High-speed rail in China

High-speed rail in China is officially defined as "newly-built passenger-dedicated rail lines designed for electrical multiple unit (EMU) train sets traveling at not less than {{convert|250|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}} (including lines with reserved capacity for upgrade to the {{convert|250|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}} standard) on which initial service operates at not less than {{convert|200|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}}."{{sfn|Ministry of Railways|2013|loc=Art. 5}} EMU train sets have no more than 16 railcars with axle load not greater than 17 tonnes and a headway of three minutes or less.{{sfn|Ministry of Railways|2013|loc=Art. 5}}

Thus, high-speed rail service in China requires high-speed EMU train sets to be providing passenger service on high speed rail lines at speeds of not less than {{convert|200|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}}. EMU trains operating on non-high speed track or otherwise but at speeds below {{convert|200|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}} are not considered high-speed rail. Certain mixed use freight and passenger rail lines, that can be upgraded for train speeds of {{convert|250|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}}, with current passenger service of at least {{convert|200|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}}, are also considered high-speed rail.{{sfn|Ministry of Railways|2013|loc=Art. 5}}

In common parlance, high-speed train service in China generally refers to G-, D- and C-class passenger train service.

• G-class ({{zh|s=高速动车组 |p=gāosù dòngchēzǔ|l=high-speed EMU train|labels=no}}) train service generally features EMU trains running on passenger-dedicated high-speed rail lines and operating at top speeds of at least {{convert|250|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}}. For example, the G7 train from Beijing South to Shanghai Hongqiao, which runs on the Beijing–Shanghai HSR, a line with an operating speed of {{convert|350|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}}.
• D-class ({{zh|s=动车组|t=|p=dòngchēzǔ|l=EMU train|labels=no}}) train service features EMU trains running at lower speeds, whether on high-speed or non-high-speed track. D-class trains can vary widely in actual trip speed. The non-stop D211 train from Guiyang East to Guangzhou South on the Guiyang–Guangzhou HSR, a line with designed speed of {{convert|250|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}}, averages {{convert|207|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}} for the trip. The D312 EMU sleeper train between Beijing South and Shanghai on the non-high speed Beijing–Shanghai railway averages {{convert|121|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}} for the trip.
• C-class ({{zh|s=城际动车组|t=|p=chéngjì dòngchēzǔ|l=intercity EMU train|labels=no}}) train services that operate on high-speed track at speeds above {{convert|250|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}} are also considered high-speed rail service. For example, C-class trains on the Beijing–Tianjin ICR reach top speeds of {{convert|350|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}} and complete the trip in 30 mins.

High-speed ridership statistics in China are often reported as the number of passengers carried by high-speed EMU train sets, and such figures typically include passengers on EMU trains operating on non-high speed track or at service speeds below {{convert|200|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}}.See ridership section for further details.

File:Asia Express (2).jpg steam locomotive, which operated commercially from 1934 to 1943 in Manchuria, could reach {{convert|130|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}} and was one of the fastest trains in Asia.]]

The earliest example of a fast commercial train service in China was the Asia Express, a luxury passenger train that operated in Japanese-controlled Manchuria from 1934 to 1943.[https://books.google.com/books?id=6zbAE5Gs9zcC&dq=%22asia+express%22+dalian+fastest+in+asia&pg=PA246 Louise Young. Japan's Total Empire. Berkeley: University of California Press] 1998. pp. 246–67. The steam-powered train, which ran on the South Manchuria Railway from Dalian to Xinjing (Changchun), had a top commercial speed of {{convert|110|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}} and a test speed of {{convert|130|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}}. It was faster than the fastest trains in Japan at the time. After the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, this train model was renamed the SL-7 and was used by the Chinese Minister of Railways.

File:China Railways DF4B 2609.jpgs in China could attain a maximum speed of {{convert|120|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}} on passenger trains. Here, a DF4 diesel locomotive is shown hauling passenger coaches on the Guangzhou–Sanshui Railway at Foshan in 2008.]]

State planning for China's current high-speed railway network began in the early 1990s under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping. He set up what became known as the "high-speed rail dream" after his visit to Japan in 1978, where he was deeply impressed by the Shinkansen, the world's first high speed rail system.{{Cite web|url=http://www.dddream.com/leaders-pdf/CuiDianguo2015.4CGCC-4.pdf|title=China's High-Speed Rail Dream}} In December 1990, the Ministry of Railways (MOR) submitted to the National People's Congress a proposal to build a high-speed railway between Beijing and Shanghai.{{cite web |language=zh |url=http://www.gov.cn/jrzg/2008-04/18/content_947868.htm |script-title=zh:京沪高速铁路的论证历程大事记 |access-date=2010-10-04}} At the time, the Beijing–Shanghai Railway was already at capacity, and the proposal was jointly studied by the Science & Technology Commission, State Planning Commission, State Economic & Trade Commission, and the MOR. In December 1994, the State Council commissioned a feasibility study for the line.

Policy planners debated the necessity and economic viability of high-speed rail service. Supporters argued that high-speed rail would boost future economic growth. Opponents noted that high-speed rail in other countries was expensive and mostly unprofitable. Overcrowding on existing rail lines, they said, could be solved by expanding capacity through higher speed and frequency of service.{{citation needed|date=December 2015}} In 1995, Premier Li Peng announced that preparatory work on the Beijing Shanghai HSR would begin in the 9th Five Year Plan (1996–2000), but construction was not scheduled until the first decade of the 21st century.

{{Main|Campaign to raise the speed of railway travel in China}}

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| header = High-speed rail service on the Guangzhou–Shenzhen Railway

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| caption1 = From 1998 until 2007, the Guangshen Railway Company operated a "Xinshisu" Swedish SJ 2000 high-speed train on the Guangshen Railway as the Guangdong through train from Zhaoqing railway station in Guangdong Province to Hung Hom station in Hong Kong. The Xinshisu trainset was shipped back to Sweden in 2012.

| image3 = Guangshen Railway (Shenzhen section).jpg

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| caption3 = In 2007, the Guangshen Railway became the first in the country to have four tracks, allowing faster passenger train traffic (on dedicated tracks third and fourth from the right) to be separated from slower freight traffic (on tracks second and fifth from the right).

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In 1993, commercial train service in China averaged only {{convert|48|km/h|abbr=on}} and was steadily losing market share to airline and highway travel on the country's expanding network of expressways.{{cite web |language = zh-CN |url = http://mobile.dili360.com/tbch/2010/04071193.shtml |script-title=zh:高铁时代 |script-website=zh:中国国家地理网 |date=2010-04-07 |access-date=2010-10-05 |archive-date=2012-07-19 |archive-url = https://archive.today/20120719110257/http://mobile.dili360.com/tbch/2010/04071193.shtml |url-status=dead }}By the mid-1990s, average train speed in China was about {{convert|60|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}}. (Chinese) [http://bg.chineseembassy.org/eng/dtxw/t274660.htm "China plans five-year leap forward of railway development "] Accessed 2006-09-30 The MOR focused modernization efforts on increasing the service speed and capacity on existing lines through double-tracking, electrification, improving grade (through tunnels and bridges), reducing turn curvature and installing continuous welded rail. Through five rounds of "Speed-Up" campaigns in April 1997, October 1998, October 2000, November 2001, and April 2004, passenger service on {{convert|7700|km|abbr=on}} of existing tracks was upgraded to reach sub-high speeds of {{convert|160|km/h|abbr=on|sigfig=1}}.{{cite news |language = zh-CN |url = http://news.sina.com.cn/z/chinarailwayts/ |script-title=zh:中国铁道部六次大提速 |website = Sina News |access-date=2010-10-04 }}

A notable example is the Guangzhou–Shenzhen railway, which in December 1994 became the first line in China to offer sub-high-speed service of {{convert|160|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}} using domestically produced DF-class diesel locomotives. The line was electrified in 1998, and Swedish-made X 2000 trains increased the service speed to {{convert|200|km/h|abbr=on|sigfig=3}}. After the completion of a third track in 2000 and a fourth in 2007, the line became the first in China to run high-speed passenger and freight services on separate tracks.

The completion of the sixth round of the "Speed-Up" Campaign in April 2007 brought HSR service to more existing lines: {{convert|423|km|abbr=on}} capable of {{convert|250|km/h|abbr=on|sigfig=3}} train service and {{convert|3002|km|abbr=on}} capable of {{convert|200|km/h|abbr=on|sigfig=3}}.{{cite web |url = http://news.cctv.com/china/20070417/105210.shtml |title=(Chinese) |website = News.cctv.com |access-date=2011-08-14 }}{{NoteTag|According to Xinhua News Agency, the aggregate results of the six “Speed Up Campaigns” were: boosting passenger train speed on {{convert|22000|km|mi|abbr=on}} of tracks to {{convert|120|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}, on {{convert|14000|km|mi|abbr=on}} of tracks to {{convert|160|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}}, on {{convert|2876|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} of tracks to {{convert|200|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}} and on {{convert|846|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} of tracks to {{convert|250|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}}.{{cite news |script-title=zh:中国高铁"十一五"发展纪实：驶向未来 |url = http://news.xinhuanet.com/observation/2010-09/26/c_12605899.htm |language=zh-CN |date=2010-09-25 |agency=Xinhua News Agenc y|access-date=2015-05-09|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150113172206/http://news.xinhuanet.com/observation/2010-09/26/c_12605899.htm |archive-date=2015-01-13 }} According to China Daily, however, there were {{convert|6003|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} of tracks capable of {{convert|200|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}} in April 2007.{{cite news |last=Dingding|first=Xin |url = http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-8871042.html|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150924201756/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-8871042.html |url-status=dead|archive-date=2015-09-24|title=Bullet trains set to join fastest in the world|date=2007-04-18|newspaper=China Daily|access-date=2015-05-09|url-access=subscription |via=HighBeam Research}}}} In all, travel speed increased on {{convert|22000|km|mi|abbr=on}}, or one-fifth, of the national rail network, and the average speed of passenger trains improved to {{convert|70|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}}. The introduction of more non-stop services between large cities also helped to reduce travel time. The non-stop express train from Beijing to Fuzhou shortened travel time from 33.5 hours to less than 20 hours.{{Cite web|url=http://www.railjournal.com/A/xfeature2.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070815025226/http://www.railjournal.com/A/xfeature2.html|url-status=dead|title=International Railway Journal – Rail And Rapid Transit Industry News Worldwide|archivedate=August 15, 2007}}

In addition to track and scheduling improvements, the MOR also deployed faster CRH series trains. During the Sixth Railway Speed Up Campaign, 52 CRH trainsets (CRH1, CRH2 and CRH5) entered into operation. The new trains reduced travel time between Beijing and Shanghai by two hours to just under 10 hours. Some 295 stations have been built or renovated to allow high-speed trains.{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2011-05-31-china-high-speed-rail-construction_n.htm |title=China slows its runaway high-speed rail expansion |work=USA Today |access-date=2011-08-14 |first=Calum |last=MacLeod |date=June 1, 2011}}{{cite news |url=http://big5.ce.cn/cysc/ztpd/09/railway/contents/200901/19/t20090119_18000024.shtml |script-title=zh:铁道部官员深入解析：未来我国铁路布局 |script-work=zh:中国经济网 |language=zh-cn |date=2009-01-19 |access-date=2020-02-08 |archive-date=2012-07-01 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120701160226/http://big5.ce.cn/cysc/ztpd/09/railway/contents/200901/19/t20090119_18000024.shtml |url-status=dead }}

The development of the HSR network in China was initially delayed by a debate over the type of track technology to be used. In June 1998, at a State Council meeting with the Chinese Academies of Sciences and Engineering, Premier Zhu Rongji asked whether the high-speed railway between Beijing and Shanghai still being planned could use maglev technology.(Chinese)[http://www.dzwww.com/special/ts/jdf/200912/t20091230_5293551_2.htm] Accessed 2010-10-13 At the time, planners were divided between using high-speed trains with wheels that run on conventional standard gauge tracks or magnetic levitation trains that run on special maglev tracks for a new national high-speed rail network.

Maglev received a big boost in 2000 when the Shanghai Municipal Government agreed to purchase a turnkey TransRapid train system from Germany for the {{convert|30.5|km|abbr=on}} rail link connecting Shanghai Pudong International Airport and the city. In 2004, the Shanghai Maglev Train became the world's first commercially operated high-speed maglev. {{As of|2023}}, it remains the fastest commercial train in the world with peak speeds of {{convert|431|km/h|abbr=on}} and makes the {{convert|30.5|km|mi|abbr=on}} trip in less than 7.5 minutes.

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| caption1 = The China Railways SS8 (Shaoshan 8) electric locomotive was produced from 1996 to 2001 and provided sub-high-speed rail service. The train set a Chinese rail speed record of {{convert|240|km/h|abbr=on}} in 1998.

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| caption3 = The domestically-produced China Railways DJJ1 (Blue Arrow) train, first deployed on the Guangzhou–Shenzhen railway in 2001, could attain a top speed of {{convert|235.6|km/h|abbr=on}}. The DJJ1 trains were transferred to lines in southwest China in 2008.

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| caption4 = The China Railways DJF2 (Xianfeng) train was produced in 2001 and set a speed record of {{convert|292.8|km/h|abbr=on}} on September 10, 2002. The train operated in commercially on conventional rail lines in southwest China from 2007 to 2010.

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| caption5 = The domestically-produced China Railways DJJ2 (China Star) high-speed train set speed record of {{convert|321|km/h|abbr=on}} on the Qinshen Passenger Railway, and was used in commercial service briefly from 2006 to 2007 before it was abandoned in favor of imported high-speed train technology.

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File:A maglev train coming out, Pudong International Airport, Shanghai.jpg running on a special maglev track, departing the Shanghai Pudong International Airport. The maglev train can reach a top speed of {{convert|431|km/h|abbr=on}}.]]

Despite an unmatched advantage in speed, the maglev has not gained widespread use in China's high-speed rail network due to high costs, German refusals to share technology and concerns about safety. The price tag of the Shanghai Maglev was believed to be $1.3 billion and was partially financed by the German government. The refusal of the Transrapid Consortium to share technology and source production in China made large-scale maglev production much more costly than high-speed train technology for conventional lines. Finally, residents living along the proposed maglev route have raised health concerns about noise and electromagnetic radiation emitted by the trains, despite an environmental assessment by the Shanghai Academy of Environmental Sciences saying the line was safe.{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-maglev-protest-idUSPEK32757920080112|title=Hundreds protest Shanghai maglev rail extension|date=Jan 12, 2008|journal=Reuters|access-date=July 1, 2017|archive-date=November 13, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151113174011/http://www.reuters.com/article/2008/01/12/us-china-maglev-protest-idUSPEK32757920080112|url-status=live}} These concerns have prevented the construction of the proposed extension of the maglev to Hangzhou. Even the more modest plan to extend the maglev to Shanghai's other airport, Hongqiao, has stalled. Instead, a conventional subway line was built to connect the two airports, and a conventional high-speed rail line was built between Shanghai and Hangzhou.

While maglev was drawing attention to Shanghai, conventional track HSR technology was being tested on the newly completed Qinhuangdao-Shenyang Passenger Railway. This {{convert|405|km|abbr=on}} standard gauge, dual-track, electrified line was built between 1999 and 2003. In June 2002, a domestically made DJF2 train set a record of {{convert|292.8|km/h|abbr=on}} on the track. The China Star (DJJ2) train followed the same September with a new record of {{convert|321|km/h|abbr=on}}. The line supports commercial train service at speeds of {{convert|200|–|250|km/h|mph|abbr=on}} and has become a segment of the rail corridor between Beijing and Northeast China. The Qinhuangdao-Shenyang Line showed the greater compatibility of HSR on conventional track with the rest of China's standard gauge rail network.

In 2004, the State Council in its Mid-to-Long Term Railway Development Plan, adopted conventional track HSR technology over maglev for the Beijing–Shanghai High Speed Railway and three other north–south high-speed rail lines. This decision ended the debate and cleared the way for rapid construction of standard gauge, passenger dedicated HSR lines in China.{{cite web|url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200401/16/eng20040116_132743.shtml |title=Rail track beats Maglev in Beijing–Shanghai High Speed Railway |work=People's Daily |date=2004-01-18 |access-date=2011-10-17}}{{cite web|url=http://www.railway-technology.com/projects/beijing/ |title=Beijing–Shanghai High-Speed Line, China |publisher=Railway-technology.com |date=2011-06-15 |access-date=2011-10-17}}

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Despite setting speed records on test tracks, the DJJ2, DJF2 and other domestically produced high-speed trains were insufficiently reliable for commercial operation.{{cite news|language=zh |url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/globe/2010-03/04/content_13096289.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100510135217/http://news.xinhuanet.com/globe/2010-03/04/content_13096289.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 10, 2010 |script-title=zh:中国式高铁的诞生与成长 |work=Xinhua |date=March 4, 2010}} The State Council turned to advanced technology abroad but made it clear in directives that China's HSR expansion could not only benefit foreign economies and should also be used to develop its own high-speed train building capacity through technology transfers. This would later allow the Chinese government through CRRC to make the more reliable Fuxing Hao and Hexie Hao trains. The CRH380 series (or family) of trains was initially built with direct cooperation (or help) from foreign trainmakers, but newer trainsets are based on transferred technology, just like the Hexie and Fuxing Hao.

In 2003, the MOR was believed to favor Japan's Shinkansen technology, especially the 700 series. The Japanese government touted the 40-year track record of the Shinkansen and offered favorable financing. A Japanese report envisioned a winner-take all scenario in which the winning technology provider would supply China's trains for over {{convert|8000|km|mi|abbr=on}} of high-speed rail.{{cite web |language=zh |url=http://www.qianlong.com/2955/2003/08/06/53@1525197.htm |script-title=zh:日本等待中国'求婚' |date=2003-08-06 |access-date=2010-08-15 |archive-date=2011-07-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723151321/http://www.qianlong.com/2955/2003/08/06/53%401525197.htm |url-status=dead }} However, Chinese citizens angry with Japan's denial of World War II war crimes organized a web campaign to oppose the awarding of HSR contracts to Japanese companies. The protests gathered over a million signatures and politicized the issue.[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/apr/17/china.japan "Violence flares as the Chinese rage at Japan" Guardian] 2005-04-17 The MOR delayed the decision, broadened the bidding and adopted a diversified approach to adopting foreign high-speed train technology.

In June 2004, the MOR solicited bids to make 200 high-speed train sets that can run {{convert|200|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}}. Alstom of France, Siemens of Germany, Bombardier Transportation based in Germany and a Japanese consortium led by Kawasaki all submitted bids. With the exception of Siemens, which refused to lower its demand of CN¥350 million per train set and €390 million for the technology transfer, the other three were all awarded portions of the contract. All had to adapt their HSR train-sets to China's own common standard and assemble units through local joint ventures (JV) or cooperate with Chinese manufacturers. Bombardier, through its joint venture with CSR's Sifang Locomotive and Rolling Stock Co (CSR Sifang), Bombardier Sifang (Qingdao) Transportation Ltd (BST), won an order for 40 eight-car train sets based on Bombardier's Regina design.[http://www.bombardier.com/en/transportation/products-services/rail-vehicles/high-speed-trains/crh1---china?docID=0901260d80021246 "High speed Train CRH1 – China" Bombardier] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100919051244/http://bombardier.com/en/transportation/products-services/rail-vehicles/high-speed-trains/crh1---china?docID=0901260d80021246 |date=2010-09-19 }} Accessed 2010-08-14 These trains, designated CRH1A, were delivered in 2006. Kawasaki won an order for 60 train sets based on its E2 Series Shinkansen for ¥9.3 billion.[http://www.khi.co.jp/sharyo/topic_final/oct_2004.html "Kawasaki Wins High-Speed Train Order for China"] 2004–10 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080608194826/http://www.khi.co.jp/sharyo/topic_final/oct_2004.html |date=June 8, 2008 }} Of the 60 train sets, three were directly delivered from Nagoya, Japan, six were kits assembled at CSR Sifang Locomotive & Rolling Stock, and the remaining 51 were made in China using transferred technology with domestic and imported parts.[https://www.forbes.com/2009/10/26/china-japan-bullet-train-business-logistics-high-speed-rail.html "How Japan Profits From China's Plans" Forbes] 2009-10-26 They are known as CRH2A. Alstom also won an order for 60 train sets based on the New Pendolino developed by Alstom-Ferroviaria in Italy. The order had a similar delivery structure with three shipped directly from Savigliano along with six kits assembled by CNR's CRRC Changchun Railway Vehicles, and the rest locally made with transferred technology and some imported parts.{{cite web |language=zh |url=http://news.chineserailways.com/Html/25/200911/20091118095821.html |script-title=zh:CRH5型动车组详细资料 |script-website=zh:中国铁路网 |date=2009-11-18 |access-date=2010-08-15 |archive-date=2011-07-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708145212/http://news.chineserailways.com/Html/25/200911/20091118095821.html |url-status=dead }} Trains with Alstom technology carry the CRH5 designation.

The following year, Siemens reshuffled its bidding team, lowered prices, joined the bidding for {{convert|350|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}} trains and won a 60-train set order. It supplied the technology for the CRH3C, based on the ICE3 (class 403) design, to CNR's Tangshan Railway Vehicle Co. Ltd. The transferred technology includes assembly, body, bogie, traction current transforming, traction transformers, traction motors, traction control, brake systems, and train control networks.

Acquiring high-speed rail technology had been a major goal of Chinese state planners. Chinese train-makers, after receiving transferred foreign technology, have been able to achieve a degree of self-sufficiency in making the next generation of high-speed trains by producing key parts and improving upon foreign designs.

{{multiple image

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| footer = The CRH380AL train set, shown above at the Beijing South railway station, set a record speed of {{convert|486.1|km/h|abbr=on}} on Dec. 3, 2010. The record was broken by a CRH380BL train set on Jan. 9, 2011, which reached {{convert|487.3|km/h|abbr=on}}.

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| image1 = 20220725 CRH380A-2677 on G3129 at Shangqiu Railway Station.jpg

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| caption1 = CRH380A in July 2022

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| caption3 = CRH380BL in February 2023

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| caption4 = CRH380CL in April 2015

| image5 = 201708 CRH380D-1531 at Jinhuanan Station.jpg

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| caption5 = CRH380D in August 2017

}}

Examples of technology transfer include Mitsubishi Electric’s MT205 traction motor and ATM9 transformer to CSR Zhuzhou Electric, Hitachi’s YJ92A traction motor and Alstom’s YJ87A Traction motor to CNR Yongji Electric, Siemens’ TSG series pantograph to Zhuzhou Gofront Electric.

For foreign train-makers, technology transfer was an important part of gaining market access in China. Bombardier, the first foreign train-maker to form a joint venture in China, has been sharing technology for the manufacture of railway passenger cars and rolling stock since 1998. Zhang Jianwei, President of Bombardier China, stated that in a 2009 interview, “Whatever technology Bombardier has, whatever the China market needs, there is no need to ask. Bombardier transfers advanced and mature technology to China, which we do not treat as an experimental market.”{{cite web|url=http://www.worldrailway.com.cn/wrdrs/Information/02.html|language=zh-cn |script-title=zh:庞巴迪：靠什么"赢在中国"——专访庞巴迪中国区总裁兼首席代表张剑炜|publisher=Worldrailway.com.cn|access-date=2011-08-17}}{{dead link|date=September 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Unlike other series which have imported prototypes, all CRH1 trains have been assembled at Bombardier's joint-venture with CSR, Bombardier Sifang in Qingdao.

Kawasaki's cooperation with CSR did not last as long. Within two years of cooperation with Kawasaki to produce 60 CRH2A sets, CSR began in 2008 to build CRH2B, CRH2C and CRH2E models at its Sifang plant independently without assistance from Kawasaki.{{cite web|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/60da2222-8ab5-11df-8e17-00144feab49a.html |title=Japan Inc Shoots Itself on the Foot |work=Financial Times |date=2010-07-08 |access-date=2011-08-14}} According to CSR president Zhang Chenghong, CSR "made the bold move of forming a systemic development platform for high-speed locomotives and further upgrading its design and manufacturing technology. Later, we began to independently develop high-speed CRH trains with a maximum velocity of 300–350 kilometers per hour, which eventually rolled off the production line in December 2007."{{cite web|url=http://www.chinapictorial.com.cn/en/industry/txt/2010-09/26/content_300367_3.htm |title=Era of "Created in China" |publisher=Chinapictorial.com.cn |access-date=2011-08-14}} Since then, CSR has ended its cooperation with Kawasaki.{{cite web|url=http://xinkaishi.typepad.com/a_new_start/2010/10/ft-high-speed-rail-china.html |title=China: A future on track |publisher=Xinkaishi.typepad.com |date=2010-10-05 |access-date=2011-08-14}} Kawasaki challenged China's high-speed rail project for patent theft, but backed off the effort.{{cite web|author=汪玮 |url=http://www.china.org.cn/business/2011-07/08/content_22945196.htm |title=China denies Japan's rail patent-infringement claims. On 2011-07-24. Retrieved 2011-07-25 |publisher=China.org.cn |date=2011-07-08 |access-date=2011-08-14}}

Between June and September 2005, the MOR launched bidding for high-speed trains with a top speed of {{convert|350|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}}, as most of the main high-speed rail lines were designed for top speeds of {{convert|350|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}} or higher. Along with CRH3C, produced by Siemens and CNR Tangshan, CSR Sifang bid 60 sets of CRH2C.

In 2007, travel time from Beijing to Shanghai was about 10 hours at a top speed of {{convert|200|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}} on the upgraded Beijing–Shanghai Railway. To increase transport capacity, the MOR ordered 70 16-car trainsets from CSR Sifang and BST, including 10 sets of CRH1B and 20 sets of CRH2B seating trains, 20 sets of CRH1E and 20 sets of CRH2E sleeper trains.

Construction of the high-speed railway between Beijing and Shanghai, the world's first high-speed rail with a designed speed of {{convert|380|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}}, began on April 18, 2008. In the same year, the Ministry of Science and the MOR agreed to a joint action plan for the indigenous innovation of high-speed trains in China. The MOR then launched the CRH1-350 (Bombardier and BST, designated as CRH380D), CRH2-350 (CSR, designated as CRH380A/AL), and CRH3-350 (CNR and Siemens, designated as CRH380B/BL & CRH380CL), to develop a new generation of CRH trains with a top operation speed of {{convert|380|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}}. A total of 400 new generation trains were ordered. The CRH380A/AL, the first indigenous high-speed train of the CRH series, entered service on the Shanghai-Hangzhou High-Speed Railway on October 26, 2010.{{cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0BQQ/is_9_50/ai_n55394441/|title=First Chinese designed HS train breaks cover|work=International Railway Journal|date=September 2010|access-date=2010-11-03|archive-date=2012-07-08|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120708180407/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0BQQ/is_9_50/ai_n55394441/|url-status=dead}}

On October 19, 2010, the MOR announced the beginning of research and development of "super-speed" railway technology, which would increase the maximum speed of trains to over {{convert|500|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}}.{{cite web|url=http://uschina.usc.edu/article@usct?chinas_super-speed_train_hits_500kmh_15911.aspx|title=China's 'Super-Speed' Train Hits 500km|date=2010-10-20|access-date=2010-11-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029184208/http://uschina.usc.edu/article@usct?chinas_super-speed_train_hits_500kmh_15911.aspx|archive-date=2013-10-29|url-status=dead}}

After committing to conventional-track high-speed rail in 2006, the state embarked on an ambitious campaign to build passenger-dedicated high-speed rail lines, which accounted for a large part of the government's growing budget for rail construction. Total investment in new rail lines grew from $14 billion in 2004 to $22.7 and $26.2 billion in 2006 and 2007.{{cite news|last=Bradsher |first=Keith |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/13/business/global/13rail.html?pagewanted=all |title=Keith Bradsher, "China Sees Growth Engine in a Web of Fast Trains"|location=China; United States |work=The New York Times |date=2010-02-12 |access-date=2011-08-17}} In response to the global economic recession, the government accelerated the pace of HSR expansion to stimulate economic growth. Total investments in new rail lines including HSR reached $49.4 billion in 2008 and $88 billion in 2009. In all, the state planned to spend $300 billion to build a {{convert|25000|km|abbr=on}} HSR network by 2020.[https://web.archive.org/web/20100317191056/http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5h7ss33mRp2IeNxPab7ABTadRrwZQD9EDOF7G0 "China to Bid on US High-Speed Rail Projects" A.P.] March 13, 2010{{cite news |last=Forsythe |first=Michael |date=2009-12-22 |title=Michael Forsythe "Letter from China: Is China's Economy Speeding Off the Rails?" |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/23/world/asia/23iht-letter.html |access-date=2011-08-17 |work=The New York Times |location=China}}

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As of 2007, the Qinhuangdao-Shenyang high-speed railway, which carried trains at top speed of {{convert|250|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}} along the Liaoxi Corridor in the Northeast, was the only passenger-dedicated HSR line (PDL) in China, but that would soon change as the country embarked on a high-speed railway construction boom.

{{See also|List of high-speed railway lines in China#Four Vertical and Four Horizontal" network}}

Higher-speed express train service allowed more trains to share the tracks and improved rail transport capacity. But high-speed trains often have to share tracks with slower, heavy freight trains – in some cases with as little as 5 minutes headway. To attain higher speeds and transport capacity, planners began to propose a passenger-dedicated HSR network on a grand scale. Initiated by MOR's 2004 "Mid-to-Long Term Railway Network Plan", a national grid composed of eight high-speed rail corridors, four running north–south and four going east–west, was to be constructed.{{cite web |language=zh |url=http://www.chnrailway.com/html/20140527/377129.shtml |script-title=zh:2004年国家《中长期铁路网规划》内容简介 |date=2014-05-27 |access-date=2017-07-16 |archive-date=2019-02-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190228211458/http://www.chnrailway.com/html/20140527/377129.shtml |url-status=dead }} The envisioned network, together with upgraded existing lines, would total {{convert|12000|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} in length. Most of the new lines follow the routes of existing trunk lines and are designated for passenger travel only. They became known as passenger-designated lines (PDLs). Several sections of the national grid, especially along the southeast coastal corridor, were built to link cities that had no previous rail connections. Those sections carry a mix of passenger and freight. High-speed trains on PDLs can generally reach {{convert|300|–|350|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}. On mixed-use HSR lines, passenger train service can attain peak speeds of {{convert|200|–|250|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}. The earliest PDLs built were sections of the corridors that connected large cities in the same region. On April 19, 2008, Hefei–Nanjing PDL in the East opened with a top-speed of {{convert|250|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}}. On August 1, 2008, the Beijing–Tianjin intercity railway opened in time for the 2008 Summer Olympics. This line between northern China's two largest cities, was the first in the country to accommodate commercial trains with top speed of {{convert|350|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}} and featured the CRH2C and CRH3C train sets. This ambitious national grid project was planned to be built by 2020, but the government's stimulus has expedited time-tables considerably for many of the lines.

The Wuhan–Guangzhou high-speed railway (Wuguang PDL), which opened on December 26, 2009, was the country's first cross-regional high-speed rail line. With a total length of {{convert|968|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} and capacity to accommodate trains traveling at {{convert|350|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}}, the Wuguang PDL set a world record for the fastest commercial train service with average trip speed of {{convert|312.5|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}. Train travel between central and southern China’s largest cities, Wuhan and Guangzhou, was reduced to just over three hours.

On October 26, 2010, China opened its 15th high-speed rail, the Shanghai–Hangzhou line, and unveiled the CRH380A trainset manufactured by CSR Sifang started regular service. The Beijing–Shanghai high-speed railway, the second major cross-regional line, opened in June 2011 and was the first line designed with a top speed of {{convert|380|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}} in commercial service.[http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/sci/2010-05/27/c_13319787.htm "China's fastest high speed train 380A rolls off production line" Xinhua] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100530112334/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/sci/2010-05/27/c_13319787.htm |date=2010-05-30 }} 2010-05-27{{cite news|url=http://news.163.com/10/1102/08/6KFIQNTS00014AED.html |language=zh-cn |script-title=zh:时速380公里高速列车明年7月开行 |work=163.com |date=2010-11-02 |author1=网易 }}

By January 2011, China had the world's longest high-speed rail network with about {{convert|8358|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}{{cite web| url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2011-02/04/c_13719070.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110209071536/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2011-02/04/c_13719070.htm | url-status=dead | archive-date=February 9, 2011 |author=xinhuanet|title=High-speed rail broadens range of options for China's New Year travel |date=2011-02-04|access-date=2011-02-04|author-link=xinhuanet}} of routes capable of at least {{convert|200|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}} running in service including {{convert|2197|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} of rail lines with top speeds of {{convert|350|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}}.{{dead link|date=April 2017}}{{cite web|url=http://www.uic-highspeed2010.com.cn/upload/ChineseRailways20101011.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2011-12-10 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120315201230/http://www.uic-highspeed2010.com.cn/upload/ChineseRailways20101011.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-15 }} The MOR reportedly committed an investment of ¥709.1 billion (US$107.9 billion) in railway construction in 2010 and would invest ¥700 billion (US$106 billion) in 2011 on 70 railway projects, including 15 high-speed rail projects. Some {{convert|4715|km|mi|0}} of new high-speed railways would be opened, and by the end of 2011, China would have {{convert|13073|km|mi|0}} of railways capable of carrying trains at speeds of at least {{convert|200|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}}.{{cite web|url=http://business.caing.com/2011-01-05/100213982.html |language=zh-cn |script-title=zh:2011年中国铁路将投资7000亿元_公司频道_财新网 |publisher=Business.caing.com |date=2011-01-05 |access-date=2011-10-17}}

File:Beijing-Tianjin High Speed Train.jpg hosting Nancy Pelosi and Edward Markey, members of the United States Congress, in Beijing in 2009.]]

In February 2011, Railway Minister Liu Zhijun, a key proponent of HSR expansion in China, was removed from office on charges of corruption. The Economist estimates Liu accepted ¥1 billion of bribes ($152 million) in connection with railway construction projects.{{cite news| url=http://www.economist.com/node/18488554?story_id=18488554 | newspaper=The Economist | title=Off the rails? | date=2011-03-31}} Investigators found evidence that another ¥187 million ($28.5 million) was misappropriated from the $33 billion Beijing–Shanghai high-speed railway in 2010.{{cite web|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2011-03/23/c_13794141.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107192406/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2011-03/23/c_13794141.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=November 7, 2012 |title=China finds 187 mln yuan embezzled from Beijing-Shanghai railway project |publisher=News.xinhuanet.com |date=2011-03-23 |access-date=2011-08-14}}

Another top official in the Railways Ministry, Zhang Shuguang, was also sacked for corruption. Zhang was estimated to have misappropriated to his personal overseas accounts the equivalent of $2.8 billion.{{cite news|last=Moore|first=Malcolm|title=Chinese rail crash scandal: 'official steals $2.8 billion'|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/8674824/Chinese-rail-crash-scandal-official-steals-2.8-billion.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/8674824/Chinese-rail-crash-scandal-official-steals-2.8-billion.html |archive-date=2022-01-12 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=2012-04-27|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=2011-08-01}}{{cbignore}}

After the political shake-up, concerns about HSR safety, high ticket prices, financial sustainability and environmental impact received greater scrutiny in the Chinese press.{{cite web|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/4cd5723e-6685-11e0-ac4d-00144feab49a.html?ftcamp=rss#axzz1Jn3JecpQ |title=China acts on high-speed rail safety fears|publisher=Financial Times|date=2011-04-14 |access-date=2011-08-17}}[https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703983104576262330447308782 "China Puts Brakes on High-Speed Trains" The Wall Street Journal] 2011-04-17

In April 2011, the new Minister of Railways Sheng Guangzu said that due to corruption, safety may have been compromised on some construction projects and completion dates may have to be pushed back. Sheng announced that all trains in the high-speed rail network would operate at a maximum speed of {{convert|300|km/h|abbr=on|sigfig=3}} beginning on July 1, 2011.[https://web.archive.org/web/20110417075315/http://www.businessweek.com/ap/financialnews/D9MJ64RO0.htm "China slows down showcase bullet trains" Bloomberg Businessweek] 2011-04-17{{cite news| url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90776/90882/7351162.html| title=World's longest high-speed train to decelerate a bit| date=2011-04-15| newspaper=People's Daily Online}} This was in response to concerns over safety, low ridership due to high ticket prices,[http://www.businessinsider.com/chinas-high-speed-rail-dilemma-2011-1 "The Backlash Is Brewing Against Chinese High-Speed Rail: Here's Why It's In Trouble" Business Insider] 2011-04-17 and high energy usage. On June 13, 2011, the MOR clarified in a press conference that the speed reduction was not due to safety concerns but to offer more affordable tickets for trains at {{convert|250|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}} and increase ridership. Higher-speed train travel uses greater energy and imposes more wear on expensive machinery. Railway officials lowered the top speed of trains on most lines that were running at {{convert|350|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}} to {{convert|300|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}}. Trains on the Beijing–Tianjin high-speed line and a few other inter-city lines remained at {{convert|350|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}}.{{cite web|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2011-05/11/c_13869523.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514200123/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2011-05/11/c_13869523.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 14, 2011 |title=Beijing-Shanghai high-speed railway to run trials |publisher=News.xinhuanet.com |date=2011-05-11 |access-date=2011-08-14}}

In May 2011, China's Environmental Protection Ministry ordered the halting of construction and operation of two high-speed lines that failed to pass environmental impact tests.{{cite web |language=zh |url=http://finance.qq.com/a/20110527/000977.htm |script-title=zh:叫停津秦高铁跟刘志军落马无关 |script-work=zh:齐鲁晚报 |publisher=QQ Finance |date=May 27, 2011 |access-date=June 14, 2011 |archive-date=July 23, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723124935/http://finance.qq.com/a/20110527/000977.htm |url-status=dead }}{{cite news|language=zh |url=http://news.sohu.com/20110519/n307943368.shtml |script-title=zh:环保部叫停津秦铁路、胶济铁路两高铁建设运行 |work=The Beijing News |publisher=Sohu |date=2011-05-19}} In June, the MOR maintained that high-speed rail construction was not slowing down.{{cite news|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2011-06/07/content_12653621.htm |last1=Yan |first1=Weijue |title=China not slowing high-speed rail construction |work=China Daily |date=June 7, 2011 |access-date=2020-02-09}} The CRH380A trainsets on the Beijing–Shanghai high-speed railway could reach a top operational speed of {{convert|380|km/h|abbr=on}} but were limited to {{convert|300|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}}.{{cite news |url=http://news.163.com/10/1102/08/6KFIQNTS00014AED.html |script-title=zh:时速380公里高速列车明年7月开行 |work=163.com |date=2010-11-02 |author1=网易 }}

Under political and public pressure, the National Audit Office (NAO) carried out an extensive investigation into the building quality of all high-speed rail lines. As of March 2011, no major quality defects had been found in the system.{{cite news|language=zh-cn |script-title=zh:京沪高铁2010年审计未发现重大质量问题|url=http://finance.sina.com.cn/g/20110323/14459580817.shtml |work=Sina Finance |date=2011-03-23}} Foreign manufacturers involved in the Shanghai–Beijing high-speed link reported that their contracts called for a maximum operational speed of {{convert|300|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}}.{{Cite web|url=http://www.shanghaidaily.com/nsp/Metro/2011/06/22/Train+speed+claims+were+false/|title=Shanghai Daily | 上海日报 -- English Window to China News|website=www.shanghaidaily.com}} From July 20, 2011, the frequency of train services from Jinan to Beijing and Tianjin was reduced due to low occupancy, renewing concerns about demand and profitability for high-speed services. Service failures in the first month of operation drove passengers back to pre-existing slower rail service and air travel; airline ticket prices rebounded due to reduced competition.{{cite web|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/cndy/2011-07/23/content_12966603.htm |title=Railway cuts bullet trains from schedule | Sunday Digest |work=China Daily |date=2011-07-23 |access-date=2011-08-14}}

{{Main|Wenzhou train collision}}

File:Speed of Shanghai to Hangzhou high speed CRH train.JPG on Shanghai–Hangzhou high-speed railway before the Wenzhou accident was around 350km/h. Since 2017, with the introduction of the Fuxing series of trains, this line has resumed 350km/h operations.]]

On July 23, 2011, two high-speed trains collided on the Ningbo–Taizhou–Wenzhou railway in Lucheng District of Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province.{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/25/world/asia/25train.html?ref=asia | work=The New York Times | first=Ian | last=Johnson | title=Train Wreck in China Heightens Unease on Safety Standards | date=2011-07-24}}{{cite web|last=Watt |first=Louise |url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2011/jul/25/crash-raises-doubts-about-chinas-fast-r-514665341/ |title=Crash raises doubts about China's fast rail plans |work=Washington Times |date=2011-07-25 |access-date=2011-10-17}}{{cite news|author=Tania Branigan in Beijing and agencies |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/aug/12/china-bullet-trains-recalled-crash?INTCMP=ILCNETTXT3487 |title=Chinese bullet trains recalled in wake of fatal crash | World news |work=The Guardian |location=UK |access-date=2011-10-17 |date=2011-08-12}} The accident occurred when one train traveling near Wenzhou was struck by lightning, lost power and stalled. Signals malfunctioned, causing another train to rear-end the stalled train.{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/29/world/asia/29trains.html?_r=1&ref=asia | work=The New York Times | first=Sharon | last=Lafraniere | title=Five Days Later, Chinese Concede Design Flaw Had Role in Wreck | date=2011-07-28}}{{cite news|last=Reinoso |first=Jose |url=http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/error/senales/causo/choque/trenes/chinos/elpepiint/20110729elpepiint_8/Tes |title=Un error en las señales causó el choque de trenes chinos |work=El País Archivo |date=2011-07-29 |access-date=2015-10-17 |language=es}}{{cite web|url=http://www.lemonde.fr/cgi-bin/ACHATS/acheter.cgi?offre=ARCHIVES&type_item=ART_ARCH_30J&objet_id=1163904 |title=La signalisation mise en cause dans l'accident du Pékin-Shanghaď |work=Le Monde |language=fr |location=France |access-date=2011-10-17}}{{cite web|url=http://www.lemonde.fr/cgi-bin/ACHATS/acheter.cgi?offre=ARCHIVES&type_item=ART_ARCH_30J&objet_id=1163677 |title=La sécurité des TGV chinois de plus en plus contestée |work=Le Monde |language=fr |location=France |access-date=2011-10-17}} Several carriages derailed.{{Cite web|url=https://www.railwaygazette.com/passenger/first-fatal-crash-on-chinese-high-speed-line/36141.article|title=First fatal crash on Chinese high speed line|website=Railway Gazette International}} State-run Chinese media confirmed 40 deaths, and at least 192 people hospitalised, including 12 who were severely injured.{{cite news|author=Martin Patience |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-14321060 |title= China train crash: Signal design flaw blamed |publisher=BBC.co.uk |date=2011-07-28 |access-date=2011-08-17}}{{cite news|author=Cherry Wilson |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jul/23/china-train-crash-kills-32 |title=China train crash kills 32 The Observer |work=Guardian |location=UK |access-date=2011-08-14 |date=2011-07-23}}{{cite news|author=Martin Patience |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-14321060 |title=China train crash: Signal design flaw blamed |publisher=BBC |date=2011-07-28 |access-date=2011-08-14}} The Wenzhou train accident and the lack of accountability by railway officials caused a public uproar and heightened concerns about the safety and management of China's high-speed rail system.{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/outrage-at-wenzhou-disaster-pushes-china-to-suspend-bullet-train-project-2336254.html |title=Outrage at Wenzhou disaster pushes China to suspend bullet train project|work=The Independent |date=2011-08-12 |access-date=2011-08-17 |location=London |first=Clifford |last=Coonan}}{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/rundown/2011/08/china-train.html |title=China's High-Speed Rail Accident 'Struck a Nerve' | The Rundown News Blog |publisher=PBS NewsHour |date=2011-08-10 |access-date=2011-08-17 |archive-date=2011-08-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110812014722/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/rundown/2011/08/china-train.html |url-status=dead }} Quality and safety concerns also affected plans to export cheaper high-speed train technology to other countries.{{cite web|last=Pilling |first=David |url=http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/0558876e-be1b-11e0-bee9-00144feabdc0.html |title=China crashes into a middle class revolt |publisher=FT.com |date=2011-08-03 |access-date=2011-08-17}}

The train collision exposed poor management by the railway company.{{Cite news| url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-16345592| title='Design flaws' caused China crash| date=2011-12-28| access-date=2019-07-01| language=en-GB}}{{cite news| title=How China's Train Tragedy Unfolded| work=The Wall Street Journal| date=29 December 2011| url=https://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2011/12/29/wenzhou%E2%80%99s-black-box-how-china%E2%80%99s-train-tragedy-unfolded/?mod=WSJBlog| agency=Associated Press}} This fatal accident, which happened in the midst of corruption investigations into railway officials, led to greater scrutiny in the Chinese press and the populace concerning the HSR and on the railway company.

Following the deadly crash, the Chinese government suspended new railway project approvals and launched safety checks on existing equipment.{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/aug/10/china-train-safety-public-fears |title=China steps up train safety amid anger after cras |work=The Guardian |location=UK |access-date=2011-10-17 |date=2011-08-10}}{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-train-idUSTRE77946C20110810 |title=China freezes new railway projects after high-speed train crash |publisher=Reuters |access-date=2011-10-17 |date=2011-08-10 |archive-date=2011-08-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110817035048/http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/08/10/us-china-train-idUSTRE77946C20110810 |url-status=live }} A commission was formed to investigate the accident with a directive to report its findings in September 2011.{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-14504877 |title=China train crash: Design flaws to blame – safety chief |publisher=BBC|date=2011-08-12 |access-date=2011-08-17}} On August 10, 2011, the Chinese government announced that it was suspending approvals of any new high-speed rail lines pending the outcome of the investigation.{{cite web|last=Rabinovitch |first=Simon |url=http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/598d4052-c40d-11e0-b302-00144feabdc0.html#axzz1V1JlIF1o |title=China suspends new high speed rail plans |publisher=FT.com |date=2011-08-11 |access-date=2011-08-17}}{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-train-idUSTRE77946C20110810 |title=China freezes new railway projects after high-speed train crash |publisher=Reuters |date=2011-08-10 |access-date=2011-08-17 |archive-date=2011-08-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110817035048/http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/08/10/us-china-train-idUSTRE77946C20110810 |url-status=live }} The Minister of Railways announced further cuts in the speed of Chinese high-speed trains, with the speed of the second-tier 'D' trains reduced from {{convert|250|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}} to {{convert|200|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}}, and {{convert|200|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}} to {{convert|160|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}} on upgraded pre-existing lines.{{Cite web|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/cndy/2011-08/12/content_13097239.htm|title=Decision to slow trains met with mixed response|Nation|chinadaily.com.cn|website=www.chinadaily.com.cn}} The speed of the remaining {{convert|350|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}} trains between Shanghai and Hangzhou was reduced to {{convert|300|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}} as of August 28, 2011.{{Cite web|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2011-08/23/content_13167866.htm|title=More high-speed trains slow down to improve safety|Society|chinadaily.com.cn|website=www.chinadaily.com.cn}} To stimulate ridership, on August 16, 2011, ticket prices on high-speed trains were reduced by five percent.{{cite web |url=http://www.capitalvue.com/home/CE-news/inset/@10063/post/2988993 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323055234/http://www.capitalvue.com/home/CE-news/inset/%4010063/post/2988993 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2012-03-23 |title=CapitalVue News: China Cuts Ticket Price Of High Speed Rail |publisher=Capitalvue.com |date=2011-08-12 |access-date=2011-08-17 }} From July to September, high-speed rail ridership in China fell by nearly 151 million trips to 30 million trips.{{cite news|last=Rabinovitch|first=Simon |url=http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/a9337b06-fe20-11e0-a1eb-00144feabdc0.html?ftcamp=rss#axzz1c2ZcRBzT |title=China's high-speed rail plans falter|location=China |publisher=Financial Times|date=2011-10-27 |access-date=2011-10-27}}

File:CRH380BJ-A-0504@BCR (20160420125518).jpg (CRH380B) designed for performance under high altitude and low temperature conditions in Northeast China.]]

In the first half of 2011, the MOR as a whole made a profit of ¥4.29 billion and carried a total debt burden of ¥2.09 trillion, equal to about 5% of China's GDP.{{cite news|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/international-business/chinas-high-speed-rail-projects-on-hold-due-to-cash-crunch/articleshow/10508865.cms|title=China's high speed rail projects on hold due to cash crunch|publisher=Economic Times |date=2011-10-27 |access-date=2011-10-27}}{{cite web |language=zh |url=http://cn.ibtimes.com/artnews/7731/20111026/gaotie.htm |script-title=zh:中国铁路建设大规模停工 建设重点出现调整 |work=International Business Times |date=2011-10-26 |access-date=2011-10-26 |archive-date=2012-04-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425114440/http://cn.ibtimes.com/artnews/7731/20111026/gaotie.htm |url-status=dead }} Earnings from the more profitable freight lines helped to off-set losses by high-speed rail lines.{{citation needed|date=February 2013}} As of years ending 2008, 2009 and 2010, the MOR's debt-to-asset ratio was respectively, 46.81%, 53.06% and 57.44%,{{cite web |language=zh |url=http://www.infzm.com/content/61453 |script-title=zh:铁道部负债近2万亿 净资产收益率偏低 |website=infzm.com |date=2011-07-19 |access-date=2011-10-26 |archive-date=2013-01-26 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130126151227/http://www.infzm.com/content/61453 |url-status=dead }} and reached 58.58% by mid-year 2011. As of October 12, 2011, the MOR had issued ¥160 billion of debt for the year. But in the late summer, state banks began to cut back on lending to rail construction projects, which reduced funding for existing railway projects. An investigation of 23 railway construction companies in August 2011 revealed that 70% of existing projects had been slowed or halted mainly due to shortage of funding. Affected lines included the Xiamen–Shenzhen, Nanning–Guangzhou, Guiyang–Guangzhou, Shijiazhuang–Wuhan, Tianjin–Baoding and Shanghai–Kunming high-speed rail lines. By October, work had halted on the construction of {{convert|10000|km|mi|abbr=on}} of track. New projects were put on hold and completion dates for existing projects, including the Tianjin–Baoding, Harbin–Jiamusi, Zhengzhou–Xuzhou and Hainan Ring (West), were pushed back. As of October 2011, the MOR was reportedly concentrating remaining resources on fewer high-speed rail lines and shifting emphasis to more economically viable coal transporting heavy rail.

To ease the credit shortage facing rail construction, the Ministry of Finance announced tax cuts to interest earned on rail construction financing bonds and the State Council ordered state banks to renew lending to rail projects. In late October and November 2011, the MOR raised RMB 250 billion in fresh financing and construction resumed on several lines including the Tianjin–Baoding, Xiamen–Shenzhen and Shanghai–Kunming.{{cite news |language=zh |url=http://stock.sohu.com/20111214/n328906554.shtml |script-title=zh:铁路工地一线直击：2700亿掀不起复工潮 |work=Sohu Stocks |date=2011-12-14 |access-date=2011-12-13 |archive-date=2012-04-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120406090856/http://stock.sohu.com/20111214/n328906554.shtml |url-status=dead }}

File:Train line at Xingping Reservoir.JPG under construction in Yangshuo, Guangxi in August 2013. This line traverses 270 caves and 510 valleys in the karst landscape of southwest China.{{cite news|language=zh |url=http://news.southcn.com/g/2014-12/26/content_115038590.htm |script-title=zh:揭秘：贵广高铁如何穿越喀斯特 |script-work=zh:南方都市报 |date=2014-12-26}} Bridges and tunnels comprise 83% of this line's total length of 857 km, including 92% in Guizhou Province. Travel time by train between Guizhou and Guangzhou was reduced from 20 hours to 4 hours.{{cite news|language=zh |url=http://news.southcn.com/g/2014-12/26/content_115108037.htm |script-title=zh:陈清浩, "贵广高铁正式开通运营 从贵阳到广州4小时可达" |script-work=zh:南方日报 |date=2014-12-26}}]]

By early 2012, the Chinese government renewed investments in high-speed rail to rejuvenate the slowing economy.[https://web.archive.org/web/20130120180847/http://articles.washingtonpost.com/2013-01-16/world/36384448_1_high-speed-rail-rail-bridges-bullet-train-crash Simon Rabinovitch, “China’s high-speed rail gets back on track” ‘’Financial Times’’] 2013-01-16 Premier Wen Jiabao visited train manufacturers and gave a vote of confidence in the industry. Over the course of the year, the MOR's budget rose from $64.3 billion to $96.5 billion. Five new lines totaling {{convert|2563|km|mi|abbr=on}} in length entered operation between June 30 and December 31, including the Beijing–Wuhan section of the Beijing–Guangzhou line.{{cite news|url=http://finance.people.com.cn/stock/n/2015/0130/c67815-26478015.html |script-title=zh:铁路2014年投资8088亿元 超额完成全年计划 |script-work=zh:人民网 |date=2015-01-30 |access-date=2015-01-30}} By the end of 2012, the total length of high-speed rail tracks had reached {{convert|9300|km|mi|abbr=on}}, and ridership rebounded and exceeded levels prior to the Wenzhou crash.{{cite web|author=Fischer, Elizabeth|url=http://www.railway-technology.com/features/feature124824/|title=China's high-speed rail revolution|date=2012-11-21|work=Railway-technology.com|access-date=2013-05-04}}{{Cite news|author=Shasha, Deng|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/china/2012-12/26/c_132063630.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121231023102/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/china/2012-12/26/c_132063630.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=December 31, 2012|title=World's longest high-speed rail line makes debut|agency=Xinhua|date=2012-12-26|access-date=2013-05-04}} By 2014, China's 1,580 high-speed trains were transporting 1.33 million passengers daily, about 25.7% of the overall passenger traffic. The Beijing–Tianjin, Shanghai–Nanjing, Beijing–Shanghai and Shanghai–Hangzhou lines reported breaking even financially{{cite web |url=http://www.thechinaperspective.com/articles/chinahighspeedr-9905/ |title=China High Speed Train Development and Investment |work=The China Perspective |date=2012-12-27 |access-date=2015-10-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513081152/http://www.thechinaperspective.com/articles/chinahighspeedr-9905/ |archive-date=2013-05-13 |url-status=dead }}{{cite web|url=http://www.marketwatch.com/story/sound-financials-recharge-chinas-fast-trains-2012-09-10 |title=Sound financials recharge China's fast trains |publisher=marketwatch.com |date=2012-09-10 |access-date=2013-02-03}}{{cite web |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/finance/2012/0925/1224324358339.html |title=Bullet trains trigger profit growth for railways |publisher=The Irish Times |date=2012-09-25 |access-date=2013-02-03 |archive-date=2012-09-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120925060249/http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/finance/2012/0925/1224324358339.html |url-status=dead }}{{cite web |url=http://www.wantchinatimes.com/news-subclass-cnt.aspx?id=20130203000075&cid=1202 |title=China's high-speed rail still reporting staggering losses |publisher=chinawatch.com |date=2013-02-03 |access-date=2013-02-03 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131110133055/http://www.wantchinatimes.com/news-subclass-cnt.aspx?id=20130203000075&cid=1202 |archive-date=2013-11-10 }} The Shanghai–Nanjing line even reported to be operationally profitable, operating with a 380 million yuan net profit. However, in 2013, only few lines had yet become profitable.

On December 28, 2013, the total length of high-speed rail tracks nationally topped {{convert|10000|km|mi|abbr=on}} with the opening of the Xiamen–Shenzhen, Xian–Baoji, Chongqing−Lichuan high-speed railways as well as intercity lines in Hubei and Guangxi.[http://www.ecns.cn/business/2013/12-28/94660.shtml "China's railways mileage tops 100,000 km" Xinhua] 2013-12-28

File:Century Kiss of CR400 series (20170225103539).jpg of CR400AF and CR400BF, two China Standardized EMU models built by different manufacturers, at Beijing West railway station in February 2017]]

In 2014, high-speed rail expansion gained speed with the opening of the Taiyuan–Xi'an, Hangzhou–Changsha, Lanzhou-Ürümqi, Guiyang-Guangzhou, Nanning-Guangzhou trunk lines and intercity lines around Wuhan, Chengdu,{{cite web |url=http://district.ce.cn/newarea/roll/201412/26/t20141226_4208852.shtml |script-title=zh:中国高铁版图再扩容:兰新、贵广、南广高铁今日开通 |script-work=zh:中国新闻网 |language=zh-cn |date=2014-12-26}} Qingdao{{cite news|language=zh |url=http://qd.ifeng.com/xinwenzaobanche/detail_2014_12/28/3347018_0.shtml |script-title=zh:青荣城际今日通车 青烟威三城连心 |script-work=zh:青岛新闻网 |publisher=Ifeng |date=2014-12-28}} and Zhengzhou. High-speed passenger rail service expanded to 28 provinces and regions.{{cite news|language=zh |url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/fortune/2014-11/15/c_1113263242.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141201082234/http://news.xinhuanet.com/fortune/2014-11/15/c_1113263242.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=December 1, 2014 |script-title=zh:12月10日起铁路再调图 |work=Xinhua |date=2014-11-15}} The number of high-speed train sets in operation grew from 1,277 pairs in June to 1,556.5 pairs in December.{{cite news|language=zh |url=http://www.chinanews.com/gn/2014/06-12/6271489.shtml |script-title=zh:7月1日全国铁路再调图 增开动车组列车53对 |script-work=zh:人民日报 |date=2014-06-12}}

In response to a slowing economy, central planners approved a slew of new lines including Shangqiu–Hefei–Hangzhou, Zhengzhou–Wanzhou,{{cite news|language=zh |url=http://news.sohu.com/20141010/n404964060.shtml |script-title=zh:郑州-重庆万州高铁获批 中部再添开发主轴 |work=Sohu News |date=2014-10-10}} Lianyungang–Zhenjiang,{{cite web |language=zh |url=http://js.qq.com/a/20141107/041999.htm |script-title=zh:临沂至曲阜客运专线并轨京沪高铁获批 连云港至镇江高铁获批 预计2019年下半年通车 |website=QQ Jiangsu |date=2014-11-07 |access-date=2014-12-20 |archive-date=2014-12-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141222212138/http://js.qq.com/a/20141107/041999.htm |url-status=dead }} Linyi–Qufu,{{cite news|language=zh |url=http://news.sohu.com/20141010/n404964060.shtml |script-title=zh:临沂至曲阜客运专线并轨京沪高铁获批 |work=Sohu News |date=2014-12-16}} Harbin–Mudanjiang,{{cite web |language=zh |url=http://heilongjiang.dbw.cn/system/2014/12/18/056207723.shtml |script-title=zh:哈牡客运专线项目启动建设 打通亚欧国际货运大通道 |script-website=zh:东北网 |date=2014-12-18 |access-date=2014-12-20 |archive-date=2014-12-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141222200012/http://heilongjiang.dbw.cn/system/2014/12/18/056207723.shtml |url-status=dead }} Yinchuan–Xi'an,{{cite news|language=zh |url=http://finance.sina.com.cn/china/20141222/163821135407.shtml |script-title=zh:发改委再批复两城市铁路规划 总投资超2000亿 |script-work=zh:中证网 |publisher=Sina Finance |date=2014-12-22}} Datong–Zhangjiakou, and intercity lines in Zhejiang{{cite news |language=zh |url=http://zj.sina.com.cn/news/d/2014-12-18/detail-iawzunex6991153.shtml |script-title=zh:浙江11条城际铁路线昨日获批 2020年前将全部建成 |date=2014-12-18 |access-date=2014-12-20 |archive-date=2014-12-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141222193755/http://zj.sina.com.cn/news/d/2014-12-18/detail-iawzunex6991153.shtml |url-status=dead }} and Jiangxi.

The government actively promoted the export of high-speed rail technology to countries including Mexico, Thailand, the United Kingdom, India, Russia and Turkey. To better compete with foreign trainmakers, the central authorities arranged for the merger of the country's two main high-speed train-makers, CSR and CNR, into CRRC.{{cite web |url=http://www.businessinsider.com/afp-china-rolls-ahead-with-train-makers-merger-2014-12 |title=Chinese Trainmakers To Merge And Form Export Powerhouse |agency=AFP |work=Business Insider |date=2014-12-03}}

By 2015, six high speed rail lines, Beijing–Tianjin, Shanghai–Nanjing, Beijing–Shanghai, Shanghai–Hangzhou, Nanjing–Hangzhou and Guangzhou–Shenzhen–Hong Kong were reporting operational profitability.{{Cite news|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/politics/2016-08/02/c_129196920.htm |language=zh-cn |script-title=zh:中国高铁盈利地图：东部线路赚翻 中西部巨亏(图)-新华网|work=Xinhua |date=2016-08-02 |access-date=2016-08-08}} The Beijing–Shanghai was particularly profitable, reporting a 6.6 billion yuan net profit.{{Cite news|url=https://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2016/07/20/chinas-busiest-high-speed-rail-line-makes-a-fast-buck/|title=China's Busiest High-Speed Rail Line Makes a Fast Buck|newspaper=Wall Street Journal|date=20 July 2016|access-date=2016-08-08}}

In 2016, with the near completion of the National 4+4 grid, a new "Mid-to-Long Term Railway Network" Plan was drafted. The plan envisions a larger 8+8 high speed rail grid serving the nation and expanded intercity lines for regional and commuter services for large metropolitan areas of China.{{cite news|url=http://dailynews.sina.com/bg/chn/chnmilitary/sinacn/20160720/16407430511.html |language=zh |script-title=zh:中國高鐵"八縱八橫"線路確定 包含京台高鐵|work=Sina News}} The proposed completion date for the network is 2030.{{Cite news|url=http://www.nbd.com.cn/articles/2016-07-21/1023907.html |language=zh-cn |script-title=zh:十年内高铁运营里程将翻倍 贯通特大城市可采用时速350公里标准 |script-work=zh:每经网 |access-date=2016-10-13}}

Since 2017, with the introduction of the Fuxing series of trains, a number of lines have resumed 350 km/h operations, such as Beijing–Shanghai HSR, Beijing–Tianjin ICR, and Chengdu–Chongqing ICR.{{Cite web|url=http://www.chinanews.com/cj/2018/01-02/8414612.shtml |language=zh-cn |script-title=zh:2017年中国铁路投资8010亿元 投产新线3038公里-中新网|last=chinanews|website=www.chinanews.com|access-date=2018-01-13}}

The HSR network reached {{convert|37,900|km|mi|abbr=on}} in total length by the end of 2020.{{Cite web|title=China's high-speed rail lines top 37,900 at end of 2020 – Xinhua {{!}} English.news.cn|url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2021-01/09/c_139654709.htm|access-date=2021-01-10|website=www.xinhuanet.com}} In 2025, the HSR network will reach a total length of 50,000 km and is expected to grow further.{{cite web |title=China to Expand High-Speed Rail Network to 50,000 Kilometers by 2025 |url=https://www.brixsweden.org/china-to-expand-high-speed-rail-network-to-50000-kilometers-by-2025/ |website=BrixSweden.org |date=23 January 2022 |access-date=25 April 2023}}

{{Historical populations

| title= Km of high speed rail track in operation

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| source=2024{{cite web | url=http://english.scio.gov.cn/chinavoices/2025-02/14/content_117712691.html | title=China's rail network continued to break records in 2024 }}

| 2010 |8358

| 2012 |9356

| 2013 |11000

| 2014 |16000

| 2015 |19000

| 2016 |22000

| 2017 |25000

| 2018 |29000

| 2019 |35000

| 2020 |37900

| 2021 |40000

| 2022 |42000

| 2023 |45000

| 2024 |48000}}

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China's high-speed rail expansion is entirely managed, planned and financed by the Chinese government.

File:京津城际铁路-天津北站.jpg is laid on viaducts. Chinese builders use elevated lines to keep high-speed rail tracks straight and level over uneven terrain, and to save on land acquisition costs.]]

On one hand, the demand of high-speed rail in China steadily increases over time. In 2012, the average occupancy rate of high-speed rails in China was 57%. This percentage increased to 65%, 69% and 72% in the year of 2013, 2014 and 2015, respectively. As of February 2016, high-speed rails covered nearly {{Cvt|20000|km|4=0}}.{{Cite web|url=http://jtyss.ndrc.gov.cn/jtyj/201603/t20160301_791543.html |script-title=zh:高铁刷新百姓出行选择|website=jtyss.ndrc.gov.cn|language=zh-cn|access-date=2018-05-07}} On the other hand, however, public concerns about the high-speed rail development have been raised from various perspectives.{{Cite journal|last=Cao, Yu, Liang, Hua|first=Haili, Ning, Dongmei, Aifang|date=March 28, 2011 |language=zh-cn |script-title=zh:高铁通向何方|journal=Caixin}}

The safety issue that drew the attention of the public and the government was the Wenzhou train collision which happened on July 23, 2011, in which 40 people died, 172 were injured, and 54 related officials blamed and punished.{{Cite news|url=http://news.sina.com.cn/c/2011-12-28/211223711377.shtml |language=zh-cn |script-title=zh:国务院处理温州动车追尾事故54名责任人_新闻中心_新浪网|work=Sina News|access-date=2018-05-07}} According to a 2014 World Bank report, the incident was attributed to inadequate testing of a new design for signaling equipment, which lacked proper fail-safe features.{{Cite web |last1=Ollivier |first1=Gerald |last2=Sondhi |first2=Jitendra |last3=Zhou |first3=Nanyan |date=July 2014 |title=High-Speed Railways in China: A Look at Construction Costs |url=https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/695111468024545450/pdf/892000BRI0Box3000china0transport09.pdf |access-date=Apr 22, 2024 |website=World Bank}}

However overall, Chinese high speed rail has an exemplary safety record{{Cite book |last=Garlick |first=Jeremy |title=Advantage China: Agent of Change in an Era of Global Disruption |date=2024 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-1-350-25231-8}}{{Rp|page=70}} and according to The New York Times, the Chinese high-speed rail network is "one of the world’s safest transportation systems."{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/24/business/global/despite-a-deadly-crash-rail-system-has-good-safety-record.html|title=Despite a Deadly Crash, Rail System Has Good Safety Record|last=Bradsher|first=Keith|date=2013-09-23|work=The New York Times|access-date=2018-05-07|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}} As of at least 2024, the Wenzhou crash remains the only serious accident in the massive Chinese HSR network.{{Rp|page=70}}

According to a 2019 World Bank report, China was able to have construction costs of its high speed rail to be at an average of $17 million to 21 million dollars per km, which is lower than other countries by a third. Standardization of the designs and procedures were cited as the key reason for keeping costs down.{{Cite web |last=electricbloomhosting |date=2014-07-14 |title=Why China can build high-speed rail so cheaply |url=https://www.globalconstructionreview.com/why-china-can-build-high-speed-rail34socheaply7365/ |access-date=2024-02-20 |website=Global Construction Review |language=en-GB}}{{Cite book |last1=Lawrence |first1=Martha |url=http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/book/10.1596/978-1-4648-1425-9 |title=China's High-Speed Rail Development |last2=Bullock |first2=Richard |last3=Liu |first3=Ziming |date=2019-06-19 |publisher=The World Bank |isbn=978-1-4648-1425-9 |language=en |doi=10.1596/978-1-4648-1425-9_ch4}}{{Cite web |title=Construction |url=https://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/10.1596/978-1-4648-1425-9_ch4 |website=World Bank|date=2019 |doi=10.1596/978-1-4648-1425-9_ch4 |last1=Lawrence |first1=Martha |last2=Bullock |first2=Richard |last3=Liu |first3=Ziming |pages=39–50 |isbn=978-1-4648-1425-9 }}

Experts expressed concern of the network's operational efficiency.{{Cite journal|last=Beck, Bente, Schilling|first=Arne, Heiner, Martin|date=May 2013|title=Railway Efficiency – An Overview and a Look at Opportunities for Improvement|url=https://www.itf-oecd.org/sites/default/files/docs/dp201312.pdf|journal=International Transport Forum}}{{Cite journal|last=Thompson, Bente|first=Louis, Heiner|date=November 2014|title=What is rail efficiency and how can it be changed?|url=https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/109178/1/818402369.pdf|journal=International Transport Forum|via=Econstor}} In 2016, Chinese railways carried almost 2 trillion ton-kilometers of freight and over 1 billion passenger-kilometer of passengers, making it one of the world's most intensively used freight and passenger railway networks in the world.{{Cite web|url=https://uic-stats.uic.org/list/|title=RAILISA STAT UIC|website=uic-stats.uic.org|access-date=2019-01-06}} However, the rail staff productivity upon railway track infrastructure index in China is less than 0.05, being the lowest among the countries with significant railway construction. The government also articulated the importance and urgency of assuring the capacity of railway staff, especially their familiarity with telecommunication and signaling testing in the official investigation of the Wenzhou train collision.{{Cite news|url=http://news.sohu.com/20111228/n330570915_5.shtml |language=zh-cn |script-title=zh:国家安监总局公布温州动车事故调查报告(全文) |work=Sohu News|access-date=2018-05-07}} In addition, it is hard to identify problems in the construction process, given the distribution resource planning system needed for rapid railway building and assembling. Suppliers and manufacturers blame each other for any problem detected in the trial operation, while tracking the construction process to every single detail is an almost impossible job for inspectors.

File:Hada high-speed railway under const.JPG

The government identifies policy objectives including providing fast, reliable and comfortable means of transporting large numbers of travelers in a densely populated country over long distances,{{Cite web|url=http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/451551468241176543/pdf/932270BRI0Box30ffic020140final000EN.pdf|title=High-Speed Railways in China: A Look at Traffic|last=Ollivier|first=Gerald}} which:

• Improves economic productivity and competitiveness over the long term by increasing the transport capacity of railways and linking labor markets.{{cite news|last=Bradsher |first=Keith |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/23/business/worldbusiness/23yuan.html?_r=1&pagewanted=all |title=Keith Bradsher, "China's Route Forward" |location=China |work=The New York Times |date=2009-01-22 |access-date=2011-08-17}} Dedicating passenger transport to high-speed lines frees up older conventional railways to freights, which can now carry more payload at lower speed and is more profitable for railway companies than passengers, whose fares are subsidized.{{cite news|last=Freeman |first=Will |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704025304575283953879199386 |title=Freeman & Kroeber, "Opinion: China's Fast Track to Development" |publisher=Wall Street Journal |date=2010-06-02 |access-date=2011-08-17}}
• Stimulates the economy in the short term as HSR construction creates jobs and drives up demand for construction, steel and cement industries during the economic downturn. Work on the Beijing–Shanghai HSR mobilized 110,000 workers.[https://money.cnn.com/2009/08/03/news/international/china_high_speed_bullet_train.fortune/ China's amazing new bullet train] CNN Money August 6, 2009
• Facilitates cross-city economic integration and promotes the growth of second-tier cities.{{Cite news|url=http://urbanland.uli.org/capital-markets/shanghai-shenzhen-beijing-lead-prospects-ulis-china-cities-survey/|title=Shanghai, Shenzhen, Beijing Lead Prospects in ULI's China Cities Survey |date=2016-10-03|work=Urban Land Magazine|access-date=2017-03-13|language=en-US}} The introduction of the high-speed railways is responsible for 59% of the increase in market potential for the secondary cities connected by bullet trains. (Market potential, a concept used by economic geographers, measures "a geographic area's access to markets for inputs and outputs.") A 10% increase in a secondary city's market potential is expected to be associated with a 4.5% increase in its average real estate price.{{cite news | url=http://journalistsresource.org/studies/international/china/china-high-speed-rail-economic-development | title=China's high-speed-rail network and the development of second-tier cities}} JournalistsResource.org, retrieved Feb. 20, 2014.
• Supports energy independence and environmental sustainability. Electric trains use less energy to transport people and goods on a per unit basis and can draw power from more diverse sources of energy including renewables than automobile and aircraft, which are more reliant on imported petroleum.
• Develop an indigenous high-speed rail equipment industry. The expansion into HSR is also developing China into a leading source of high-speed rail building technology. Chinese train-makers have absorbed imported technologies quickly, localized production processes, and even begun to compete with foreign suppliers in the export market. Six years after receiving Kawasaki's license to produce Shinkansen E2, CSC Sifang can produce the CRH2A without Japanese input, and Kawasaki has ended cooperation with Sifang on high-speed rail.{{cite web|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/60da2222-8ab5-11df-8e17-00144feab49a.html |title=Japan Inc shoots itself in foot on bullet train|publisher=Ft.com |date=2010-07-08 |access-date=2011-08-17}}

File:Traffic density and market share on major corridors, 2001–13.jpg

One major concern of the high-speed rail network is the high amount of debt incurred. As of 2022, the China State Railway Group has had a debt of around US$900 billion, according to Nikkei. Conservative scholars and officials are worried that the indebted high-speed rail is further exacerbated by its unprofitability, operating at a daily loss of US$24 million as of November 2021. While a number of high-speed railways in eastern China have started to be operationally profitable since 2015, the high speed railways in the midwest still operate at a loss. Zhengzhou–Xi'an high-speed railway is estimated to run 59 trains in 2010 and 125 trains in 2018, yet in 2016 there are merely around 30 trains on operation, causing a 1.4 billion loss. The Guiyang–Guangzhou high-speed railway and Lanzhou–Xinjiang high-speed railway (where fares do not cover electricity costs) are both suffering from high maintenance cost due to harsh climate conditions and complicated terrain structure.{{Cite news|url=http://finance.sina.com.cn/roll/2016-08-01/doc-ifxunyxy6242335.shtml |language=zh-cn |script-title=zh:高铁盈利地图：东部赚翻 中西部普遍巨亏 |work=Sina Finance |date=2016-08-01 |access-date=2018-05-07}} The Beijing-Shanghai high-speed railway is one of the few lines that have been profitable, with profits steadily increasing after first breaking even in 2014, and achieving revenue of CNY 29.6 billion and net profit of CNY 12.7 billion in 2017.{{citation needed|date=September 2023}} In an analysis conducted in 2019, only five out of fifteen high speed railway lines with travel speeds reaching 350 kilometers per hour, were able to cover all costs that included both the operating and capital costs.{{citation needed|date=September 2023}}

China's high-speed rail construction projects are highly capital intensive. About 40–50% of financing is provided by the national government through lending by state owned banks and financial institutions, another 40% by the bonds issued by the Ministry of Railway (MOR) and the remaining 10–20% by provincial and local governments.{{cite news|language=zh |url=http://news.qd.soufun.com/2011-10-26/6187243.htm |script-title=zh:铁路建设9成缺钱停工 多地高铁项目拖欠工人工资停工 |script-work=zh:中国经营网 |date=2011-10-26}} The MOR, through its financing arm, the China Rail Investment Corp (CRIC), issued an estimated ¥1 trillion (US$150 billion in 2010 dollars) in debt to finance HSR construction from 2006 to 2010,{{cite web |language=zh |url=http://quote.cfi.cn/p20100925000059.html |script-title=zh:铁道部有意打包高铁资产 成立资产管理公司 |script-website=zh:中财网 |date=2010-09-25 |access-date=2010-10-02 |archive-date=2011-07-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707015232/http://quote.cfi.cn/p20100925000059.html |url-status=dead }} including ¥310 billion in the first 10 months of 2010.[https://web.archive.org/web/20101021112317/http://www.businessweek.com/news/2010-10-13/yuan-bond-sales-climb-to-record-led-by-railways-china-credit.html Shelley Smith "Yuan Bond Sales Climb to Record Led by Railways: China Credit" Bloomberg] 2010-10-13 CRIC has also raised some capital through equity offerings; in the spring of 2010, CRIC sold a 4.5 percent stake in the Beijing–Shanghai high-speed railway to the Bank of China for ¥6.6 billion and a 4.5 percent stake to the public for ¥6 billion. CRIC retained 56.2 percent ownership on that line. As of 2010, the CRIC-bonds are considered to be relatively safe investments because they are backed by assets (the railways) and implicitly by the government.

|}

File:Crossing Shape-Shangrao Railway Station.JPG with a 380BL train serving the Hefei–Fuzhou HSR on the upper platforms and a 380A train serving the Hangzhou–Changsha HSR in the lower platform.]]

File:Shenzhen section of GSGXRL.jpg in May 2011]]

Large construction debt-loads require significant revenues from rider fares, subsidies, and/or other sources of income, such as advertising, to repay. Despite impressive ridership figures, virtually every completed line has incurred losses in its first years of operation. For example, the Beijing–Tianjin intercity railway in its two full years of operation, delivered over 41 million rides. The line cost ¥20.42 billion to build, and ¥1.8 billion per annum to operate, including ¥0.6 billion in interest payments on its ¥10 billion of loan obligations.{{cite news|language=zh |url=http://finance.ifeng.com/news/20100918/2634606.shtml |script-title=zh:不计建设投资 京津高铁今年持平 |script-work=zh:经济观察报 |publisher=Ifeng |date=2010-09-18}} The terms of the loans range from 5–10 years at interest rates of 6.3 to 6.8 percent. In its first year of operation from August 1, 2008, to July 31, 2009, the line carried 18.7 million riders and generated ¥1.1 billion in revenues, which resulted in a loss of ¥0.7 billion. In the second year, ridership rose to 22.3 million and revenues improved to ¥1.4 billion, which narrowed losses somewhat to below ¥0.5 billion. To break even, the line must deliver 30 million rides annually. To be able to repay principal, ridership would need to exceed 40 million. In September 2010, daily ridership averaged 69,000 or an annual rate of 25.2 million. In 2013, ridership totaled 25.85 million.{{cite news|language=zh |url=http://news.hexun.com/2014-12-20/171610757.html?from=rss |script-title=zh:京津城际高铁二线拟明年开工 或通过三河、香河、大厂 |date=2014-12-20 |website=hexun.com}}

The line has a capacity of delivering 100 million rides annually{{cite news|language=zh |url=http://finance.ifeng.com/roll/20100930/2675126.shtml |script-title=zh:4万公里快速铁路网冲刺 |script-work=zh:21世纪经济报道 |publisher=Ifeng |date=2010-09-30}} and initial estimated repayment period of 16 years. In 2012, the Beijing–Tianjin Intercity Railway reported that it had broken even, and by 2015 was operating at a profit.[http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/finance/2012/0925/1224324358339.html "Bullet trains trigger profit growth for railways" The Irish Times] September 25, 2012{{Cite web|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/politics/2016-08/02/c_129196920.htm|title=中国高铁盈利地图：东部线路赚翻 中西部巨亏(图)-新华网|website=news.xinhuanet.com|access-date=2017-07-03}}

The Shijiazhuang-Taiyuan PDL lost ¥0.8 billion in its first year and is set to lose ¥0.9 billion in 2010. The Southeast HSR corridor lost ¥0.377 billion in its first year beginning August 2009. The Zhengzhou-Xian HSR since opening in February 2010 was expected to generate revenues of ¥0.6 billion in its first full year but must make interest payments of ¥1.1 billion. In the first three quarters of 2012, the line lost ¥1.87 billion.{{cite news |language=zh |url=http://www.yicai.com/news/2014/12/4055850.html |script-title=zh:火爆城际铁路的上座率考验 |script-work=zh:第一财经日报 |date=2014-12-24 |access-date=2014-12-27 |archive-date=2014-12-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141227062723/http://www.yicai.com/news/2014/12/4055850.html |url-status=dead }} The losses must be covered by the operator, which is usually subsidized by local governments. In December 2014, the Henan provincial government imposed a rule requiring municipal authorities pay 70% of the deficit incurred by Henan's intercity lines with the provincial authorities paying the remainder 30%.{{cite news|language=zh |url=http://hn.ifeng.com/jingji/zhongyuanjingji/detail_2014_12/11/3272664_0.shtml |script-title=zh:河南对城际铁路实行运营亏损补贴 补亏期暂定5年 |script-work=zh:河南日报 |trans-work=Henan Daily |publisher=Ifeng |date=2014-12-11}}

The MOR faces a debt-repayment peak in 2014. Some economists recommend further subsidies to lower fares and boost ridership and ultimately revenues. Others warn that the financing side of the existing construction and operation model is unsustainable. If the rail-backed loans cannot be fully repaid, they may be refinanced or the banks may seize ownership of the railways. To prevent that eventuality, the MOR is trying to improve management of its rapidly growing HSR holdings.

Overall, ridership is growing as the high-speed rail network continues to expand. High-speed rail is also becoming relatively more affordable as fares have remained stable while worker wages have grown sharply over the same period.{{cite news|last=Bradsher|first=Keith

|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/24/business/global/high-speed-train-system-is-huge-success-for-china.html

|access-date=2013-09-26

|newspaper=New York Times

|date=2013-09-24

|title=Speedy Trains Transform China}} In 2016, the high-speed rail revenue was 140.9 billion RMB Yuan (US$20 billion), while the same term interest from at least 3300 billion debt of its construction was 156.8 billion RMB Yuan (US$22.4 billion).{{Cite web|url=https://finance.sina.com.cn/china/2019-01-28/doc-ihqfskcp1255944.shtml|title=谨防高铁灰犀牛|date=January 28, 2019|website=finance.sina.com.cn}} According to the World Bank, a stable long term planning and standardization of technology and design used in the high-speed rail helps to reduce financial and operational cost. Standardization of designs and procedures such as train tracks, rolling stocks, signal systems keeps the construction cost down. Moreover, State-owned corporation also uses bulk purchasing to reduce material prices.{{cite web|url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2019/07/08/chinas-experience-with-high-speed-rail-offers-lessons-for-other-countries|title=China's Experience with High Speed Rail Offers Lessons for Other Countries |website=The World Bank |date=8 July 2019}}

High-speed rail in China has been frequently criticised as having built more lines and stations than necessary, with negative impacts on its financial condition.{{cite news|first=Brian |last=Spegele |title=China Is Building 30,000 Miles of High-Speed Rail—That It Might Not Need |url=https://www.wsj.com/world/china/xi-high-speed-trains-china-3ef4d7f0?st=xAccvd&reflink=desktopwebshare_permalink |access-date=1 June 2025 |work=WSJ |date=21 November 2024}} Some lines and stations see only minimal service, with just a few trains per day.{{cite news |title=Empty High-Speed Rail Stations Face Reckoning - Caixin Global |url=https://www.caixinglobal.com/2018-08-09/empty-high-speed-rail-stations-face-reckoning-101313020.html |access-date=1 June 2025 |work=www.caixinglobal.com |agency=9 August 2018 |language=en}}{{cite news |last1=Nishimi |first1=Yoshiaki |title=Weak Demand for China's High-Speed Trains: A Ticking Time Bomb? {{!}} JAPAN Forward |url=https://japan-forward.com/weak-demand-for-chinas-high-speed-trains-a-ticking-time-bomb/ |access-date=1 June 2025 |work=japan-forward.com |date=12 September 2022}}{{cite news |last1=Bradsher |first1=Keith |title=China Is Raising Bullet Train Fares as Debts and Costs Balloon (Published 2024) |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/05/13/business/china-bullet-trains-ticket-prices.html |access-date=1 June 2025 |work=The New York Times |date=13 May 2024 |language=en}} Some stations on high-speed lines have never opened despite construction being complete due to low projected demand, or opened and then closed after only a couple of years due to low ridership.{{cite news |first=Richard |last=Spencer |title=China's ghost stations show a nation haunted by debt |url=https://www.thetimes.com/world/asia/article/chinas-ghost-stations-show-a-nation-haunted-by-debt-qqf9pdnvc |access-date=1 June 2025 |work=www.thetimes.com |date=25 August 2024 |language=en}} To stem this problem, the Chinese government introduced in 2021 new tighter criteria for the approval of new high-speed lines, requiring that lines duplicating existing routes should only be constructed if the existing route was operating at over 80% of capacity, and that new high-speed lines should only be built to cities that see more than 15 million trips a year.{{cite news |last1=Bai |first1=Yujie |last2=Lu |first2=Yutong |title=China looks to slow growth of struggling high-speed rail |url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Spotlight/Caixin/China-looks-to-slow-growth-of-struggling-high-speed-rail |access-date=1 June 2025 |work=Nikkei Asia |date=1 April 2021 |language=en}}

File:China Railways CRH5 EMU used in Changchun–Jilin Intercity Railway..jpg.]]

In 2013 fares for China's high-speed rail service costs significantly less than similar systems in other developed countries, for comparison high speed rail tickets in France or Germany cost slightly over US$0.10 per kilometer and the various Shinkansen services hover above US$0.20 per kilometer.{{citation needed|date=September 2023}} A 2019 study by the World Bank Group, had found that the HSR fares in China are low when compared to other countries and have attracted passengers from all income levels. They noted that HSR is "very competitive" with bus and aircraft transport for distances between 150 km and 800 km (about 3 to 4 hours travel time). Additionally due to the frequency and its high speeds, HSR services that travel at 350kph, still remains competitive with other modes of transport, for distances of up to 1,200 km.{{Cite web |last=G., Liu, Ziming |first=Lawrence, Martha B., Bullock, Richard |title=China's High-Speed Rail Development |url=https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/933411559841476316/Chinas-High-Speed-Rail-Development |access-date=2023-09-03 |website=World Bank |language=en}}

The spread of high-speed rail has forced domestic airlines in China to slash airfare and cancel regional flights.{{cite web |language=zh |url=http://www.infzm.com/content/57266 |script-title=zh:高铁分流民航客源：多条短程航班停飞 |website=infzm.com |date=2011-04-06 |access-date=2013-10-25 |archive-date=2013-10-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029192813/http://www.infzm.com/content/57266 |url-status=dead }} The impact of high-speed rail on air travel is most acute for intercity trips under {{convert|500|km|mi|abbr=on}}. By the spring of 2011, commercial airline service had been completely halted on previously popular routes such as Wuhan–Nanjing, Wuhan–Nanchang, Xi’an–Zhengzhou and Chengdu–Chongqing. Flights on routes over {{convert|1500|km|mi|abbr=on}} are generally unaffected. As of October 2013, high-speed rail was carrying twice as many passengers each month as the country's airlines.

{{wide image|Rail map of PRC.svg|850px|Map of railways in the People's Republic of China as of November 2023}}

{{main|List of high-speed railway lines in China}}

File:China high-speed rail network.png

China's high-speed railway network is by far the longest in the world. The HSR network reached {{convert|45,000|km|mi|abbr=on}} in total length by end of 2023 with plans to reach {{convert|70,000|km|mi|abbr=on}} in 2035.{{cite news |last = Chen |first = Frank |title = China sets railway building spree in high-speed motion |url = https://asiatimes.com/2020/08/china-sets-railway-building-spree-in-high-speed-motion/ |newspaper = Asia Times |date = August 24, 2020 }} HSR lines with design speeds at {{convert|200|–|250|km/h|abbr=on|mph}} are more common than higher speed lines. According to a World Bank publication on Chinese HSR, by the end of 2017 "the length of 300–350 kph lines was about 10,000 km, and the length of 200–250 kph lines was about 15,000 km."

Newer HSR lines are one of three types:

1. passenger dedicated lines (PDLs) with a design speed of {{convert|350|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}},
2. regional lines connecting major cities with a design speed of {{convert|250|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}}, and
3. certain regional "intercity" HSR lines with a design speed of {{convert|200|–|350|km/h|abbr=on|mph}}.

Lastly, the HSR network includes rail lines that had been newly constructed during a previous stage of the high speed rail build up, carrying high-speed passenger and express freight trains with a design speed of {{convert|200|–|250|km/h|abbr=on|mph}}.

File:CRHS zhs.svg

File:JingjiuShanghang.jpg, Henan Province, in February 2017. The elevated HSR runs next to the conventional speed Beijing–Kowloon Railway.]]

The centerpiece of China's expansion into high-speed rail is a national high-speed rail grid consisting of mainly passenger dedicated lines that is overlaid onto the existing railway network.

The grid is composed of eight high-speed rail corridors, four running north–south and four east–west, and has a total of {{Cvt|12000|km|4=0}}. Most of the lines follow the routes of existing trunk lines and are designated for passenger traffic only. They are known as passenger-designated lines (PDL). Several sections of the national grid, especially along the southeast coastal corridor, were built to link cities that had no previous rail connections. Those sections will carry a mix of passenger and freight. High-speed trains on HSR Corridors can generally reach {{convert|300|–|350|km/h|abbr=on|mph}}. On mixed-use HSR lines, passenger train service can attain peak speeds of {{convert|200|–|250|km/h|abbr=on|mph}}. This ambitious national grid project was planned to be built by 2020, but the government's stimulus has expedited time-tables considerably for many of the lines.

The 4+4 national HSR grid was largely completed by the end of 2015 and now serves as the backbone of China's HSR network. In July 2016, the state planners reorganized the national HSR network{{snd}}including HSR lines in operation, under construction and under planning{{snd}}into eight "vertical" (north–south) and eight "horizontal" (east–west) high speed rail corridors, almost doubling the network.{{Sfn|National Development and Reform Commission|2016|pp=7–10}}{{Cite news|url=http://en.people.cn/n3/2016/0721/c90000-9089436.html|title=30,000-kilometer high-speed railway to cover 80% of urban areas by 2020|date=July 21, 2016|work=People's Daily Online}}

{{div col|colwidth=30em}}

Eight Verticals{{Sfn|National Development and Reform Commission|2016|pp=8–9}}

1. Coastal corridor
2. Beijing–Shanghai corridor
3. Beijing–Hong Kong (Taipei) corridor
4. Harbin–Hong Kong (Macau) corridor
5. Hohhot–Nanning corridor
6. Beijing–Kunming corridor
7. Baotou (Yinchuan)–Hainan corridor
8. Lanzhou (Xining)–Guangzhou corridor

Eight Horizontals{{Sfn|National Development and Reform Commission|2016|pp=9–10}}

1. Suifenhe–Manzhouli corridor
2. Beijing–Lanzhou corridor
3. Qingdao–Yinchuan corridor
4. Eurasia Continental Bridge corridor
5. Yangtze River corridor
6. Shanghai–Kunming corridor
7. Xiamen–Chongqing corridor
8. Guangzhou–Kunming corridor

{{div col end}}

According to the "Mid-to-Long Term Railway Network Plan" (revised in 2008), the MOR plans to build over {{convert|40000|km|mi|abbr=on}} of railway in order to expand the railway network in western China and to fill gaps in the networks of eastern and central China. Some of these new railways are being built to accommodate speeds of {{convert|200|–|250|km/h|abbr=on|mph}} for both passengers and freight. These are also considered high-speed rail though they are not part of the national HSR grid or Intercity High Speed Rail. Several HSR lines planned and built as a regional high-speed railway under the 2008 Revisions have since been incorporated into the 8+8 national grid.

Intercity railways are designed to provide regional high-speed rail service between large cities and metropolitan areas that are generally within the same province. They are built with the approval of the central government but are financed and operated largely by local governments with limited investment and oversight from the China Rail Corporation. Some intercity lines run parallel to other high-speed rail lines but serve more stations along the route. Intercity HSR service speeds range from {{convert|200|–|350|km/h|abbr=on|mph}}.

The HSR network includes new mixed passenger-freight lines with a design speed of {{convert|200|–|250|km/h|abbr=on|mph}}. Some high speed trains also continue on or run over connecting segments of upgraded conventional lines. Trains can operate at {{convert|200|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}} on many of the conventional main lines.

File:RID clearing CRH gate.jpg to board a high-speed train on China Railway High-speed.]]

{{Main|China Railway High-speed}}

{{See also|Passenger rail transport in China}}

China Railway High-speed (CRH) is the major high-speed rail service provided by state-owned railway manufacturing and construction corporation China Railway. The CRH's high-speed trains are called Harmony and Rejuvenation. In October 2010, CRH service more than 1,000 trains per day, with a daily ridership of about 925,000.(Chinese){{cite web |url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/politics/2010-10/16/c_12666511.htm |title=超越——中国昂首跨入高铁时代_时政频道_新华网 |access-date=2010-10-17 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101019032854/http://news.xinhuanet.com/politics/2010-10/16/c_12666511.htm |archive-date=2010-10-19 }} 2010-10-16

Almost all HSR trains, tracks, and services are owned and operated by the China Railway Corporation under the brand China Railway High-speed (CRH) with two exceptions being the Shanghai Maglev Train, which is operated by the Shentong Metro Group, and Guangzhou–Shenzhen–Hong Kong Express Rail Link (XRL), which is partially operated by the Hong Kong-based MTR Corporation. Although both classified as high-speed rail, the Shanghai Maglev often is not counted as part of the national high-speed rail network, while XRL is fully integrated into the national network of the CRH.

China has the world's only commercial maglev high-speed train line in operation. The Shanghai Maglev Train, a turnkey Transrapid maglev demonstration line {{Cvt|30.5|km}} long. The trains have a top operational speed of {{convert|430|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}} and can reach a top non-commercial speed of {{convert|501|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}}. It opened for operations in March 2004, and transports passengers between Shanghai's Longyang Road station and Shanghai Pudong International Airport. There have been numerous attempts to extend the line without success. A Shanghai-Hangzhou maglev line was also initially discussed but later shelved in favour of conventional high-speed rail.{{Cite news|title=No timetable yet for Shanghai-Hangzhou maglev line: official |url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2010-03/23/c_13220828.htm |agency=Xinhua News Agency |date=March 23, 2010 |access-date=March 23, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110609223133/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2010-03/23/c_13220828.htm |archive-date=June 9, 2011 |url-status=dead }}

Two other Maglev lines, the Changsha Maglev and the Line S1 of Beijing, were designed for commercial operations with speeds lower than {{convert|120|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}}.{{cite news|title=Beijing's first maglev line resumes construction|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/beijing/2015-04/22/content_20503683.htm|work=China Daily|date=April 22, 2015}} The Fenghuang Maglev{{Cite web |last=严茂强 |title=Maglev line opens to tourists in Fenghuang |url=https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202208/09/WS62f1c36aa310fd2b29e71203.html |access-date=2023-12-31 |website=www.chinadaily.com.cn}} opened in 2022 while the Qingyuan Maglev is under construction.{{Cite news |title=All Existing and U/C Maglev Lines in 2020 |url=https://www.maglev.net/all-existing-and-under-construction-maglev-lines |work=MaglevNET|date=January 9, 2020 |access-date=April 5, 2020}}

{{Main|China Railway High-speed#Ridership}}

{{Historical populations

| title= Ridership on High-speed EMU train sets in China

| percentages = pagr

| align = right

| pop_name= million riders

| cols = 2

| source= 2008{{cite web|url=http://www.shihang.org/zh/news/press-release/2014/12/19/china-high-speed-rail-the-rapid-growth-of-a-new-travel-option |language=zh-Hans |script-title=zh:世界银行：中国高铁作为出行新选择快速发展|work=www.shihang.org|date=2014-12-19}} 2010{{cite web|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2012/04/05/000333038_20120405014255/Rendered/PDF/667980CHINESE000Speed0Rail0Final0EN.pdf |language=zh-Hans |script-title=zh:把脉中国高铁发展计划：高铁运行头三年|work=worldbank.org|date=2012-02-01}} 2011{{cite web|url=http://en.people.cn/90778/7754100.html|title=High-speed rail construction not suspended – People's Daily Online|last=F_404|website=en.people.cn}} 2014{{cite web|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2014/12/16/000406484_20141216103556/Rendered/PDF/932270CHINESE00R0traffic020140final.pdf |script-title=zh:中国高速铁路: 运量分析 |publisher=World Bank |date=December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141221094153/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2014/12/16/000406484_20141216103556/Rendered/PDF/932270CHINESE00R0traffic020140final.pdf |archive-date=2014-12-21 |access-date=2015-10-17 |language=zh|title=Error }}{{cite web|url=http://finance.people.com.cn/stock/n/2015/0130/c67815-26478015.html |script-title=zh:铁路2014年投资8088亿元 超额完成全年计划-财经-人民网 |website=people.com.cn |date=2015-01-30 |access-date=2015-10-17 |language=zh}} 2015{{cite news|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2016-07/21/c_135530835.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160722130437/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2016-07/21/c_135530835.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=July 22, 2016 |language=zh-cn |script-title=zh:新华网_让新闻离你更近 |work=Xinhua}}{{cite web|url=http://www.railjournal.com/index.php/financial/china-railway-sets-out-2017-targets.html?channel=522|title=China Railway sets out 2017 targets – International Railway Journal|date=4 January 2017}} 2016{{cite web|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2016-07/21/c_135530835.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160722130437/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2016-07/21/c_135530835.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 22, 2016|title=China Exclusive: Five bln trips made on China's bullet trains|work=Xinhua English |date=2016-07-21}} 2017{{cite web|url=http://www.chinanews.com/cj/2018/01-02/8414612.shtml |language=zh-cn |script-title=zh:2017年中国铁路投资8010亿元 投产新线3038公里-中新网|last=chinanews|website=www.chinanews.com}} 2018{{Cite web|url=https://baijiahao.baidu.com/s?id=1621536326561567883&wfr=spider&for=pc |language=zh-cn |script-title=zh:中国铁路2018年成绩：旅客发送量33.7亿人次 货物发送量40.22亿吨 |script-website=zh:央视财经|access-date=2019-01-30}} 2019{{Cite web|url=http://global.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202001/03/WS5e0eada7a310cf3e355824c4.html|title=China's railways report 3.57b passenger trips in 2019|website=China Daily|access-date=2020-01-04}} 2020-2022{{Cite web |last=Luk |first=Glenn |date=2023-04-12 |title=charts & data {{!}} 2023.04.12 |url=https://readwriteinvest.substack.com/p/charts-data-3-china-railway-2023-update |access-date=2023-09-06 |website=reading, writing & investing}} 2023{{Cite web |title=2024年中国高铁行业研究报告 - 21经济网 |url=https://www.21jingji.com/article/20240129/herald/68b413a05bb425b73016157b5bf43b0a.html |access-date=2024-07-28 |website=www.21jingji.com}} 2024 {{Cite web|url=https://www.nra.gov.cn/xwzx/xwxx/xwlb/202501/t20250116_348027.shtml|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250118233129/https://www.nra.gov.cn/xwzx/xwxx/xwlb/202501/t20250116_348027.shtml|url-status=dead|archive-date=2025-01-18|title=国家铁路局：2024年1—12月份全国铁路客货运量均创历史同期新高_国家铁路局|date=January 18, 2025}}

| 2007 |61

| 2008 |127

| 2009 |179

| 2010 |290

| 2011 |440

| 2012 |486

| 2013 |672

| 2014 |893

| 2015 |1161

| 2016 |1440

| 2017 |1713

| 2018 |2001

| 2019 |2290

| 2020 |1560

| 2021 |1920

| 2022 |2358

| 2023 |2940

| 2024 |3272

}}

China Railway reports the number of passengers carried by high-speed EMU train sets and this figure is frequently reported as high-speed ridership, even though this figure includes passengers from EMU trains providing sub-high speed service. In 2007, CRH EMU trains running on conventional track upgraded in the sixth round of the "Speed-up Campaign" carried 61 million passengers, before the country's first high-speed rail line, the Beijing–Tianjin intercity railway, opened in August 2008.

In 2018, China Railway operated 3,970.5 pairs of passenger train service, of which 2,775 pairs were carried by EMU train sets.{{Cite news| url=http://tech.ifeng.com/a/20190101/45277984_0.shtml |language=zh-cn |script-title=zh:中国高铁动车组发送旅客90亿人次：2018年占比超60％ |work=Ifeng News |date=2019-01-01 |access-date=2019-01-30}} Of the 3.313 billion passenger-trips delivered by China Railway in 2018, EMU train sets carried 2.001 billion passenger-trips. This EMU passenger figure includes ridership from certain D- and C-class trains that are technically not within the definition of high-speed rail in China, as well as ridership from EMU train sets serving routes on conventional track or routes that combine high-speed track and conventional track. Nevertheless, by any measure, high-speed rail ridership in China has grown rapidly with expansion of the high-speed rail network and EMU service since 2008.

China is the third country, after Japan and France, to have one billion cumulative HSR passengers. In 2018, annual ridership on EMU train sets, which encompasses officially defined high-speed rail service as well as certain sub-high-speed service routes, accounted for about two-thirds of all regional rail trips (not including urban trains) in China. At the end of 2018, cumulative passengers delivered by EMU trains is reported to be over 9 billion.

{{Main|Hexie Hao|Fuxing Hao}}

File:CRH380BL Business Coach SW622203 20121114.JPG

File:CRH1-Dining Car.jpg inside CRH1 train.]]

File:CRH2E-2464 at Beijing South Railway Station.jpg

China Railway High-speed runs different electric multiple unit trainsets, the name Hexie Hao ({{zh|s=和谐号|t=和諧號|p=Héxié Hào|l=Harmony}}) is for designs which are imported from other nations and designated CRH-1 through CRH-5 and CRH380A(L), CRH380B(L), and CRH380C(L). CRH trainsets are intended to provide fast and convenient travel between cities. Some of the Hexie Hao train sets are manufactured locally through technology transfer, a key requirement for China. The signalling, track and support structures, control software, and station design are developed domestically with foreign elements as well. By 2010, the truck system as a whole is predominantly Chinese.{{cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704814204575507353221141616|title=Train Makers Rail Against China's High-Speed Designs|first=Norihiko|last=Shirouzu|date=2010-11-17|access-date=2012-12-26|publisher=The Wall Street Journal}} China currently holds many new patents related to the internal components of these trains, re-designed in China to allow the trains to run at higher speeds than the foreign designs allowed. However, these patents are only valid within China, and as such hold no international power. The weakness on intellectual property of Hexie Hao causes obstruction for China to export its high-speed rail related product, which leads to the development of the completely redesigned train franchise called Fuxing Hao ({{zh|s=复兴号|t=復興號|p=Fùxīng Hào|l=Rejuvenation|c=}}) that is based on indigenous technologies.{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/18/world/asia/18rail.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0|title=China Rail Chief's Firing Hints at Trouble|first1=Michael|last1=Wines|first2=Keith|last2=Bradsher|date=2011-02-17|access-date=2012-12-27|work=The New York Times|quote=Many multinational companies also resent China for tweaking foreign designs and building the equipment itself rather than importing it.}}{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/14/world/asia/14china.html|title=High-Speed Trains in China to Run Slower, Ministry Says|first=Ian|last=Johnson|date=2011-06-13|access-date=2012-12-27|work=The New York Times|quote=In the past few months, some foreign companies that sold China its high-speed technology said the trains were not designed to operate at 215 miles per hour. The ministry said that Chinese engineers had improved on the foreign technology and that the trains were safe at the higher speeds.}}{{cite news|url=http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/business/2011-06/28/content_12796458.htm|title=Full steam ahead for high-speed rail patents overseas|first=Dingding|last=Xin|date=2011-06-28|access-date=2012-12-27|publisher=China Daily}}

In October 2016 China's CRRC announced that it was beginning research and development on a {{convert|600|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}} Maglev train and would build a {{Cvt|5|km}} test track.{{Cite news|title=Chinese firm launches R&D on 600 km/h maglev train|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/bizchina/2016-10/22/content_27141407.htm|date=2016-10-22|access-date=2016-12-19}} In June 2020, a trial run was conducted at Tongji University. A planned launch of the maglev train was set for 2025.{{cite news |date = 2020-08-11 |title = China to step up testing on fastest-ever maglev train |url = https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3096803/china-set-step-testing-countrys-fastest-ever-maglev-train-top |access-date = 2020-10-15 |newspaper = South China Morning Post |language = en }}

File:China high speed rail ballastless tracks.JPG

File:Dmitry Medvedev in China 15 April 2011-2.jpeg aboard a high-speed train in Hainan in April 2011.]]

Many of the Passenger Designated Lines use ballastless tracks, which allow for smoother train rides at high speeds and can withstand heavy use without warping. The ballastless track technology, imported from Germany, carries higher upfront costs but can reduce maintenance costs.{{cite web|url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:G-cIWUMMvLgJ:www2.china.ahk.de/download/pub/GT_2009issue3_BusinessFocus.pdf+zhengzhou+Ballastless+track&hl=en&gl=us&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESg8fKUqC3NXb-nWv6-SurhjEDgtHk4TE-jTHfj-9uyLDyouQ0Kc5Z0tZi2kgbdlsgvbvUqwwzCtxJrPG7hLbnZRSLUQP4P3-GuXN1bBwZL4ADWEcq2bSxb8oNeBtwiJ6pRI2dne&sig=AHIEtbSmazyrWA_jqpZlhyZFvs9bUTBLHg |title=GC Ticker June–July 2009 |access-date=2011-08-14}}{{cite web|url=http://www.docstoc.com/docs/24512961/WuGuang-High-Speed-Rail-Project/ |title=WuGuang High Speed Rail Project |publisher=Docstoc.com |date=2010-02-05 |access-date=2011-08-14}}

Typical application of track technology in China high-speed lines

Chinese train-makers and rail builders have signed agreements to build HSRs in Turkey, Venezuela, Argentina,{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/08/business/global/08rail.html?src=me&ref=business |title=China Is Eager to Bring High-Speed Rail Expertise to the U.S. |date=2010-04-08 |author=Keith Bradsher |work=The New York Times |access-date=2010-04-08 }} and Indonesia{{Cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/indonesia-to-break-ground-on-first-high-speed-railway-this-year-1443596942?mod=rss_Business |title=Indonesia's Handling of High-speed Train Project Adds to Business Confusion, Mixed Messages to Japan, China Come as Indonesia courts foreign investors |date=2015-09-30 |author=Ben Otto and Anita Rachman |work=The Wall Street Journal |access-date=2015-10-01 }} and are bidding on HSR projects in the United States, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Brazil (São Paulo to Rio de Janeiro) and Myanmar, and other countries. They are competing directly with the established European and Japanese manufacturers, and sometimes partnering with them. In Saudi Arabia's Haramain High Speed Rail Project, Alstom partnered with China Railway Construction Corp. to win the contract to build phase I of the Mecca to Medina HSR line, and Siemens has joined CSR to bid on phase II.[http://rinsider.club-feroviar.ro/en/afiseaza_stire.php?id=6085 "Siemens joins China bid for Saudi Haramain project"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110826060003/http://rinsider.club-feroviar.ro/en/afiseaza_stire.php?id=6085 |date=2011-08-26 }} March 24, 2010 China is also competing with Japan, Germany, South Korea, Spain, France and Italy to bid for California's high-speed rail line project, which would connect San Francisco and Los Angeles.[https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/08/business/global/08rail.html "China Is Eager to Bring High-Speed Rail Expertise to the U.S." N.Y. Times] 2010-04-10 In November 2009, the MOR signed preliminary agreements with the state's high-speed rail authority and General Electric (GE) under which China would license technology, provide financing and furnish up to 20 percent of the parts with the remaining sourced from American suppliers, and final assembly of the rolling stock in the United States.{{cite web|url=http://3blmedia.com/theCSRfeed/GE-and-China-MOR-Sign-Strategic-MOU-Advance-High-Speed-Rail-Opportunities-US |title=GE and China MOR Sign Strategic MOU to Advance High-Speed Rail Opportunities in the U.S. |publisher=3blmedia.com |date=2009-11-17 |access-date=2011-08-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120310120050/http://3blmedia.com/theCSRfeed/GE-and-China-MOR-Sign-Strategic-MOU-Advance-High-Speed-Rail-Opportunities-US|archive-date=2012-03-10}}

In January 2014, the China Railway Construction Corporation completed a {{Cvt|30|km}} section of the Ankara-Istanbul high-speed railway between Eskişehir and İnönü in western Turkey.[https://web.archive.org/web/20140121011817/http://english.cri.cn/11354/2014/01/18/3441s808757.htm Chinese Firm Constructs High-Speed Railway in Turkey] 2014-01-18

In 2015, China Railway signed up to design a high-speed railway line between the Russian cities of Moscow and Kazan. Russian state-owned railway corporation JSC Russian Railways cooperated with China Railway Group to plan for a 770-kilometer high-speed rail between the two Russian cities. The estimated total cost of the design contract is 20.8 billion rubles ($383 million) for two years.{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/china-to-design-new-highspeed-russian-railway-between-moscow-and-kazan-10334924.html |title=China to design new high-speed Russian railway between Moscow and Kazan |website=The Independent |date=21 June 2015 |first=Louis |last=Dore }} Once the designs are developed, a separate tender will be held for the construction of the rail link, which Russian Railways expects to cost 1.06 trillion rubles ($19.5 billion).{{cite web|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/china-to-design-new-russian-high-speed-railway-1434729400 |title=China to Design New Russian High-Speed Railway |website=The Wall Street Journal |date=19 June 2015 |first=Paul |last=Sonne }}

In October 2023, Indonesia launched the first high-speed railway in Southeast Asia, named Whoosh, connecting Indonesia's capital Jakarta and its economic hub Bandung.{{cite web|url=https://www.thejakartapost.com/world/2023/10/01/indonesia-to-launch-jakarta-bandung-high-speed-rail-first-in-southeast-asia.html |title= Indonesia to launch Jakarta-Bandung high-speed rail, first in Southeast Asia |website=Jakarta Post |date=1 October 2023 |agency=AFP }}{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/indonesia-ap-joko-widodo-china-jakarta-b2421753.html |title=Indonesia is set to launch Southeast Asia's first high-speed railway, largely funded by China |website=The Independent |date=1 October 2023 |first=Niniek |last=Karmini }}{{cite web|url=https://apnews.com/article/indonesia-china-high-speed-railway-jakarta-bandung-3f1e4b5be6a83a0b0f54981c2e93be60 |title=Indonesian president launches Southeast Asia's first high-speed railway, funded by China |website=Associate Press |date=2 October 2023 |first1=Achmad |last1=Ibrahim |first2=Niniek |last2=Karmini }} As part of China's Belt and Road Initiative, the project cost $7.3 billion and was primarily funded by Chinese banks. As per the agreement, China Railway provided high-speed rail technologies and operational knowledge to Indonesia while China Railway Construction Corporation (CRCC) completed the line. The line is operated by Kereta Cepat Indonesia China. According to Western analysts, this is the first complete high-speed rail export project offered by China and signifies China's growing geopolitical influence in the region.{{cite web|url=https://qz.com/indonesia-whoosh-high-speed-rail-china-belt-and-road-in-1850882868 |title= Why China laid the tracks for Indonesia's first high-speed rail |date=2 October 2023 |first=Julia |last=Malleck }}{{cite web|url=https://edition.cnn.com/travel/article/indonesia-first-bullet-train-china-funding-intl-hnk/index.html |title=With China's help, Indonesia launches Southeast Asia's first bullet train |website=CNN |date=2 October 2023 |first=Derek |last=Cai }}{{cite web|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-10-02/indonesia-starts-southeast-asia-s-first-high-speed-rail-operations?leadSource=uverify%20wall |title=Indonesia Starts Southeast Asia's First High-Speed Rail Operations |website=Bloomberg |date=2 October 2023 |first=Chandra |last=Asmara }}{{cite web|url=https://www.thetimes.com/world/asia/article/whoosh-indonesia-launches-china-backed-bullet-train-r202f9j9b |title=Whoosh: Indonesia launches China-backed bullet train |website=The Times UK |date=2 October 2023 |author=Richard Lloyd Parry }}{{cite web|url=https://www.dw.com/en/indonesia-launches-southeast-asias-fastest-train/a-66977833 |title=Indonesia launches Southeast Asia's fastest train |website=DW |date=2 October 2023 }} Indonesia and Chinese authorities discussed further plans to extend the railway across the Java island.{{cite web |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/china-premier-completes-trial-run-indonesias-first-high-speed-rail-2023-09-06/ |title=China, Indonesia discuss extending Jakarta high-speed railway |website=Reuters |date=6 September 2023 |first=Stefanno |last=Sulaiman }}{{cite web|url=https://www.channelnewsasia.com/asia/indonesias-high-speed-rail-set-launch-september-authorities-look-surabaya-phase-two-3697766 |title=With Indonesia's high-speed rail set to launch in September, authorities look to Surabaya for phase two |website=CNA |date=14 August 2023 |first=Saifulbahri |last=Ismail }}

File:Digital readout of maximum speed of Shanghai Maglev, 431km per hr.jpg train, with a top speed of {{convert|431|km/h|abbr=on}}, is the fastest train in China. The maglev train has remained confined to its original {{convert|30|km|abbr=on}} track as state planners chose high-speed trains that run on conventional tracks for the national HSR network.]]

{{Main|Fastest trains in China}}

The "fastest" train commercial service can be defined alternatively by a train's top speed or average trip speed.

• The fastest commercial train service measured by peak operational speed is the Shanghai Maglev Train which can reach {{convert|431|km/h|abbr=on}}. Due to the limited length of the Shanghai Maglev track {{Cvt|30|km|4=1}}, the maglev train's average trip speed is only {{convert|245.5|km/h|abbr=on}}. During testing in 2003, the maglev train achieved the Chinese record speed of {{convert|501|km/h|abbr=on}}.{{cite web|url=http://shanghaichina.ca/video/maglevtrain.html|title=Shanghai Maglev Train (431 km/h) - High Definition Video|website=shanghaichina.ca}}
• The fastest commercial train service measured by average train speed is the CRH express service on the Beijing–Shanghai high-speed railway, which reaches a top speed of {{convert|350|km/h|mph|abbr=on}} and completes the {{convert|1302|km|mi|abbr=on}} journey between Shanghai Hongqiao and Beijing South, with two stops, in 4 hours and 24 min for an average speed of {{convert|291.9|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}, the fastest train service measured by average trip speed in the world.{{Cite news|url=http://companies.caixin.com/2017-09-20/101147957.html |language=zh-cn |script-title=zh:京沪高铁明提速 "复兴号"将在中途超车"和谐号" |work=Caixin Companies |access-date=2018-12-03}}{{Cite web|url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2017-09/22/c_136628785.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180130215112/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2017-09/22/c_136628785.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=January 30, 2018|title=China restores bullet train speed to 350 km/h – Xinhua {{!}} English.news.cn|website=www.xinhuanet.com|access-date=2018-03-10}}{{Cite web|url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2017-09/21/c_136625952.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180131130224/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2017-09/21/c_136625952.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=January 31, 2018|title=China begins to restore 350 kmh bullet train – Xinhua {{!}} English.news.cn|website=www.xinhuanet.com|access-date=2018-03-10}}
• The fastest timetabled start-to-stop runs between a station pair in the world are trains G17/G39 on the Beijing–Shanghai high-speed railway averaging {{convert|317.7|km/h||abbr=on}} running non-stop between Beijing South to Nanjing South before continuing to other destinations.{{Cite web|url=https://www.railwaygazette.com/fileadmin/user_upload/railwaygazette.com/PDF/Railway_Gazette_World_Speed_Survey_2019.pdf|title=China powers ahead as new entrants clock in|website=Railway Gazette International|access-date=2019-07-09|archive-date=2019-07-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190709020342/https://www.railwaygazette.com/fileadmin/user_upload/railwaygazette.com/PDF/Railway_Gazette_World_Speed_Survey_2019.pdf|url-status=dead}}
• The top speed attained by a non-maglev train in China is {{convert|487.3|km/h|mph|abbr=on}} by a CRH380BL train on the Beijing–Shanghai high-speed railway during a testing run on January 10, 2011.{{cite news|url=http://stock.sohu.com/20110110/n278782856.shtml |language=zh-cn |script-title=zh:中国北车刷新高铁运营试验世界纪录速度(图)-搜狐证券 |publisher=Sohu Stocks |access-date=2011-08-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720204729/http://stock.sohu.com/20110110/n278782856.shtml |archive-date=2011-07-20 |url-status=dead }}

The trains G403/404 and G405/406 for the {{rws|Beijing West}} (Beijingxi) - {{rws|Kunming South}} (Kunmingnan) service (distance {{Cvt|2760|km}}, travel time about 10 1/2 hours), which began service on January 1, 2017, became the longest high-speed rail service in the world.[http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2017-01/05/content_27872148.htm "China launches longest high-speed train service" China Daily] 2017-01-05 It overtook the G529/530 trains for the {{Station|Beijing West}} - Beihai ({{ill|Beihai Railway Station |zh|北海站 (广西)}}) service ({{Cvt|2697|km}}, 15 1/2 hours for southbound train, 15 3/4 hours for northbound train), which had set the previous record on July 1, 2016.{{cite news|url=http://news.sina.com.cn/c/2016-06-15/doc-ifxszfak3901559.shtml |language=zh-cn |script-title=zh:北京西至北海将开通全国运行里程最长动车 |script-work=zh:中国青年报 |publisher=Sina News |date=2016-06-15}}

• China Railway High-speed
• Fastest trains in China
• List of high-speed railway lines
• Rail transport in China
• {{Commons category-inline|High-speed rail in China}}
• {{Wikivoyage inline}}

{{NoteFoot}}

• Yan, Karl (2023). "Market-creating states: rethinking China's high-speed rail development". Review of International Political Economy.

{{Reflist}}

{{refbegin}}

• {{cite web |url = http://www.gov.cn/flfg/2013-02/20/content_2334582.htm |script-title = zh:中华人民共和国铁道部令 第34号 铁路主要技术政策 |date=2013-01-09 |access-date=2017-07-30 |language = zh-CN |trans-title = Ministry of Railways Order No. 34: Primary Railway Technology Policy |author-link = Ministry of Railways (China) |author = Ministry of Railways |website = GOV.cn }}
• {{cite web |url = http://www.ndrc.gov.cn/zcfb/zcfbqt/200906/W020090605629892360234.pdf|script-title = zh:中长期铁路网规划(2008年调整) |date = October 2008 |access-date = 2017-07-30 |language = zh-CN |trans-title= Mid- to Long-Term Railway Network Plan (2008 Revision) |author = National Development and Reform Commission |author-link = National Development and Reform Commission |website = NDRC.gov.cn }}
• {{cite web |url = http://www.ndrc.gov.cn/zcfb/zcfbtz/201607/W020170213333938328309.pdf|script-title = zh:中长期铁路网规划" (2016) 发改基础(2016)1536号 |date=2016-07-13 |access-date=2017-07-30 |language = zh-CN |trans-title = Mid- to Long-Term Railway Network Plan (2016 Revision) |author = National Development and Reform Commission |author-link = National Development and Reform Commission |website = NDRC.gov.cn |archive-date=2017-07-30 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170730031231/http://www.ndrc.gov.cn/zcfb/zcfbtz/201607/W020170213333938328309.pdf |url-status=dead }}

{{refend}}

{{commons category-inline}}

{{High-speed rail in the People's Republic of China}}

{{High-speed rail}}

{{Transport in China}}

{{Portal bar|Trains|Railways|China}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:High-Speed Rail In China}}

Category:High-speed rail in Asia