web | title=Somaliland on verge of observer status in the Commonwealth | url=http://www.qarannews.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=6381&Itemid=59 | publisher=Qaran News | date=16 November 2009 | access-date=2 February 2010}}

On 24 September 2010, Johnnie Carson, Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs, stated that the United States would be modifying its strategy in Somalia and would seek deeper engagement with the governments of Somaliland and Puntland while continuing to support the Somali Transitional Government.{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/27/world/africa/27somalia.html?ref=world | work=The New York Times | title=Helicopter Attacks Militant Meeting in Somalia | first1=Mohamed | last1=Ibrahim | first2=Jeffrey | last2=Gettleman | date=26 September 2010}} Carson said the US would send aid workers and diplomats to Puntland and Somaliland and alluded to the possibility of future development projects. However, Carson emphasised that the US would not extend formal recognition to either region.{{cite web|url=http://www.afrol.com/articles/36651|work=Afrol News |title=US near de-facto recognition of Somaliland |access-date=28 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307151856/http://afrol.com/articles/36651|archive-date=7 March 2016}}

File:Somaliland Foreign Minister Hagi Mohamoud with Taiwan President Tsai Ing-wen.jpg with Taiwan President Tsai Ing-wen]]

The then-UK Minister for Africa, Henry Bellingham MP, met President Silanyo of Somaliland in November 2010 to discuss ways in which to increase the UK's engagement with Somaliland.{{cite web | url=http://ukun.fco.gov.uk/en/news/?view=News&id=204732682 | title=Strengthening the UK's relationship with Somaliland | publisher=Foreign and Commonwealth Office | date=25 November 2010 | access-date=29 March 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807153007/http://ukun.fco.gov.uk/en/news/?view=News&id=204732682 | archive-date=7 August 2011 | df=dmy-all }} President Silanyo said during his visit to London: {{qi|We have been working with the international community and the international community has been engaging with us, giving us assistance and working with us in our democratisation and development programmes. And we are very happy with the way the international community has been dealing with us, particularly the UK, the US, other European nations, and our neighbours who continue to seek recognition.}}{{cite web|url=http://www.thisisafricaonline.com/feature_button.php?id=20 |title=Ahmed Mahamoud Silanyo, President of the Republic of Somaliland |work=This is Africa |date=20 January 2011 |access-date=29 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110130180830/http://www.thisisafricaonline.com/feature_button.php?id=20 |archive-date=30 January 2011}}

Recognition of Somaliland by the UK was also supported by the UK Independence Party, which came third in the popular vote at the 2015 general election, though only electing a single MP. The former leader of UKIP, Nigel Farage, met with Ali Aden Awale, Head of the Somaliland UK Mission on Somaliland's national day, 18 May, in 2015, to express UKIP's support for Somaliland.{{cite web|url=http://www.ukip.org/ukip_supports_somaliland_national_day|title=UKIP supports Somaliland national day|work=UKIP|access-date=28 March 2016|archive-date=5 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160205113932/http://www.ukip.org/ukip_supports_somaliland_national_day}}

In 2011, Somaliland and the neighbouring Puntland region each entered a security-related memorandum of understanding with the Seychelles. Following the framework of an earlier agreement signed between the Transitional Federal Government and Seychelles, the memorandum is {{qi|for the transfer of convicted persons to prisons in 'Puntland' and 'Somaliland'.}}{{cite report |title=Report of the Secretary-General on specialized anti-piracy courts in Somalia and other States in the region |date=2012 |url=http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/atf/cf/%7B65BFCF9B-6D27-4E9C-8CD3-CF6E4FF96FF9%7D/Somalia%20S%202012%2050.pdf |publisher=UN Security Council |access-date=24 August 2021}}

On 1 July 2020, Somaliland and Taiwan signed an agreement to set up representative offices to promote cooperation between the two countries.{{cite news |url=https://focustaiwan.tw/politics/202007010011 |title=Taiwan and Somaliland to set up representative offices: MOFA |author=Chiang Yi-ching |work=Focus Taiwan |date=1 July 2020 |access-date=26 July 2020}} Cooperation between the two polities on education, maritime security, and medicine began in 2009, and Taiwanese staff entered Somaliland in February 2020 to prepare for the representative office.{{cite news |url=https://focustaiwan.tw/politics/202007010019 |title=Taiwan and Somaliland to set up representative offices (update) |author=Chiang Yi-ching |work=Focus Taiwan |date=1 July 2020 |access-date=26 July 2020}} As of 2023, Taiwan's Ministry of Foreign Affairs refers to Somaliland as a country.

On 1 January 2024, a memorandum of understanding was signed between Ethiopia and Somaliland, where Ethiopia will lease the port of Berbera on the Gulf of Aden, and a 20-kilometre stretch of Gulf of Aden coastline, for 20 years, in exchange for eventual recognition of Somaliland as an independent state and a stake in the Ethiopian Airlines. If this agreement is honoured, Ethiopia would become the first United Nations member state to recognise the breakaway nation.{{Cite web |last=Kheyr |date=1 January 2024 |title=Somaliland and Ethiopia: Recognition for Sea Access |url=https://thesomalidigest.com/somaliland-and-ethiopia-recognition-for-sea-access/ |access-date=2 January 2024 |website=Somali News in English {{!}} The Somali Digest |language=en-US}}{{Cite news |title=Ethiopia's gambit for a port is unsettling a volatile region |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2024/01/02/ethiopias-gambit-for-a-port-is-unsettling-a-volatile-region |access-date=2 January 2024 |issn=0013-0613}}

{{Main|Puntland–Somaliland dispute}}

{{further|Somalia–Somaliland border}}

File:Somaliland-Khatumo Agreement.png and Ali Khalif signing the Somaliland-Khatumo Agreement in Aynabo in October 2017]]

File:Somaliland. Anglo-Italian Boundary Commission 1929-1930. Index to Field sheets etc. War Office ledger (WOOS-33-1).jpg

Somaliland continues to claim the entire area of the former British Somaliland which gained independence in 1960 in the name of State of Somaliland. It is currently in control of the vast majority of the former State of Somaliland.{{Cite web|title=BFA Staatendokumentation, Analyse zu Somalia – Lagekarten zur Sicherheitslage. Situation Maps – Security Situation|url=https://lifos.migrationsverket.se/dokument?documentAttachmentId=42837|language=de|publisher=Federal Office for Immigration and Asylum|location=Austria|via=Swedish Migration Agency}}

Puntland, a federal member state of Somalia, disputes the Harti-inhabited territory in the former British Somaliland protectorate based on kinship. In 1998, the northern Darod clans established the state, and the Dhulbahante and Warsangali clans wholly participated in its foundation.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pDLNDgAAQBAJ&q=dhulbahante+sool&pg=PT301|title=Rule and Rupture: State Formation Through the Production of Property and Citizenship|last1=Lund|first1=Christian|last2=Eilenberg|first2=Michael|date=4 May 2017|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-119-38480-9|language=en}}{{cite journal |last1=Höhne |first1=Markus V. |title=Traditional Authorities in Northern Somalia: Transformation of positions and powers |journal=Max Planck Institute for Social Anthropology |page=16 |url=https://www.eth.mpg.de/pubs/wps/pdf/mpi-eth-working-paper-0082.pdf}}{{cite journal |last1=Mesfin |first1=Berouk |title=The political development of Somaliland and its conflict with Puntland |journal=Institute for Security Studies |date=September 2009 |page=10 |url=https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/111689/P200.pdf}}

The Harti were the second most powerful clan confederation in Somaliland until the 1993 Borama Conference, when they were replaced in importance by the Gadabursi.{{cite thesis |last1=Balthasar |first1=Dominik |title=State-making in Somalia and Somaliland: Understanding War, Nationalism and State Trajectories as Processes of Institutional and Socio-Cognitive Standardization |type=PhD thesis |date=2012 |publisher=London School of Economics and Political Science |page=179 |url=http://etheses.lse.ac.uk/572/1/Balthasar_State-Making_Somalia_Somaliland_2013.pdf |access-date=11 March 2022 |archive-date=24 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230124103648/http://etheses.lse.ac.uk/572/1/Balthasar_State-Making_Somalia_Somaliland_2013.pdf |url-status=dead }} The Dhulbahante and Warsangali clans established two separate administrations in the early 1990s.{{cite web |last1=Hoehne |first1=Markus |title=Somaliland: the complicated formation of a de facto state |page=8 |url=https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5a44f918f9a61e04cdd5d717/t/5e9622ac275e9c745d1f8c10/1586897581908/Hoehene.pdf |access-date=1 June 2021}} First, the former was to hold the Boocame I conference in May 1993, while the later held a conference in Hadaaftimo in September 1992.{{cite news |title=Raadreeb: Midnimada Soomaaliya iyo qodobada shirkii beesha Warsangeli ee 'Hadaaftimo 30 Siteenbar 1992' |url=https://www.daljir.com/raadreeb-midnimada-soomaaliya-iyo-qodobada-shirkii-beesha-warsangeli-ee-hadaaftimo-30-siteenbar-1992/ |access-date=14 March 2022 |agency=Daljir |date=17 January 2018}} In both conferences the desire to remain part of Somalia was expressed.

Tensions between Puntland and Somaliland escalated into violence several times between 2002 and 2009. In October 2004, and again in April and October 2007, armed forces of Somaliland and Puntland clashed near the town of Las Anod, the capital of Sool region. In October 2007, Somaliland troops took control of the town.{{cite web | title=Puntland and Somaliland clashing in northern Somalia | url=http://hornofafrica.ssrc.org/Hoehne/printable.html | last=Hoehne |first=Markus V. | date=7 November 2007 | access-date=2 December 2007 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071117043205/http://hornofafrica.ssrc.org/Hoehne/printable.html | archive-date=17 November 2007 }} While celebrating Puntland's 11th anniversary on 2 August 2009, Puntland officials vowed to recapture Las Anod. While Somaliland claims independent statehood and therefore "split up" the "old" Somalia, Puntland works for the re-establishment of a united but federal Somali state.{{cite journal | title=Mimesis and mimicry in dynamics of state and identity formation in northern Somalia |journal = Africa|volume = 79|issue = 2|pages = 252–281 | year=2009 |doi = 10.3366/E0001972009000710|last1 = Hoehne|first1 = Markus V.|s2cid = 145753382}}

Somaliland forces took control of the town of Las Qorey in eastern Sanaag on 10 July 2008, along with positions {{convert|5|km|mi|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} east of the town. The defence forces completed their operations on 9 July 2008 after the Maakhir and Puntland militia in the area left their positions.{{cite web | title=Somaliland Defence Forces take control of Las Qorey | url=http://www.qarannews.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=2016&Itemid=59 | work=Qaran News | date=9 July 2008 | access-date=2 April 2010}}

In the late 2000s, SSC Movement (Hoggaanka Badbaadada iyo Mideynta SSC), a local unionist group based in Sanaag was formed with the goal to establish its own regional administration (Sool, Sanaag and Cayn, or SSC). This later evolved into Khatumo State, which was established in 2012. The local administration and its constituents does not recognise the Somaliland government's claim to sovereignty or to its territory.{{cite news|title=What is Khatumo State?|url=http://www.somaliareport.com/index.php/post/3271/What_is_Khatumo_State|access-date=14 April 2015|newspaper=Somalia Report|date=26 April 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140312061049/http://www.somaliareport.com/index.php/post/3271/What_is_Khatumo_State|archive-date=12 March 2014}}

On 20 October 2017 in Aynabo, an agreement was signed with the Somaliland government that stipulated the amendment of Somaliland's constitution and integrating the organisation into the Somaliland government.{{Cite web|last=Mahmood|first=Omar S.|date=1 November 2019|title=Overlapping Claims by Somaliland and Puntland: The Case of Sool and Sanaag|url=https://www.africaportal.org/publications/overlapping-claims-somaliland-and-puntland-case-sool-and-sanaag/|access-date=29 June 2020|website=Africa Portal}}{{Cite web|date=21 October 2017|title=Khaatumo and Somaliland reach final agreement|url=http://somalilanddaily.com/articles/137/Khaatumo-and-Somaliland-reach-final-agreement|access-date=29 June 2020|website=Somaliland Daily}} This signalled the end of the organisation even though it was an unpopular event among the Dhulbahante community.{{Cite journal|last=Doon|first=Run|title=Current Affairs in the Horn of Africa|url=https://www.michael-walls.com/wp-content/uploads/Run-Doon-180817_web.pdf|journal=Anglo-Somali Society Journal|volume=Autumn 2017|issue=Somaliland, Khaatumo agreement reached|access-date=12 September 2020|archive-date=29 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200629192548/https://www.michael-walls.com/wp-content/uploads/Run-Doon-180817_web.pdf}}

{{Main|Somaliland Armed Forces}}

File:Commemoration of the 27th Anniversary of the Establishment of the Somaliland National Army.jpg]]

The Somaliland Armed Forces are the main military command in Somaliland. Along with the Somaliland Police and all other internal security forces, they are overseen by Somaliland's Ministry of Defence. The current head of Somaliland's Armed Forces is the Minister of Defence, Abdiqani Mohamoud Aateye.{{cite web|url=https://www.radiodalsan.com/en/2019/03/31/somaliland-president-makes-major-cabinet-changes/|title=Somaliland President Makes Major Cabinet Changes|website=Radio Dalsan|date=31 March 2020|access-date=18 February 2020|archive-date=8 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200808182609/https://www.radiodalsan.com/en/2019/03/31/somaliland-president-makes-major-cabinet-changes/}} Following the declaration of independence, various pre-existing militia affiliated with different clans were absorbed into a centralised military structure. The resultant large military takes up around half of the country's budget, but the action served to help prevent inter-clan violence.{{rp|2–3}}

The Somaliland Army consists of twelve divisions equipped primarily with light weaponry, though it is equipped with some howitzers and mobile rocket launchers. Its armoured vehicles and tanks are mostly of Soviet design, though there are some ageing Western vehicles and tanks in its arsenal. The Somaliland Navy (often referred to as a Coast Guard by the Associated Press), despite a crippling lack of equipment and formal training, has apparently had some success at curbing both piracy and illegal fishing within Somaliland waters.{{cite web| last =Houreld| first = Katharine| title = Somaliland coast guard tries to prevent piracy| work = Navy Times| publisher = Gannett Government Media Corporation| date = 4 April 2011| url = http://www.navytimes.com/news/2011/04/ap-piracy-somaliland-coast-guard-040411/ | access-date = 27 January 2013}}{{cite web | last = Hussein | first = Abdi | title = Somaliland's Military is a Shadow of the Past | work = Somalia Report | date = 13 August 2011 | url = http://somaliareport.com/index.php/post/1299/Somalilands_Military_Is_A_Shadow_of_the_Past_ | access-date = 27 January 2013 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130120162017/http://somaliareport.com/index.php/post/1299/Somalilands_Military_is_a_Shadow_of_the_Past_ | archive-date = 20 January 2013 | df = dmy-all}}

{{Main|Human rights in Somaliland}}

According to the 2023 Freedom House report, Somaliland has seen a consistent erosion of political rights and civic space. Public figures and journalists face pressure from authorities. Minority clans are subject to economic and political marginalisation, and violence against women remains a serious problem.{{Cite web |title=Somaliland: Country Profile |url=https://freedomhouse.org/country/somaliland |access-date=24 September 2023 |website=Freedom House |language=en}}

{{Main|Administrative divisions of Somaliland}}

File:Map of Somaliland.svg

The Republic of Somaliland is divided into six administrative regions: Awdal, Sahil, Maroodi Jeeh, Togdheer, Sanaag and Sool. The regions are divided into eighteen administrative districts.

{{See also|Regions of Somaliland|Districts of Somaliland}}

The following regions are taken from Michael Walls: State Formation in Somaliland: Bringing Deliberation to Institutionalism from 2011, Somaliland: The Strains of Success from 2015 and ActionAID, a humanitarian organisation currently active in Somaliland.{{cite web|title=Somaliland: Where we Work|url=http://www.actionaid.org/somaliland/where-we-work|website=Action Aid|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170110090938/http://www.actionaid.org/somaliland/where-we-work |archive-date=10 January 2017|quote=ActionAid International Somaliland (AAIS) supports poor and marginalised communities in three of six Somaliland administrative regions...}}[http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1302550/1/1302550.pdf State Formation in Somaliland: Bringing Deliberation to Institutionalism. Michael Walls, Planning Unit, UCL February 2011]{{Cite web|url=https://d2071andvip0wj.cloudfront.net/b113-somaliland-the-strains-of-success.pdf|title=Somaliland: The Strains of Success Crisis Group Africa Briefing N°113 Nairobi/Brussels, 5 October 2015|access-date=9 January 2017|archive-date=21 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170121043635/https://d2071andvip0wj.cloudfront.net/b113-somaliland-the-strains-of-success.pdf}}

In 2019, the local government law passed in 2019 (Lr. 23/2019, hereinafter referred to as the 2019 local government law), regions that "Somaliland is divided into six regions (Article 9 of the same law)".{{clarify|date=January 2025}}{{Cite web|title=Local Government Law|url=http://www.somalilandlaw.com/Xeerka__wkb__Gobolada_iyo_Degmooyinka_2019SLLaw.pdf|access-date=24 August 2021|language=somali}} The 2019 Local Government Act came into force on 4 January 2020.{{Cite web|url=http://www.somalilandlaw.com/local_government_law.htm|title = Local Government Law}}

Under Article 11, Section 1 of the Act, the regional boundaries are supposed to correspond to the boundaries of the six districts under the Somaliland protectorate; however, the Siad Barre era boundaries subsist as the de facto boundaries.

{{main|Geography of Somaliland}}

File:Geographic map of Somaliland.svg

Somaliland is situated in the northwest of recognised Somalia. It lies between 08°N and 11°30'N, and between 42°30'E and 49°00'E. It is bordered by Djibouti to the west, Ethiopia to the south, and Somalia to the east. Somaliland has an {{convert|850|km|mi|0}} coastline with the majority lying along the Gulf of Aden.{{cite web |url=https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/111689/P200.pdf |title=The political development of Somaliland and its conflict with Puntland |last=Mesfin |first=Berouk |publisher=Institute for Security Studies |date=September 2009 |access-date=15 May 2021}}{{rp|1}} In terms of landmass, Somaliland has an area of {{convert|176120|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.

Somaliland's climate is a mixture of wet and dry conditions. The northern part of the region is hilly, and in many places the altitude ranges between {{convert|900|and|2100|m|ft|-2}} above sea level. The Awdal, Sahil and Maroodi Jeex regions are fertile and mountainous, while Togdheer is mostly semi-desert with little fertile greenery around. The Awdal region is also known for its offshore islands, coral reefs and mangroves.

A scrub-covered, semi-desert plain referred as the Guban lies parallel to the Gulf of Aden littoral. With a width of {{convert|12|km|spell=in|abbr=off}} in the west to as little as {{convert|2|km|spell=in|abbr=off}} in the east, the plain is bisected by watercourses that are essentially beds of dry sand except during the rainy seasons. When the rains arrive, the Guban's low bushes and grass clumps transform into lush vegetation.Hadden, Robert Lee. 2007. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090327102547/http://handle.dtic.mil/100.2/ADA464006 "The Geology of Somalia: A Selected Bibliography of Somalian Geology, Geography and Earth Science."] Engineer Research and Development Laboratories, Topographic Engineering Center This coastal strip is part of the Ethiopian xeric grasslands and shrublands ecoregion.

Cal Madow is a mountain range in the eastern part of the country. Extending from the northwest of Erigavo to several kilometres west of the city of Bosaso in neighbouring Somalia, it features Somaliland's highest peak, Shimbiris, which sits at an elevation of about {{convert|2416|m|ft|0}}.{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/somalia/|title=Somalia|access-date=31 May 2009|date=14 May 2009|work=World Factbook|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency}} The rugged east–west ranges of the Karkaar Mountains also lie to the interior of the Gulf of Aden littoral. In the central regions, the northern mountain ranges give way to shallow plateaus and typically dry watercourses that are referred to locally as the Ogo. The Ogo's western plateau, in turn, gradually merges into the Haud, an important grazing area for livestock. In the east, the Haud is separated from the Ain and Nugal valleys by the Buur Dhaab mountain range.{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BUE497KSmwsC&q=bur+dab+range |title=The South African Geographical Journal: Being a Record of the Proceedings of the South African Geographical Society |date=1945 |pages=44 |language=en}}

File:Lamadayawaterfalls6.jpg|upright|Lamadaya are waterfalls located in the Cal Madow mountain range.

File:Somalia (Somaliland)(168).jpg|upright|The Somaliland countryside

File:Almadow Overview.JPG|upright|View of the Cal Madow Mountains, home to numerous endemic species

File:Somaliland (6790659460) (2).jpg|Berbera beach

File:Sacadin.jpg|Sacadin, Zeila Archipelago

{{More citations needed section|date=May 2021}}

File:Koppen-Geiger Map Somaliland present.svg{{legend|#FF6700|Semi-arid climate}}{{legend|#F10000|Arid climate}}]]

Somaliland is located north of the equator. It is semi-arid. The average daily temperatures range from {{convert|25|to|35|C}}. The sun passes vertically overhead twice a year, in April and in August or September. Somaliland consists of three main topographic zones: a coastal plain (Guban), the coastal range (Ogo), and a plateau (Hawd). The coastal plain is a zone with high temperatures and low rainfall. Summer temperatures in the region easily average over {{convert|100|F}}. However, temperatures come down during the winter, and both human and livestock populations increase dramatically in the region.

The coastal range (Ogo) is a high plateau to the immediate south of Guban. Its elevation ranges from {{convert|6000|ft}} above sea level in the West to {{convert|7000|ft}} in the East. Rainfall is heavier there than in Guban, although it varies considerably within the zone. The plateau (Hawd) region lies to the south of Ogo range. It is generally more heavily populated during the wet season, when surface water is available. It is also an important area for grazing. Somalilanders recognise four seasons in the year; GU and Hagaa comprise spring and summer in that order, and Dayr and Jiilaal correspond to autumn and winter, respectively.{{cite web|url=https://journeysbydesign.com/destinations/somaliland/when-to-go|title=SOMALILAND CLIMATE: when to visit|website=Jouneys by Design|language=en|access-date=12 March 2020}}{{failed verification|date=May 2021}}

The average annual rainfall is {{convert|446|mm}} in some parts of country according to availability of rain gauge, and most of it comes during Gu and Dayr. Gu, which is the first, or major, rainy season (late March, April, May, and early June), is where Ogo range and Hawd experience the heaviest rainfall. This constitutes the period of fresh grazing and abundant surface water. It is also the breeding season for livestock. Hagaa (from late June through August) is usually dry although there are often some scattered showers in the Ogo range, these are known as Karan rains. Hagaa tends to be hot and windy in most parts of the country. Dayr (September, October, and early November), which roughly corresponds to autumn, is the second, or minor, wet season; the amount of precipitation is generally less than that of Gu. Jilaal, or winter, falls in the coolest and driest months of the year (from late November to early March). It is a season of thirst. Hawd receive virtually no rainfall in winter. The rainfall in the Guban zone, known as "Hays", comes from December to February. The humidity of the country varies from 63% in the dry season to 82% in the wet season.{{Cite web|url=http://slministryofplanning.org/images/Statistics/SomalilandInfigures2015.pdf|title=Somaliland in Figures|access-date=16 August 2017|archive-date=16 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170816233801/http://slministryofplanning.org/images/Statistics/SomalilandInfigures2015.pdf}}

{{Main|Wildlife of Somaliland}}

{{Main|Economy of Somaliland}}

File:GDP Somaliland 2012 to 2018.png

Somaliland has the fourth-lowest GDP per capita in the world, and there are huge socio-economic challenges for Somaliland, with an unemployment rate between 60 and 70% among youth, if not higher. According to ILO, illiteracy exists up to 70% in several areas of Somaliland, especially among females and the elder population.{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2014/01/29/new-world-bank-gdp-and-poverty-estimates-for-somaliland|title=New World Bank GDP and Poverty Estimates for Somaliland|website=World Bank}}{{cite web |url=https://www.justice.gov/eoir/page/file/1150581/download |title=Responses to Information Requests – Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada |publisher=Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada |access-date=2 October 2021 |archive-date=8 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210908130425/https://www.justice.gov/eoir/page/file/1150581/download }}

Since Somaliland is unrecognised, international donors have found it difficult to provide aid. As a result, the government relies mainly upon tax receipts and remittances from the large Somali diaspora, which contribute significantly to the Somaliland economy.Daniel Harris with Marta Foresti 2011. [https://odi.org/en/publications/somalilands-progress-on-governance-a-case-of-blending-the-old-and-the-new/ Somaliland's progress on governance: A case of blending the old and the new] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807114908/https://www.odi.org/our-work/programmes/development-progress |date=7 August 2020}}. London: Overseas Development Institute Remittances come to Somaliland through money transfer companies, the largest of which is Dahabshiil,{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12279880 |title=Somaliland hope |work=BBC News |date=26 January 2011 |access-date=13 May 2012}} one of the few Somali money transfer companies that conform to modern money-transfer regulations. The World Bank estimates that remittances worth approximately US$1 billion reach Somalia annually from émigrés working in the Gulf states, Europe and the United States. Analysts say that Dahabshiil may handle around two-thirds of that figure and as much as half of it reaches Somaliland alone.{{cite web|title=Remittances a lifeline to Somalis |url=http://www.pulitzercenter.org/openitem.cfm?id=1687 |work=Global Post|date=4 July 2009 |access-date=2 April 2010}}{{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}

Since the late 1990s, service provisions have significantly improved through limited government provisions and contributions from non-governmental organisations, religious groups, the international community (especially the diaspora), and the growing private sector. Local and municipal governments have been developing key public service provisions such as water in Hargeisa and education, electricity, and security in Berbera. In 2009, the Banque pour le Commerce et l'Industrie – Mer Rouge (BCIMR), based in Djibouti, opened a branch in Hargeisa and became the first bank in the country since the 1990 collapse of the Commercial and Savings Bank of Somalia.{{cite web|url=https://www.somaliaonline.com/community/topic/43725-bcimr-opens-first-commercial-bank-in-somaliland/|title=BCIMR Opens First Commercial Bank in Somaliland|website=Somali Forum – Somalia Online|date=4 February 2009 }} In 2014, Dahabshil Bank International became the country's first commercial bank.{{cite web|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/somaliaNews/idAFL2N0TK0L720141130|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150120094101/http://af.reuters.com/article/somaliaNews/idAFL2N0TK0L720141130|archive-date=20 January 2015|title=First commercial bank officially opens in Somaliland|date=30 November 2014|via=af.reuters.com}} In 2017 Premier Bank from Mogadishu opened a branch in Hargeisa.{{cite web |title=Premier Bank Now in Hargeisa Somaliland |url=https://allafrica.com/stories/201705290258.html |website=All Africa |access-date=24 August 2021}}

{{Main|Bank of Somaliland|Somaliland shilling}}

File:Somaliland Shillings.jpg

The Somaliland shilling, which cannot easily be exchanged outside of Somaliland on account of the nation's lack of recognition, is regulated by the Bank of Somaliland, the central bank, which was established constitutionally in 1994.

The most popular and used payment system in the country is the ZAAD service, which is a mobile money transfer service that was launched in Somaliland in 2009 by the largest mobile operator Telesom.{{cite web |url=https://www.gsma.com/mobilefordevelopment/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Somaliland_Mobile_Money_CVA_Case_Study_Web_Singles.pdf |title=Telesom ZAAD: Pushing the mobile money CVA frontier |publisher=GSM Association |date=June 2019 |access-date=2 October 2021 }}{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldremit.com/en/somaliland/zaad|title=Send money to Telesom ZAAD mobile money accounts in Somaliland|website=WorldRemit|access-date=8 September 2021|archive-date=8 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210908124526/https://www.worldremit.com/en/somaliland/zaad}}

{{Main|Telecommunications in Somaliland}}

Telecommunications companies serving Somaliland include Telesom,{{cite web|title=Golis Telecom Somalia Profile|publisher = Golis Telecom website|url=http://www.golistelecom.com/about_g.htm|access-date=17 December 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071022212418/http://golistelecom.com/about_g.htm|archive-date=22 October 2007}} Somtel, Telcom and NationLink.{{cite web|url=http://www.somalilandbiz.com/sector-guides/telecoms-2/|title=SOMALILAND TELECOMS SECTOR GUIDE BY SOMALILAND BIZ|access-date=18 February 2020}}

The state-run Somaliland National TV is the main national public service television channel, and was launched in 2005. Its radio counterpart is Radio Hargeisa.

{{See also|Agriculture in Somaliland}}

File:Livestock export in Somaliland.jpg, Somaliland]]

Livestock is the backbone of Somaliland's economy. Sheep, camels, and cattle are shipped from the Berbera port and sent to Gulf Arab countries, such as Saudi Arabia.{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7935139.stm|title=Riches of Somaliland remain untapped|date=15 March 2009|via=news.bbc.co.uk}} The country is home to some of the largest livestock markets, known in Somali as seylad, in the Horn of Africa, with as many as 10,000 heads of sheep and goats sold daily in the markets of Burao and Yirowe, many of whom shipped to Gulf states via the port of Berbera.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wDweAQAAIAAJ&q=yirowe|title=Regulating the Livestock Economy of Somaliland|date=2002|publisher=Academy for Peace and Development|language=en}}{{Cite book|last1=Project|first1=War-torn Societies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cTtyAAAAMAAJ&q=yiroowe|title=Rebuilding Somaliland: Issues and Possibilities|last2=Programme|first2=WSP Transition|date=2005|publisher=Red Sea Press|isbn=978-1-56902-228-3|language=en}} The markets handle livestock from all over the Horn of Africa.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d2EwAQAAIAAJ&q=yiroowe|title=A Self-portrait of Somaliland: Rebuilding from the Ruins|date=1999|publisher=Somaliland Centre for Peace and Development|language=en}}

Agriculture is generally considered to be a potentially successful industry, especially in the production of cereals and horticulture. Mining also has potential, though simple quarrying represents the extent of current operations, despite the presence of diverse quantities of mineral deposits.

The primary method of agricultural production is rain-fed farming. Cereals are the primary crops cultivated. About 70% of the rain-fed agricultural land is used for the main crop, sorghum, while maize occupies another 25% of the land.{{Cite journal |title=Somaliland in Figures 2004 |url=http://www.somalilandlaw.com/Somaliland_in_figures_2004.pdf |journal=Ministry of Planning (Somaliland) |pages=9-10}} Scattered marginal lands are also used to grow other crops like barley, millet, groundnuts, beans, and cowpeas. The majority of farms are located near riverbanks, along the banks of streams (togs) and other water sources. The primary methods of channelling water from the source to the farm are floods or crude earth canals that divert perennial water (springs) to the farm. Fruits and vegetables are grown for commercial use on the majority of irrigated farms.

{{main|Tourism in Somaliland}}

File:Naasa Hablood - Virgin's Breast Mountain, Hargeisa, Somalilanad.jpg, also known as Virgin's Breast Mountain]]

The rock art and caves at Laas Geel, situated on the outskirts of Hargeisa, are a popular local tourist attraction. Totaling ten caves, they were discovered by a French archaeological team in 2002 and are believed to date back around 5,000 years. The government and locals keep the cave paintings safe and only a restricted number of tourists are allowed entry.{{cite news|last=Bakano|first=Otto|title=Grotto galleries show early Somali life|url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jMNd90UAafsRNEDPyelL7Hee1ydw?docId=CNG.82196a5b15ef45a2d4e744675740cd6a.6e1|archive-url=https://archive.today/20110430102432/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jMNd90UAafsRNEDPyelL7Hee1ydw?docId=CNG.82196a5b15ef45a2d4e744675740cd6a.6e1|url-status=dead|archive-date=30 April 2011|access-date=13 March 2013|newspaper=AFP|date=24 April 2011}} Other notable sights include the Freedom Arch in Hargeisa and the War Memorial in the city centre. Natural attractions are very common around the region. The Naasa Hablood are twin hills located on the outskirts of Hargeisa that Somalis in the region consider to be a majestic natural landmark.{{cite web|url=https://somalilandtravel.com/top-sightseeing/|title=Top Sightseeing – Best Somaliland sightseeing and tourist attractions|access-date=18 February 2020|archive-date=5 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201205063948/https://somalilandtravel.com/top-sightseeing/}}{{failed verification|date=May 2021}}

The Ministry of Tourism has also encouraged travellers to visit historic towns and cities in Somaliland. The historic town of Sheekh is located near Berbera and is home to old British colonial buildings that have remained untouched for over forty years. Berbera also houses historic and impressive Ottoman architectural buildings. Another equally famous historic city is Zeila. Zeila was once part of the Ottoman Empire, a dependency of Yemen and Egypt and a major trade city during the 19th century. The city has been visited for its old colonial landmarks, offshore mangroves and coral reefs, towering cliffs, and beach. The nomadic culture of Somaliland has also attracted tourists. Most nomads live in the countryside.

{{See also|Hargeisa Airport|Berbera Airport}}

File:Berbera Airport Jun 2020.png]]

Bus services operate in Hargeisa, Burao, Gabiley, Berbera and Borama. There are also road transportation services between the major towns and adjacent villages, which are operated by different types of vehicles. Among these are taxis, four-wheel drives, minibuses and light goods vehicles (LGV).{{cite web|url=https://www.hiiraan.com/news4/2017/July/143134/somaliland_s_booming_informal_transport_sector_pitfalls_and_potentials.aspx|title=Somaliland's booming informal transport sector: Pitfalls and potentials|access-date=18 February 2018}}

The most prominent airlines serving Somaliland is Daallo Airlines, a Somali-owned private carrier with regular international flights that emerged after Somali Airlines ceased operations. African Express Airways and Ethiopian Airlines also fly from airports in Somaliland to Djibouti City, Addis Ababa, Dubai and Jeddah, and offer flights for the Hajj and Umrah pilgrimages via the Egal International Airport in Hargeisa. Other major airports in the region include the Berbera Airport.{{cite web|url=https://somalilandstandard.com/somalilands-first-batch-of-hajj-pilgrims-leaves-for-mecca/|title=Somaliland's First batch of Hajj pilgrims leave for Mecca |access-date=18 February 2018}}{{cite web|url=https://www.airportia.com/somalia/egal-international-airport/|title=Egal International Airport HGA|access-date=18 February 2018}}

{{Main|Port of Berbera|DP World Berbera New Port}}

File:DP World Berbera new Port.jpg]]

In June 2016, the Somaliland government signed an agreement with DP World to manage the strategic port of Berbera with the aim of enhancing productive capacity and acting as an alternative port for landlocked Ethiopia.{{cite web|url=https://www.dpworld.com/what-we-do/our-locations/Middle-East-Africa/Berbera/somaliland|title=DP World Project at Berbera – Somaliland|access-date=18 February 2020|website=DP World}}{{cite web|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2017/08/01/africa/somaliland-new-gateway-africa/index.html|title=Somaliland secures record $442m foreign investment deal|website=CNN|language=en|date=1 August 2017|access-date=11 March 2020}}

In 1958, the first test well was dug by Standard Vacuum (Exxon Mobil and Shell) in Dhagax Shabeel, Saaxil region. These wells were selected without field data or seismic testing and were solely based on the geological makeup of the region. Three of the four test wells were successful in producing of light crude oil.{{Cite journal |last=Ali |first=M. Y. |date=October 2015 |title=Petroleum Geology and Hydrocarbon Potential of the Guban Basin, Northern Somaliland |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282072913 |journal=Journal of Petroleum Geology |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=433–457 |doi=10.1111/jpg.12620|bibcode=2015JPetG..38..433A |s2cid=130266059 }}

In August 2012, the Somaliland government awarded Genel Energy a licence to explore oil within its territory. Results of a surface seep study completed early in 2015 confirmed the outstanding potential offered in the SL-10B, SL-13, and Oodweyne blocks, with estimated oil reserves of 1 billion barrels each.{{cite web|title=Somaliland|publisher=Genel Energy|url=http://www.genelenergy.com/operations/exploration-assets/somaliland/|access-date=3 August 2017|archive-date=4 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170804013531/http://www.genelenergy.com/operations/exploration-assets/somaliland/}} Genel Energy is set to drill an exploration well for SL-10B and SL-13 block in Buur-Dhaab, 20 kilometres northwest of Aynaba by the end of 2018.{{cite web|title=Onshore Somaliland Mesozoic Rift Play SL10B/13 & Odewayne Licences|url=http://www.genelenergy.com/media/1977/genel-energy-onshore-somaliland-opportunity-summary_digital.pdf|publisher=Genel Energy|access-date=3 August 2017|archive-date=4 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170104062357/http://www.genelenergy.com/media/1977/genel-energy-onshore-somaliland-opportunity-summary_digital.pdf}} In December 2021, Genel Energy signed a farm-out deal with OPIC Somaliland Corporation, backed by Taiwan's CPC Corporation, on the SL10B/13 block neary Aynaba.{{Cite web|last=Reed|first=Ed|date=20 December 2021|title=Genel reaches East African farm-out with Taiwan's CPC|url=https://www.energyvoice.com/oilandgas/africa/ep-africa/373989/genel-somaliland-cpc-exploration/|access-date=22 December 2021|website=Energy Voice}} According to Genel, the block could contain more than 5 billion barrels of prospective resources. Drilling in SL-10B and SL-13 is scheduled to begin in late 2023, or early 2024 according to Genel.{{Cite web|url=https://pemedianetwork.com/petroleum-economist/articles/upstream/2022/genel-s-somaliland-drilling-may-slip-to-2024/|first=Peter |last=Ramsay |date=15 November 2022 |title=Genel's Somaliland drilling may slip to 2024|website=PE Media Network|access-date=31 May 2023}}

{{Historical populations|1899|28=|22=|23=|24=|25=|26=|27=|29=|20=6200000|30=|title=Historical population|align=right|shading=off|footnote=Source: Various{{Cite book|last=Drake-Brockman|first=Ralph Evelyn|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NhUUAAAAIAAJ|title=British Somaliland|date=1912|publisher=Hurst & Blackett|page=18|language=en}}{{Cite web|title=Somaliland MDG Report, 2010|url=https://www.undp.org/content/dam/somalia/docs/MDGs/Somaliland%20MDG%20Report%20First%20draft%20(2).pdf|access-date=18 August 2021|archive-date=6 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506004957/https://www1.undp.org/content/dam/somalia/docs/MDGs/Somaliland%20MDG%20Report%20First%20draft%20(2).pdf}}{{Cite web|last=Ambroso|first=Guido|date=August 2002|title=Pastoral society and transnational refugees: population movements in Somaliland and eastern Ethiopia 1988 – 2000|url=https://www.unhcr.org/3d5d0f3a4.pdf|website=UNHCR}}{{Cite web|url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/57a08d21e5274a31e000167a/Post-ConflictEducationDevelopment_in_Somaliland.pdf|title=Post-Conflict Education Development in Somaliland}}|21=|19=2024|246000|9=|1960|650000|||||10=|18=5700000|11=1997|12=2000000|13=2006|14=3500000|15=2013|16=4500000|17=2021|estyear=2021}}

There has not been an official census conducted in Somaliland since the Somalia census in 1975, while the results from a 1986 census were never released into public domain.{{cite web |title=POPULATION ESTIMATION SURVEY 2014 |url=https://www.nbs.gov.so/population-estimation-survey-2014/ |access-date=8 March 2022 |website=NBS |publisher=Somalia NSB |archive-date=8 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220308045540/https://www.nbs.gov.so/population-estimation-survey-2014/ }} A population estimate was conducted by UNFPA in 2014 primarily for the purpose of distributing United Nations funding among the regions and to offer a reliable population estimate in lieu of a census. This population estimate puts the combined population of the regions of Somaliland at 3.5 million.{{cite web |title=UNFPA Population Estimate |url=https://www.nbs.gov.so/docs/PESS_Somal_population.pdf |access-date=8 March 2022 |publisher=UNFPA |archive-date=8 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220308045538/https://www.nbs.gov.so/docs/PESS_Somal_population.pdf }} The Somaliland government estimates that there are 6,200,000 residents as of 2024, an increase from a 2021 government estimate of 5,700,000.

The last British population estimate on the basis of clan in Somaliland occurred before independence in 1960,{{cite journal |title=SOMALILAND: DEMOCRATISATION AND ITS DISCONTENTS 28 July 2003 |journal=International Crisis Group |date=2003 |page=2 |url=https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/28746/066%20somaliland%20democratization_.pdf |access-date=5 March 2022}} according to which, out of some 650,000 ethnic Somalis belonging to three major clans residing in the protectorate, the Isaaq, Darod and Dir made up 66%, 19% and 16% of the population, respectively.{{cite thesis |degree=PhD |last1=Dominik Balthasar |title=STATE-MAKING IN SOMALIA AND SOMALILAND Understanding War, Nationalism and State Trajectories as Processes of Institutional and Socio-Cognitive Standardization |date=2012 |url=https://saxafimedia.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/State-Making-In-Somalia-And-Somaliland.pdf |access-date=5 March 2022 |archive-date=25 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230125063105/https://saxafimedia.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/State-Making-In-Somalia-And-Somaliland.pdf |url-status=dead }}{{cite web |last1=Berouk Mesfin |title=The political development of Somaliland and its conflict with Puntland |website=Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich |date=2009 |url=https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/111689/p200.pdf |access-date=5 March 2022}}

File:Somaliland clans.jpg

File:Map of Somaliland Protectorate.jpg

The largest clan family in Somaliland is the Isaaq,{{cite web |author1=Research Directorate, Immigration |author2=Refugee Board, Canada |name-list-style=amp | date=1 September 1996 | title=Somaliland: Information on the current situation of the Isaaq clan and on the areas in which they live | url=http://www.refworld.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/rwmain?docid=3ae6ac0350 | id=SML24647.E | publisher=Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada |url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019232322/http://www.refworld.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/rwmain?docid=3ae6ac0350 | archive-date=19 October 2013 | access-date=27 August 2015}} currently making up 80% of Somaliland's population.{{Cite web |date=9 January 1998 |title=Somalia: Somali government policy towards the Isaaq clan |url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/3df0bbc14.html |website=Refworld |publisher=United States Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services |quote=the Isaaq who make up 80 percent of the former British Somaliland}}{{Cite book |last=Wiafe-Amoako |first=Francis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_SRqDwAAQBAJ&dq=isaaq+80%25&pg=PA238 |title=Africa 2018–2019 |date=4 October 2018 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4758-4179-4 |page=238 |language=en |quote=[...] Isaaq clans representing 80% of the population of former British Somaliland reached an agreement with other clans.}}{{Cite book |last=Hesse |first=Brian J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=he_bAAAAQBAJ&dq=somalia:+State+Collapse,+Terrorism+and+Piracy+isaaq+80%25&pg=PT124 |title=Somalia: State Collapse, Terrorism and Piracy |date=13 September 2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-98591-4 |language=en |quote=[...] whereas 80% of Somaliland's citizens are from the Isaaq clan.}}{{Cite web |date=1 October 2017 |title=A look at Somaliland between clan politics, regional turmoil and November elections |url=https://newint.org/columns/country/2017/10/01/somaliland |access-date=17 March 2023 |website=New Internationalist |language=en |quote=The Isaaq make up 80% of the population, making Somaliland considerably more homogenous than Somalia}} The populations of the five largest cities in Somaliland – Hargeisa, Burao, Berbera, Erigavo and Gabiley – are predominantly Isaaq.{{cite book|author=Philip Briggs|title=Somaliland: With Addis Ababa & Eastern Ethiopia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M6NI2FejIuwC&pg=PA137|year=2012|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides|isbn=978-1-84162-371-9|page=137}}[https://books.google.com/books?id=M6NI2FejIuwC&dq=erigavo+isaaq+clan+population&pg=PA137 Somaliland: With Addis Ababa & Eastern Ethiopia] By Philip Briggs. Google Books. The second largest clan is the Gadabursi of the Dir clan{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=me4YBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA67|title=Bright spots demonstrate community successes in African agriculture|last=Vries|first=F. W. T. Penning de|date=1 January 2005|publisher=IWMI|isbn=978-92-9090-618-6|page=67|language=en|quote=Gadabursi, the second largest clan in Somaliland, was peacefully elected as president.}}{{Cite book |last=House (U.S.) |first=Freedom |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-tI2NuQLLuYC&dq=somaliland+second+largest+clan&pg=PA855 |title=Freedom in the World 2008: The Annual Survey of Political Rights and Civil Liberties |date=2008 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-7425-6306-3 |page=855 |language=en}}{{Cite book |last=Vries |first=F. W. T. Penning de |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=me4YBQAAQBAJ&dq=somaliland+second+largest+clan&pg=PA67 |title=Bright spots demonstrate community successes in African agriculture |date=2005 |publisher=IWMI |isbn=978-92-9090-618-6 |page=67 |language=en}} followed by the Harti of the Darod.{{cite journal |last1=Kluijver |first1=Robert |date=2020 |title=The State in Somaliland |url=https://www.academia.edu/44590322 |journal=Sciences Po Paris |page=4 |access-date=13 March 2022}} Other small clans are often not accounted for in such estimates, however, clans including Gabooye, Gahayle, Jibrahil, Magaadle, Fiqishini, and Akisho settle in Somaliland.

Somaliland in addition has an estimated 600,000{{Cite journal |date=January 2017 |title=Member Profile Somaliland: Government of Somaliland |url=https://unpo.org/downloads/2343.pdf |journal=Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization |page=4}} to a million{{Cite web |date=20 July 2018 |title=When is a nation not a nation? Somaliland's dream of independence |url=http://www.theguardian.com/news/2018/jul/20/when-is-a-nation-not-a-nation-somalilands-dream-of-independence |access-date=4 March 2022 |website=The Guardian |language=en}} strong diaspora, mainly residing in Western Europe, the Middle East, North America, and several other African countries.

File:Somalia tribes1977.jpg clan-family and other Somali clans]]

The Gadabursi subclan of the Dir are the predominant clan of the Awdal region,Samatar, Abdi I. (2001) "Somali Reconstruction and Local Initiative: Amoud University," {{URL|1=http://digitalcommons.macalester.edu/bildhaan/vol1/iss1/9|2=Bildhaan: An International Journal of Somali Studies: Vol. 1, Article 9}}, p. 132.{{cite book |last1=Battera |first1=Federico |others=Walter Dostal, Wolfgang Kraus (ed.) |title=Shattering Tradition: Custom, Law and the Individual in the Muslim Mediterranean |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z4AAAwAAQBAJ&q=gadabuursi+awdal&pg=PA296|access-date=18 March 2010 |year=2005 |publisher=I.B. Taurus |location=London |isbn=1-85043-634-7 |page=296 |chapter=Chapter 9: The Collapse of the State and the Resurgence of Customary Law in Northern Somalia |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pos3wAofV4UC&pg=PA278 |quote=Awdal is mainly inhabited by the Gadabuursi confederation of clans.}} where there is also a sizeable minority of the Issa subclan of the Dir who mainly inhabit the Zeila District.{{cite book | last1 = Janzen | first1 = J. | last2 = von Vitzthum | first2 = S. | author3 = Somali Studies International Association | title = What are Somalia's Development Perspectives?: Science Between Resignation and Hope?: Proceedings of the 6th SSIA Congress, Berlin 6–9 December 1996 | publisher = Das Arabische Buch | series = Proceedings of the ... SSIA-Congress | year = 2001 | isbn = 978-3-86093-230-8 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=DZJPm2j2iz4C&pg=PA132 | access-date = 20 July 2018 | page = 132 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180720102419/https://books.google.com/books?id=DZJPm2j2iz4C&pg=PA132 | archive-date = 20 July 2018 | url-status = live | df = dmy-all}}

The Habr Awal subclan of the Isaaq form the majority of the population living in both the northern and western portions of the Maroodi Jeex region, including the cities and towns of northern Hargeisa, Berbera, Gabiley, Madheera, Wajaale, Arabsiyo, Bulhar and Kalabaydh. The Habr Awal also have a strong presence in the Saaxil region as well, principally around the city of Berbera and the town of Sheikh.

The Arap subclan of the Isaaq predominantly live in the southern portion of the Maroodi Jeex region including the capital city of Hargeisa.{{Cite book|last=Renders, Marleen.|title=Consider Somaliland: state-building with traditional leaders and institutions|date=2012|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-22254-0|location=Leiden|page=xxi|oclc=775301944}} Additionally, they form the majority of communities living in the Hawd region including Baligubadle. The Arap are also well represented in Sahil and Togdheer regions.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hF5fvwEACAAJ|title=Somaliland: The Strains of Success|date=2015|publisher=International Crisis Group|language=en}}{{Cite web|last1=Ghani|first1=Mohamed Hassan|last2=Abdi|first2=Suad Ibrahim|last3=Duale|first3=Ali Ege|last4=Hersi|first4=Mohamed Farah|date=30 November 2010|title=Democracy in Somaliland: Challenges and Opportunities|url=https://www.africaportal.org/documents/17687/Democracy-In-Somaliland.pdf|access-date=10 July 2020|website=Academy of Peace and Development|page=76|archive-date=26 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221126053345/https://www.africaportal.org/documents/17687/Democracy-In-Somaliland.pdf}}

The Garhajis subclan of the Isaaq have a sizeable presence among the population inhabiting the southern and eastern portions of Maroodi Jeex region including Southern Hargeisa and Salahlay. The Garhajis are also represented well in western Togdheer region, mainly in Oodweyne and Burao, as well as Sheekh and Berbera in Sahil region. The Garhajis also have a significant presence in the western and central areas of Sanaag region as well, including the regional capital Erigavo as well as Maydh.{{Cite news|url=http://www.refworld.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/rwmain?page=search&docid=3ae6a5bf0&skip=0&query=Erigavo%20clans&coi=SOM|title=Refworld {{!}} Report on the Fact-finding Mission to Somalia and Kenya (27 October – 7 November 1997)|last=Refugees|first=United Nations High Commissioner for|work=Refworld|access-date=17 November 2017|language=en}}

The Habr Je'lo subclan of the Isaaq have a large presence in the western parts of Sool, eastern Togdheer region and western Sanaag as well,{{cite web |author=Barakat, Connolly, Hardman, Lewis, Lineker, Menkhaus, Rzeszut and Shanks |date=2014 |publisher=UNICEF |url=https://www.york.ac.uk/media/prdu/documents/publications/Beyond%20Fragility-a%20conflict%20and%20education%20analysis%20of%20the%20Somali%20context.pdf |title=Beyond Fragility: A Conflict and Education Analysis of the Somali Context |access-date=17 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180830073753/https://www.york.ac.uk/media/prdu/documents/publications/Beyond%20Fragility-a%20conflict%20and%20education%20analysis%20of%20the%20Somali%20context.pdf |archive-date=30 August 2018 |url-status=dead}} The Habr Je'lo form a majority of the population living in Burao as well as in the Togdheer region, western Sanaag, including the towns of Garadag, Xiis and Ceel Afweyn and the Aynabo District in Sool. The clan also has a significant presence in the Sahil region, particularly in the towns of Karin and El-Darad, and also inhabit the regional capital Berbera.{{cite report |title=EASO Country of Origin Information Report: Somalia Security Situation |date=2016 |url=https://www.ecoi.net/file_upload/1226_1457606427_easo-somalia-security-feb-2016.pdf |publisher=European Asylum Support Office |access-date=24 August 2021 |archive-date=15 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160615215650/http://www.ecoi.net/file_upload/1226_1457606427_easo-somalia-security-feb-2016.pdf |url-status=dead }}{{Cite web|date=27 March 2018|title=[Gacan Ku Dhiigle:-] Maayar Ciddin Oo Maleeshiyo Hubeysan U Adeegsaday Beelaha Habar Jeclo Ee Gobolka Saaxil Iyo Dilkii Taliye Caseyr Oo Aaritaankiisii..|url=http://karinnews.net/mobile/articles/24496/Gacan-Ku-Dhiigle-Maayar-Ciddin-Oo-Maleeshiyo-Hubeysan-U-Adeegsaday-Beelaha-Habar-Jeclo-Ee-Gobolka-Saaxil-Iyo-Dilkii-Taliye-Caseyr-Oo-Aaritaankiisii|access-date=27 March 2021|website=karinnews.net|language=English|archive-date=15 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210515024911/https://karinnews.net/mobile/articles/24496/Gacan-Ku-Dhiigle-Maayar-Ciddin-Oo-Maleeshiyo-Hubeysan-U-Adeegsaday-Beelaha-Habar-Jeclo-Ee-Gobolka-Saaxil-Iyo-Dilkii-Taliye-Caseyr-Oo-Aaritaankiisii}}{{Cite web|last=Kluijver|first=Robert|title=KYD3 – Politics in Berbera|url=https://robertk.space/somali-studies/kyd3-politics-in-berbera/|access-date=2 January 2022|website=Politics and Art from the Edge|language=en-US}}

File:Somali People.jpg

Eastern Sool region residents mainly hail from the Dhulbahante, a subdivision of the Harti confederation of Darod sub-clans, and are concentrated at majority of Sool region districts.{{cite journal|title=Report on the Fact-finding Mission to Somalia and Kenya|journal=Danish Immigration Service|page=7|url=http://www.refworld.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/rwmain?page=search&docid=3ae6a5bf0&skip=0&query=Erigavo%20clans&coi=SOM|access-date=16 November 2017}} The Dhulbahante clans also settle in the Buuhoodle District in the Togdheer region,{{cite book|last1=Hoehne|first1=Markus V.|title=Borders & Borderlands as resources in the Horn of Africa|page=113|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fZiSxrTGHMkC&q=buuhoodle+district&pg=PA113|access-date=14 November 2017|isbn=978-1-84701-018-6|year=2010|publisher=Boydell & Brewer }}{{cite book|last1=Gebrewold|first1=Belachew|title=Anatomy of Violence: Understanding the systems of conflict and violence in Africa|publisher=Ashgate Publishing Ltd|page=130|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VLPW6RBUshQC&q=sanaag+region+clans&pg=PA130|access-date=14 November 2017|isbn=978-1-4094-9921-3|date=28 March 2013}} and the southern and eastern parts of Erigavo District in Sanaag.{{cite web|title=EASO Country of Origin Information Report Somalia Security Situation|url=https://www.ecoi.net/file_upload/1226_1457606427_easo-somalia-security-feb-2016.pdf|access-date=17 November 2017|archive-date=15 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160615215650/http://www.ecoi.net/file_upload/1226_1457606427_easo-somalia-security-feb-2016.pdf|url-status=dead}}

The Warsangali, another Harti Darod sub-clan, live in the eastern parts of Sanaag, with their population being mainly concentrated in Las Qorey district.

{{main|Languages of Somaliland}}

Many people in Somaliland speak at least two of the three national languages: Somali, Arabic and English, although the rate of bilingualism is lower in rural areas. Article 6 of the Constitution of 2001 designates the official language of Somaliland to be Somali, though Arabic is a mandatory subject in school and is used in mosques around the region and English is spoken and taught in schools.{{cite web|url=http://www.somalilandgov.com/cprofile.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20010302083933/http://www.somalilandgov.com/cprofile.htm|title=Somaliland Republic: Country Profile|date=2 March 2001|archive-date=2 March 2001}}

The Somali language is the mother tongue of the Somali people, the nation's most populous ethnic group. It is a member of the Cushitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family, and its nearest relatives are the Oromo, Afar and Saho languages.I. M. Lewis (1998) Peoples of the Horn of Africa: Somali, Afar and Saho, Red Sea Press, p. 11, {{ISBN|1-56902-104-X}}. Somali is the best documented of the Cushitic languages,{{Harvnb|Lecarme|Maury|1987|p=22}}. with academic studies of it dating from before 1900.

Northern Somali is the main dialect spoken in the country, in contrast to Benadiri Somali which is the main dialect spoken in Somalia.{{cite web|last1=Blench|first1=Roger|year=2006|title=The Afro-Asiatic Languages: Classification and Reference List|url=http://rogerblench.info/Language/Afroasiatic/General/AALIST.pdf|page=3}}

{{Largest cities of Somaliland}}

{{See also|Islam in Somaliland|Christianity in Somaliland}}

File:Korantafel im Überseemuseum 03.JPGic tablet]]

With few exceptions, Somalis in Somaliland and elsewhere are Muslims, the majority belonging to the Sunni branch of Islam and the Shafi'i school of Islamic jurisprudence.Mohamed Diriye Abdullahi, Culture and Customs of Somalia, (Greenwood Press: 2001), p.1 As with southern Somali coastal towns such as Mogadishu and Merca, there is also a presence of Sufism, Islamic mysticism; particularly the Arab Rifa'iya tariiqa.I. M. Lewis, Saints and Somalis: popular Islam in a clan-based society, (The Red Sea Press: 1998), p.11. Through the influence of the diaspora from Yemen and the Gulf states, stricter Wahhabism also has a noticeable presence.{{cite news|title=Somaliland: Going it alone|url=https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21674835-functional-part-dysfunctional-country-going-it-alone|access-date=18 October 2015|newspaper=The Economist|date=17 October 2015}} Though traces of pre-Islamic traditional religion exist in Somaliland, Islam is dominant to the Somali sense of national identity. Many of the Somali social norms come from their religion. For example, most Somali women wear a hijab when they are in public. In addition, religious Somalis abstain from pork and alcohol, and also try to avoid receiving or paying any form of interest (usury). Muslims generally congregate on Friday afternoons for a sermon and group prayer.{{cite web|url=https://mepc.org/journal/political-islam-somalia|title=Political Islam in Somalia|date=March 2002 |language=en|access-date=18 February 2020}}

Under the Constitution of Somaliland, Islam is the state religion, and no laws may violate the principles of Sharia. The promotion of any religion other than Islam is illegal, and the state promotes Islamic tenets and discourages behaviour contrary to {{qi|Islamic morals}}.{{cite web|url=http://www.somalilandlaw.com/somaliland_constitution.htm|title=Somaliland Constitution|access-date=28 March 2016}}

Somaliland has very few Christians. In 1913, during the early part of the colonial era, there were virtually no Christians in the Somali territories, with about 100–200 followers coming from the schools and orphanages of the handful of Catholic missions in the British Somaliland protectorate.Charles George Herbermann, The Catholic encyclopedia: an international work of reference on the constitution, doctrine, discipline, and history of the Catholic church, Volume 14, (Robert Appleton company: 1913), p.139. The small number of Christians in the region today mostly come from similar Catholic institutions in Aden, Djibouti, and Berbera.{{CathEncy|wstitle=Somaliland}}

Somaliland falls within the Episcopal Area of the Horn of Africa as part of Somalia, under the Anglican Diocese of Egypt. However, there are no current congregations in the territory.Webpage of [http://dioceseofegypt.org/explore/horn-of-africa/ the Episcopal Area of the Horn of Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190625230200/http://dioceseofegypt.org/explore/horn-of-africa/ |date=25 June 2019 }} The Roman Catholic Diocese of Mogadiscio is designated to serve the area as part of Somalia. However, since 1990 there has been no Bishop of Mogadishu, and the Bishop of Djibouti acts as Apostolic Administrator.{{cite web|url=http://www.gcatholic.org/dioceses/diocese/moga0.htm|title=Diocese of Mogadishu, Somalia|access-date=28 March 2016}} The Adventist Mission also indicates that there are no Adventist members.{{cite web|url=http://www.adventistmission.org/article.php?id=1364|title=Global Mission's Top 10 Places to Pray for – REGION: NORTH Africa – Somalia|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111001035012/http://www.adventistmission.org/article.php?id=1364|archive-date=1 October 2011}}

{{See also|Healthcare in Somaliland}}

File:Edna Adan Hospital.jpg in Hargeisa]]

While 40.5% of households in Somaliland have access to improved water sources, almost a third of households lie at least an hour away from their primary source of drinking water. 1 in 11 children die before their first birthday, and 1 in 9 die before their fifth birthday.{{cite web |title=Children in Somaliland |url=https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/1252260/1930_1386764449_som-resources-childrensomaliland.pdf |publisher=UNICEF |date=2012 |access-date=18 June 2020}}

The UNICEF multiple indicator cluster survey (MICS) in 2006 found that 94.8% of women in Somaliland had undergone some form of female genital mutilation;{{cite news |title=Village by village, the quest to stop female genital cutting in Somaliland |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-somaliland-women-fgm/village-by-village-the-quest-to-stop-female-genital-cutting-in-somaliland-idUSKCN1VJ0C8 |access-date=26 July 2020 |work=Reuters |date=29 August 2019}} in 2018 the Somaliland government issued a fatwa condemning the two most severe forms of FGM, but no laws are present to punish those responsible for the practice.

{{Main|Education in Somaliland}}

Somaliland has an urban literacy rate of 59% and a rural literacy rate of 47%, according to a 2015 World Bank assessment.{{Cite web |last=Poverty Global Practice, Africa Region |date=June 2015 |title=Somaliland: Poverty Assessment |url=https://microdata.worldbank.org/index.php/catalog/2818/download/39898 |access-date=2 January 2024 |publisher=World Bank |type=Report |format=PDF}}

{{Main|Culture of Somaliland}}

File:Hargeisa (28986744304).jpg

The main clans of Somaliland: Isaaq (Garhajis, Habr Je'lo, Habr Awal, Arap, Ayub), Harti (Dhulbahante, Warsangali, Kaskiqabe, Gahayle), Dir (Gadabuursi, Issa, Magaadle) and Madhiban. Other smaller clans include: Jibraahil, Akisho, and others.

The clan groupings of the Somali people are important social units, and have a central role in Somali culture and politics. Clans are patrilineal and are often divided into sub-clans, sometimes with many sub-divisions.{{cite web|url=https://www.gsdrc.org/docs/open/hdq949.pdf|title=Somali networks: Structure of clan and society|language=en|access-date=18 February 2020|archive-date=7 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807093901/https://www.gsdrc.org/docs/open/hdq949.pdf|url-status=dead}}

Somali society is traditionally ethnically endogamous. To extend ties of alliance, marriage is often to another ethnic Somali from a different clan. Thus, for example, a 1954 study observed that in 89 marriages contracted by men of the Dhulbahante clan, 55 (62%) were with women of Dhulbahante sub-clans other than those of their husbands; 30 (33.7%) were with women of surrounding clans of other clan families (Isaaq, 28; Hawiye, 3); and 3 (4.3%) were with women of other clans of the Darod clan family (Majerteen 2, Ogaden 1).Ioan M. Lewis, Blood and Bone: The Call of Kinship in Somali Society, (Red Sea Press: 1994), p.51

{{Main|Somali art}}

File:Hadrawi.jpg, a prominent Somali poet and songwriter]]

Islam and poetry have been described as the twin pillars of Somali culture. Somali poetry is mainly oral, with both male and female poets. They use things that are common in the Somali language as metaphors. Almost all Somalis are Sunni Muslims and Islam is vitally important to the Somali sense of national identity. Most Somalis do not belong to a specific mosque or sect and can pray in any mosque they find.

Celebrations come in the form of religious festivities. Two of the most important are Eid ul-Adha and Eid ul-Fitr, which marks the end of the fasting month. Families get dressed up to visit one another, and money is donated to the poor. Other holidays include 26 June and 18 May, which celebrate British Somaliland's independence and the Somaliland region's establishment, respectively; the latter, however, is not recognised by the international community.{{cite web|url=https://somalilandlaw.com/Official_Public_Holidays.pdf|title=Official Public Holidays – Somaliland Law ›|language=en|access-date=18 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180820112428/http://www.somalilandlaw.com/Official_Public_Holidays.pdf|archive-date=20 August 2018}}

File:Henna for hair.jpg powder is mixed with water and then applied on the hair.]]

In the nomadic culture, where one's possessions are frequently moved, there is little reason for the plastic arts to be highly developed. Somalis embellish and decorate their woven and wooden milk jugs (haamo; the most decorative jugs are made in Ceerigaabo) as well as wooden headrests.{{citation needed|date=May 2021}} Traditional dance is also important, though mainly as a form of courtship among young people. One such dance known as Ciyaar Soomaali is a local favourite.{{cite web|url=https://www.horndiplomat.com/2018/06/30/reviving-somali-culture-through-folk-dances/|title=Reviving Somali Culture through Folk Dances|date=30 June 2018|language=en|access-date=18 February 2020}}

An important form of art in Somali culture is henna art. The custom of applying henna dates back to antiquity. During special occasions, a Somali woman's hands and feet are expected to be covered in decorative mendhi. Girls and women usually apply or decorate their hands and feet in henna on festive celebrations like Eid or weddings. The henna designs vary from very simple to highly intricate. Somali designs vary, with some more modern and simple while others are traditional and intricate. Traditionally, only women apply it as body art, as it is considered a feminine custom. Henna is not only applied on the hands and feet but is also used as a dye. Somali men and women alike use henna as a dye to change their hair colour. Women are free to apply henna on their hair as most of the time they are wearing a hijab.{{cite web|url=http://www.nzdl.org/gsdlmod?e=d-00000-00---off-0cdl--00-0----0-10-0---0---0direct-10---4-------0-1l--11-en-50---20-about---00-0-1-00-0--4----0-0-11-10-0utfZz-8-00&cl=CL1.180&d=HASHc6a2e25764a7dc0163f0f5.3.6>=1|title=Somali women at heart of henna business – NGO henna project in Somalia|language=en|access-date=18 February 2020}}{{failed verification|date=May 2021}}

{{Main|Sports in Somaliland}}

File:Somaliland National Football Team.jpg at a friendly match.]]

Popular sports in Somaliland include football, track, field, and basketball.{{Cite web|url=https://www.somtribune.com/2019/04/03/women-and-athletics-sports-in-somaliland|title=Women and Athletics, Sports in Somaliland|website=Som Tribune|date=3 April 2019 |language=en|access-date=16 March 2020}}{{Cite web|url=https://punditarena.com/other-sports/mgleeson/conifa-through-the-years-are-you-ready-for-somaliland-2020|title=CONIFA Through the Years: Are You Ready for Somaliland 2020?|website=Pundit Arena|language=en|access-date=16 March 2020|archive-date=23 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623112347/https://punditarena.com/other-sports/mgleeson/conifa-through-the-years-are-you-ready-for-somaliland-2020/|url-status=dead}} Somaliland has a national football team, though it is not a member of FIFA or the Confederation of African Football.{{cite web | title=Starting a national team in a country that doesn't exist | website=BBC Sport | date=19 November 2018 | url=https://www.bbc.com/sport/football/46185221 | access-date=5 April 2024}}

{{Portal|Somaliland}}

• Index of Somaliland-related articles
• List of Somalilanders
• Outline of Somaliland

{{notelist}}

{{reflist}}

• Hoehne, Markus V. 2009: Mimesis and mimicry in dynamics of state and identity formation in northern Somalia, Africa 79/2, pp. 252–281.
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20090703051338/http://hornofafrica.ssrc.org/Hoehne/ Hoehne, Markus V. 2007: Puntland and Somaliland clashing in northern Somalia: Who cuts the Gordian knot?, published online on 7 November 2007.]
• [http://www.ibtimes.com/somalia-struggles-can-neighboring-somaliland-become-east-africas-next-big-commercial-1407582 "As Somalia Struggles, Can Neighboring Somaliland Become East Africa's Next Big Commercial Hub?"]. International Business Times. 18 September 2013. Retrieved 23 April 2019.
• {{Cite book|last= Warmington |first= Eric Herbert |year= 1995 |title= The Commerce Between the Roman Empire and India |publisher= South Asia Books |isbn= 81-215-0670-0 }}
• Bradbury, Mark, Becoming Somaliland (James Currey, 2008)
• Michael Schoiswohl: Status and (Human Rights) Obligations of Non-Recognized De Facto Regimes in International Law: The Case of 'Somaliland' (Martinus Nijhoff, Leiden 2004), {{ISBN|90-04-13655-X}}
• {{Cite book

| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BFd7BAAAQBAJ

| title=Understanding Statebuilding: Traditional Governance and the Modern State in Somaliland

| last=Richards

| first=Rebecca

| year=2014

| publisher=Ashgate

| location=Surrey

| isbn=978-1-4724-2589-8

| language=en

}}

{{Sister project links|Somaliland|voy=Somaliland}}

• {{wikiatlas|Somaliland}}
• {{GovPubs|somaliland}}
• [https://www.govsomaliland.org/ Government of Somaliland] (official website)
• [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/3794847.stm Somaliland] – BBC Country Profile
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20150414190802/http://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6a8060.html Update on the Situation in the Somaliland] (archived version)

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