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Royal intermarriage#Royal intermarriage outside of Europe

{{Short description|Practice of ruling dynasties marrying into other reigning families}}

{{good article}}

File:Felipe of Spain and MariaTudor.jpg and his wife, the Tudor Mary I of England. Mary and Philip were first cousins once removed.]]

File:Wedding of Nicholas II and Alexandra Feodorovna by Laurits Tuxen (1895-6, Royal coll.).jpg and Alix of Hesse (whose name was changed to Alexandra Feodorovna in the process), second cousins through their shared great-grandparents Louis II, Grand Duke of Hesse, and Wilhelmine of Baden]]

Royal intermarriage is the practice of members of ruling dynasties marrying into other reigning families. It was more commonly done in the past as part of strategic diplomacy for national interest. Although sometimes enforced by legal requirement on persons of royal birth, more often it has been a matter of political policy or tradition in monarchies.

In Europe, the practice was most prevalent from the medieval era until the outbreak of World War I, but evidence of intermarriage between royal dynasties in other parts of the world can be found as far back as the Bronze Age.Cohen, p.165 Monarchs were often in pursuit of national and international aggrandisement on behalf of themselves and their dynasties,Thomson, pp.79–80 thus bonds of kinship tended to promote or restrain aggression.Bucholz, p.228 Marriage between dynasties could serve to initiate, reinforce or guarantee peace between nations. Alternatively, kinship by marriage could secure an alliance between two dynasties which sought to reduce the sense of threat from or to initiate aggression against the realm of a third dynasty. It could also enhance the prospect of territorial acquisition for a dynasty by procuring legal claim to a foreign throne, or portions of its realm (e.g., colonies), through inheritance from an heiress whenever a monarch failed to leave an undisputed male heir.

In parts of Europe, royalty continued to regularly marry into the families of their greatest vassals as late as the 16th century. More recently, they have tended to marry internationally. In other parts of the world royal intermarriage was less prevalent and the number of instances varied over time, depending on the culture and foreign policy of the era.

By continent/country

{{Further|Marriage of state}}

File:Traite-Pyrenees.jpg and Philip IV of Spain meeting at the Isle of Pheasants for the signing of the Treaty of the Pyrenees, which, in part, arranged the marriage of Louis with Philip's daughter Maria Theresa.]]

While the contemporary Western ideal sees marriage as a unique bond between two people who are in love, families in which heredity is central to power or inheritance (such as royal families) have often seen marriage in a different light. There are often political or other non-romantic functions that must be served and the relative wealth and power of the potential spouses may be considered. Marriage for political, economic, or diplomatic reasons, the marriage of state, was a pattern seen for centuries among European rulers.Fleming

=Africa=

At times, marriage between members of the same dynasty has been common in Central Africa.Dobbs, David

In West Africa, the sons and daughters of Yoruba kings were traditionally given in marriage to their fellow royals as a matter of dynastic policy. Sometimes these marriages would involve members of other tribes. Erinwinde of Benin, for example, was taken as a wife by the Oba Ọranyan of Oyo during his time as governor of Benin. Their son Eweka went on to found the dynasty that rules the Kingdom of Benin.

Marriages between the Swazi, Zulu and Thembu royal houses of southern Africa are common.'Wedding Brings Xhosa, Zulu Tribes Together', LA Times For example, the daughter of South African president and Thembu royal Nelson Mandela, Zenani Mandela, married Prince Thumbumuzi Dlamini, a brother of Mswati III, King of Eswatini.Keller Elsewhere in the region, Princess Semane Khama of the Bamangwato tribe of Botswana married Kgosi Lebone Edward Molotlegi of the Bafokeng tribe of South Africa.'[https://www.news24.com/Archives/City-Press/The-Bafokeng-Getting-royalty-right-20150429 The Bafokeng: Getting royalty right] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180617020745/https://www.news24.com/Archives/City-Press/The-Bafokeng-Getting-royalty-right-20150429 |date=17 June 2018 }}', News24.com, 13 November 2012

Other examples of historical, mythical and contemporary royal intermarriages throughout Africa include:

==Ancient Egypt==

{{See also|Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty|Amenhotep III}}

Several Egyptian pharaohs married the daughters of neighbouring kings to secure peace and form alliances. The Egyptian-Hittite peace treaty, the earliest known surviving peace treaty in the world, was sealed by a marriage between the pharaoh Ramesses II and a Hittite princess. Pharaoh Amasis II married a Greek princess named Ladice daughter of King Battus III of Cyrene.

Not to mention the Ptolemaic Kingdom, the last (and longest) dynasty to rule all of Egypt before its incorporation into the Roman Republic, who were infamous for their inbreeding in the form of sibling marriages. This was to keep their bloodline pure, and to prevent external forces from potentially taking power through a connection to the royal line.

However, Pharaoh Amenhotep III alone is known to have married several foreign women: Gilukhepa, daughter of Shuttarna II of Mitanni, in the tenth year of his reign;{{sfn|Dodson|Hilton|2004|p=155}} Tadukhepa, daughter of his ally Tushratta of Mitanni, around Year 36 of his reign;{{sfn|Fletcher|2000|p=156}}{{sfn|Grajetzki|2005}} a daughter of Kurigalzu I of Babylon;{{sfn|Grajetzki|2005}} a daughter of Kadashman-Enlil I of Babylon;{{sfn|Grajetzki|2005}} a daughter of Tarhundaradu of Arzawa;{{sfn|Grajetzki|2005}} and a daughter of the ruler of Ammia (in modern Syria).{{sfn|Grajetzki|2005}}

=Asia=

==Babylonia and Assyria==

There are a few recorded cases of intermarriage between Assyrian and Babylonian royals. According to legend, the Babylonian{{Cite book|title=The Historical Review|last=Creighton M.A. L.L.D.|first=Rev. Mandell|publisher=Longmans, Green, And Co.|year=1888|volume=3|location=London & New York|pages=112}}{{Cite book|title=The Lifting of the Veil: Acts 15:20-21|last=Yehoshua|first=Avram|publisher=Trafford Publishing|date=June 7, 2011|isbn=978-1426972034|pages=58}}{{cite book |last1=Levine Gera |first1=Deborah |title=Warrior Women The Anonymous Tractatus de Mulieribus |date=1997 |publisher=Brill |page=107 |isbn=9789004106659 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fbm0nGoZo58C}} Semiramis was married to the Assyrian general Onnes and then to the Assyrian king Ninus, the legendary founder of Nineveh according to the Ancient Greeks.{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/article/743/|title=Sammu-Ramat and Semiramis: The Inspiration and the Myth|website=World History Encyclopedia|access-date=2016-04-13}}The Library of History by Diodorus Siculus, Vol. 1, The Loeb Classical Library, 1933. Retrieved on 2015-03-08 from http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/2A*.html. She has been equated with the historical Shammuramat, wife of Shamshi-Adad V. In turn, Shammuramat has been claimed to be of Babylonian descent.{{cite book |last1=Robertson |first1=John |title=Iraq - A History |date=2015 |publisher=Oneworld Publications |isbn=9781786070258 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EB69DwAAQBAJ |quote=Shammuramat, the Babylonian wife of the Assyrian king Shamshi-Adad V (ruled 811–808 BC E) and a powerful figure in her own right}}{{cite book |last1=Tsetskhladze |first1=Gocha R. |title=Archaeology and History of Urartu (Biainili) |date=2021 |publisher=Peeters Publishers |isbn=9789042944220 |page=684 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MOmyEAAAQBAJ |quote=Shammuramat, was a well-known Babylonian princess and wife of the Assyrian king Shamshi-Adad V (823–811 BC).}} In the early 9th century BC, the Babylonian king Nabu-shuma-ukin I (Dynasty of E) exchanged daughters in marriage with the contemporary Assyrian monarch.{{cite book |last1=Bertman |first1=Stephen |title=Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia |date=14 July 2005 |publisher=OUP USA |isbn=9780195183641 |page=97 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1C4NKp4zgIQC}} The Assyrian princess Muballitat-Sherua, daughter of Ashur-uballit I, was given in marriage to the contemporary Babylonian monarch. She was the mother of the future Babylonian king Kara-hardash.{{cite book |last1=Leick |first1=Gwendolyn |title=Who's Who in the Ancient Near East |date=2002 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9781134787968 |page=91 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nAGFAgAAQBAJ}} Additionally, Kurigalzu II was either the son or grandson of Muballitat.{{cite book |last1=Liverani |first1=Mario |title=The Ancient Near East History, Society and Economy |date=2013 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9781134750917 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_EtJAgAAQBAJ |quote=He then placed the infant Kurigalzu II ('the little one'), another son or nephew of Muballitat-Sherua}} Other consorts of Assyrian monarchs, such as Naqiʾa, Ešarra-ḫammat,{{Cite book |last=Leick |first=Gwendolyn |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HUFdfwRpDykC |title=Mesopotamia: The Invention of the City |publisher=Penguin UK |year=2002 |isbn=978-0141927114 |orig-date=2001}} Banitu (who was perhaps brought to Assyria as a hostage after Tiglath-Pileser's conquest of Babylon){{Cite book|last1=Yamada|first1=Keiko|title="Now It Happened in Those Days": Studies in Biblical, Assyrian, and Other Ancient Near Eastern Historiography Presented to Mordechai Cogan on His 75th Birthday|last2=Yamada|first2=Shiego|publisher=Eisenbrauns|year=2017|isbn=978-1575067612|editor-last=Baruchi-Unna|editor-first=Amitai|volume=2|location=Winona Lake, Indiana|chapter=Shalmaneser V and His Era, Revisited|editor-last2=Forti|editor-first2=Tova|editor-last3=Aḥituv|editor-first3=Shmuel|editor-last4=Ephʿal|editor-first4=Israel|editor-last5=Tigay|editor-first5=Jeffrey H.|chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/35496181|page=393}} might also have been of Babylonian origin.{{cite book |last1=Elayi |first1=Josette |title=Esarhaddon, King of Assyria |date=2023 |publisher=Lockwood Press |isbn=9781957454955 |pages=47–48 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0eOyEAAAQBAJ}}

==Babylon and Elam==

Babylonians and Elamites engaged many times in royal intermarriage, especially in the Kassite period. It is probable that Elamites and Kassites had close ties long before the first attested royal intermarriages between them.{{cite journal |last1=Potts |first1=D. T. |title=Elamites and Kassites in the Persian Gulf |journal=Journal of Near Eastern Studies |date=April 2006 |volume=65 |issue=2 |pages=111–119 |url=https://doi.org/10.1086/504986 |publisher=University of Chicago Press|doi=10.1086/504986 |s2cid=162371671 }} Babylonian Kassites and Elamites intensively intermarried for a period of about 120 years, from c. 1290 to 1170 BC. The royal intermarriages in this period were: Pahir-ishshan to eldest daughter (princess) of Kurigalzu II (1290); Untash-Napirisha to daughter of prince Burnaburiash (1250); Kidin-Hutran to daughter of prince [...]-duniash (1230); Shutruk-Nakhunte to the eldest daughter of Melishihu. Also Napirisha-Untash (c. 1210 BC) and Hutelutush-Inshushinak (c. 1190) are thought to have married Babylonian Kassite princesses. A man of Elamite origin, Mar-biti-apla-usur, the founder of the so-called Elamite dynasty, reigned in Babylon from around 980 to 975 BC, though the identity and origin of his consort are unknown. He might not have been himself from Elam but a Babylonian partially of Elamite origin.{{cite book |last1=Chen |first1=Fei |title=Study on the Synchronistic King List from Ashur |date=2020 |publisher=Brill |isbn=9789004430921 |page=86}}

==Thailand==

The Chakri dynasty of Thailand has included marriages between royal relatives,Dobbs but marriages between dynasties and foreigners, including foreign royals, are rare. This is in part due to Section 11 of 1924 Palace Law of Succession which excludes members of the royal family from the line of succession if they marry a non-Thai national.Liu & Perry

The late king Bhumibol Adulyadej was a first-cousin once removed of his wife, Sirikit, the two being, respectively, a grandson and a great-granddaughter of Chulalongkorn.Thailand Country Study Chulalongkorn married a number of his half-sisters, including Savang Vadhana and Sunandha Kumariratana; all shared the same father, Mongkut.Stengs, p.275 He also married Dara Rasmi, a princess of a vassal state.

==Vietnam==

The Lý dynasty which ruled Dai Viet (Vietnam) married its princesses off to regional rivals to establish alliances with them. One of these marriages was between a Lý empress regnant (Lý Chiêu Hoàng) and a member of fishermen-turned-warlords Trần clan (Trần Thái Tông) from Nam Định, which enabled the Trần to then topple the Lý and established their own Trần dynasty.{{cite book|author=Kenneth R. Hall|title=Secondary Cities and Urban Networking in the Indian Ocean Realm, C. 1400–1800|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gyPjBevBHxcC&q=tran+fujian&pg=PA159|archive-url=https://archive.today/20161022121639/https://books.google.de/books?id=gyPjBevBHxcC&pg=PA159&dq=tran+fujian&hl=en&sa=X&ei=XiPNVPrfH4WgNsWpgagC&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=tran%20fujian&f=false|archive-date=22 October 2016|year=2008|publisher=Lexington Books|isbn=978-0-7391-2835-0|pages=159–|url-status=live|access-date=25 March 2017|df=dmy-all}}{{cite book|author1=Ainslie Thomas Embree|author2=Robin Jeanne Lewis|title=Encyclopedia of Asian history|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cNwpAQAAMAAJ&q=tran+fujian|archive-url=https://archive.today/20161022122029/https://books.google.nl/books?id=cNwpAQAAMAAJ&q=tran+fujian&dq=tran+fujian&hl=en&sa=X&ei=1iPNVKSgKoS4ggTd6oDgCw&redir_esc=y|archive-date=22 October 2016|year=1988|publisher=Scribner|page=190|isbn=9780684189017|url-status=live|access-date=25 March 2017|df=dmy-all}}

A Lý princess also married into the Hồ clan faction, which later usurped power and established the Hồ dynasty after having a Tran princess marry their leader, Hồ Quý Ly.{{cite book|author=Kenneth R. Hall|title=Secondary Cities and Urban Networking in the Indian Ocean Realm, C. 1400–1800|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gyPjBevBHxcC&pg=PA161|year=2008|publisher=Lexington Books|isbn=978-0-7391-2835-0|pages=161–|access-date=15 July 2016|archive-date=8 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108004631/https://books.google.com/books?id=gyPjBevBHxcC&pg=PA161|url-status=live}}{{cite book|author=K. W. Taylor|title=A History of the Vietnamese|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P2HP31kOSA4C&pg=PA166|date=9 May 2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-87586-8|pages=166–|access-date=15 July 2016|archive-date=19 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819171757/https://books.google.com/books?id=P2HP31kOSA4C&pg=PA166|url-status=live}}

==Cambodia==

The Cambodian King Chey Chettha II married the Vietnamese Nguyễn lord Princess Nguyễn Thị Ngọc Vạn, a daughter of Lord Nguyễn Phúc Nguyên, in 1618.Mai Thục, Vương miện lưu đày: truyện lịch sử, Nhà xuất bản Văn hóa – thông tin, 2004, p.580; Giáo sư Hoàng Xuân Việt, Nguyễn Minh Tiến hiệu đính, Tìm hiểu lịch sử chữ quốc ngữ, Ho Chi Minh City, Công ty Văn hóa Hương Trang, pp.31–33; Helen Jarvis, Cambodia, Clio Press, 1997, p.xxiii.{{cite book|url=http://www.sacei07.org/women10.jsp|title=The Women of Vietnam|series=Saigon Arts, Culture & Education Institute Forum|author1=Nghia M. Vo|author2=Chat V. Dang|author3=Hien V. Ho|publisher=Outskirts Press|date=2008-08-29|isbn=978-1-4327-2208-1|access-date=18 August 2015|archive-date=3 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303200648/http://www.sacei07.org/women10.jsp|url-status=live}} In return, the king granted the Vietnamese the right to establish settlements in Mô Xoài (now Bà Rịa), in the region of Prey Nokor—which they colloquially referred to as Sài Gòn, and which later became Ho Chi Minh City.{{cite book|title=Cambodia: report from a stricken land|author=Henry Kamm|url=https://archive.org/details/cambodiareportfr00kamm|url-access=registration|quote=chey chettha II.|year=1998|publisher=Arcade Publishing|isbn=978-1-55970-433-5|page=[https://archive.org/details/cambodiareportfr00kamm/page/23 23]}}{{cite web|url=http://nguyenphuoctoc.net/doc/nguyen_bac_english.html|title=Nguyễn Bặc and the Nguyễn|access-date=2010-06-16|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090413074249/http://nguyenphuoctoc.net/doc/nguyen_bac_english.html|archive-date=13 April 2009|df=dmy-all}}

== India ==

In the Chola dynasty in southern India, Madhurantaki the daughter of Emperor Rajendra II married Kulottunga I the son the son of Eastern Chalukya ruler Rajaraja Narendra. This was to improve the relationship between the two royal houses and to straighten Chola influence in Vengai.{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2017-08-05 |title=Rajendra Deva II (a.d. 1052-1064) |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/south-asia/book/middle-chola-temples/d/doc211906.html |access-date=2022-06-27 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}} Kulottunga and Madhurantaki were first cousins as Kulottunga's mother Amangai Devi was the sister of Rajendra II making them both the grandchildren of Emperor Rajendra I.

==China==

{{Main|Heqin}}

Marriage policy in imperial China differed from dynasty to dynasty. Several dynasties practiced Heqin, which involved marrying off princesses to other royal families.

The Xiongnu practiced marriage alliances with Han dynasty officers and officials who defected to their side. The older sister of the Chanyu (the Xiongnu ruler) was married to the Xiongnu general Zhao Xin, the Marquis of Xi who was serving the Han dynasty. The daughter of the Chanyu was married to the Han Chinese general Li Ling after he surrendered and defected.[https://www.academia.edu/5147439/Aristocratic_elites_in_the_Xiongnu_empire] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171029205445/http://www.academia.edu/5147439/Aristocratic_elites_in_the_Xiongnu_empire|date=29 October 2017}}, p. 31.{{cite book|author1=Qian Sima|author2=Burton Watson|title=Records of the Grand Historian: Han dynasty|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YNlgKEVYdHEC&q=li+guangli+daughter&pg=PA161|date=January 1993|publisher=Renditions-Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-08166-5|pages=161–}}{{cite book|title=Monumenta Serica|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8-1wAAAAMAAJ&q=li+guangli+daughter+chanyu|year=2004|publisher=H. Vetch|page=81|access-date=2 June 2016|archive-date=8 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211108000034/https://books.google.com/books?id=8-1wAAAAMAAJ&q=li+guangli+daughter+chanyu|url-status=live}}{{cite book|author=Frederic E. Wakeman|title=The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA41|year=1985|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-04804-1|pages=41–|access-date=15 July 2016|archive-date=9 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109012238/https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA41|url-status=live}} The Yenisei Kirghiz Khagans claimed descent from Li Ling.{{cite book|access-date=8 February 2012|title=The role of women in the Altaic world: Permanent International Altaistic Conference, 44th meeting, Walberberg, 26–31 August 2001|editor=Veronika Veit|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OBEIq8kTQBcC&pg=PA61|edition=illustrated|volume=152 of Asiatische Forschungen|year=2007|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3447055376|page=61|archive-date=9 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140709020028/http://books.google.com/books?id=OBEIq8kTQBcC&pg=PA61|url-status=live}}{{cite book|access-date=8 February 2012|title=Tang China and the collapse of the Uighur Empire: a documentary history|author=Michael Robert Drompp|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NB6DEdAxLOsC&pg=PA126|edition=illustrated|volume=13 of Brill's Inner Asian library|year=2005|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-9004141292|page=126|archive-date=9 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140709020040/http://books.google.com/books?id=NB6DEdAxLOsC&pg=PA126|url-status=live}} Another Han Chinese general who defected to the Xiongnu was Li Guangli who also married a daughter of the Chanyu.{{cite book |author=Lin Jianming (林剑鸣) |title=秦漢史 |trans-title=History of Qin and Han |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lqfrEY8UW1UC&pg=PA557 |year=1992 |publisher=Wunan Publishing |isbn=978-957-11-0574-1 |pages=557–8 |access-date=2 June 2016 |archive-date=9 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200609171619/https://books.google.com/books?id=lqfrEY8UW1UC&pg=PA557 |url-status=live }}

The Xianbei Tuoba royal family of Northern Wei started to arrange for Han Chinese elites to marry daughters of the royal family in the 480s.{{cite book|author=Rubie Sharon Watson|title=Marriage and Inequality in Chinese Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gAIcwz3V_JsC&pg=PA80|year=1991|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-07124-7|pages=80–|access-date=15 July 2016|archive-date=31 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210731142917/https://books.google.com/books?id=gAIcwz3V_JsC&pg=PA80|url-status=live}} Some Han Chinese exiled royalty fled from southern China and defected to the Xianbei. Several daughters of the Xianbei Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei were married to Han Chinese elites, the Han Chinese Liu Song royal Liu Hui 劉輝, married Princess Lanling 蘭陵公主 of the Northern Wei,{{harvp|Lee|2014}}.{{cite book|title=Papers on Far Eastern History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BdtBAAAAYAAJ&q=liu+hui+wei+princess|year=1983|publisher=Australian National University, Department of Far Eastern History.|page=86|access-date=22 June 2016|archive-date=8 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211108000153/https://books.google.com/books?id=BdtBAAAAYAAJ&q=liu+hui+wei+princess|url-status=live}} Princess Huayang 華陽公主 to Sima Fei 司馬朏, a descendant of Jin dynasty royalty, Princess Jinan 濟南公主 to Lu Daoqian 盧道虔, Princess Nanyang 南陽長公主 to Xiao Baoyin 蕭寶夤, a member of Southern Qi royalty.{{cite book|title=China: Dawn of a Golden Age, 200–750 AD|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_JbdS-R3y72MC|quote=Xiao Baoyin.|year=2004|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art|isbn=978-1-58839-126-1|pages=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_JbdS-R3y72MC/page/n56 30]–}} Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei's sister the Shouyang Princess was wedded to The Liang dynasty ruler Emperor Wu of Liang's son Xiao Zong 蕭綜.{{cite book|title=Ancient and Early Medieval Chinese Literature (vol.3 & 4): A Reference Guide, Part Three & Four|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OWLPBAAAQBAJ&q=Xiao+Baoyin&pg=PA1566|date=22 September 2014|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-27185-2|pages=1566–|access-date=2 November 2020|archive-date=18 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210718093527/https://books.google.com/books?id=OWLPBAAAQBAJ&q=Xiao+Baoyin&pg=PA1566|url-status=live}}

When the Eastern Jin dynasty ended Northern Wei received the Jin prince Sima Chuzhi 司馬楚之 as a refugee. A Northern Wei Princess married Sima Chuzhi, giving birth to Sima Jinlong. Northern Liang King Juqu Mujian's daughter married Sima Jinlong.{{cite book|title=China: Dawn of a Golden Age, 200–750 AD|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_JbdS-R3y72MC|quote=sima.|year=2004|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art|isbn=978-1-58839-126-1|pages=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_JbdS-R3y72MC/page/n44 18]–}}

The Rouran Khaganate arranged for one of their princesses, Khagan Yujiulü Anagui's daughter Princess Ruru 蠕蠕公主 to be married to the Han Chinese ruler Gao Huan of the Eastern Wei.{{cite book|title=Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women: Antiquity Through Sui, 1600 B.C.E.-618 C.E.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u7mLql4TAxoC&pg=PA316|year=2007|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|isbn=978-0-7656-4182-3|pages=316–|access-date=15 July 2016|archive-date=24 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191224073106/https://books.google.com/books?id=u7mLql4TAxoC&pg=PA316|url-status=live}}Gao Huan, as demanded by Yujiulü Anagui as one of the peace terms between Eastern Wei and Rouran, married the Princess Ruru in 545, and had her take the place of Princess Lou as his wife, but never formally divorced Princess Lou. After Gao Huan's death, pursuant to Rouran customs, the Princess Ruru became married to Gao Huan's son Gao Cheng, who also, however, did not formally divorce his wife.

The Kingdom of Gaochang was made out of Han Chinese colonists and ruled by the Han Chinese{{cite book|author=Baij Nath Puri|title=Buddhism in Central Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sluKZfTrr3oC&pg=PA78|year=1987|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0372-5|pages=78–|access-date=2 June 2016|archive-date=9 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109122327/https://books.google.com/books?id=sluKZfTrr3oC&pg=PA78|url-status=live}}{{cite book|author1=Charles Eliot|author2=Sir Charles Eliot|title=Hinduism and Buddhism: An Historical Sketch|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KbPgG6ondlUC&pg=PA206|year=1998|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-7007-0679-2|pages=206–|access-date=2 June 2016|archive-date=9 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109104645/https://books.google.com/books?id=KbPgG6ondlUC&pg=PA206|url-status=live}} Qu family which originated from Gansu.{{cite book|author=Marc S. Abramson|title=Ethnic Identity in Tang China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-GLGnRspmcAC&q=gaochang+chu&pg=PA119|date=31 December 2011|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=978-0-8122-0101-7|pages=119–|access-date=2 November 2020|archive-date=8 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211108000034/https://books.google.com/books?id=-GLGnRspmcAC&q=gaochang+chu&pg=PA119|url-status=live}} Jincheng commandery 金城 (Lanzhou), district of Yuzhong 榆中 was the home of the Qu Jia.{{cite book|author=Roy Andrew Miller|title=Accounts of Western Nations in the History of the Northern Chou Dynasty [Chou Shu 50. 10b-17b]: Translated and Annotated by Roy Andrew Miller|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G5z04Q046UgC&q=kao+ch%27ang&pg=PA5|year=1959|publisher=University of California Press|pages=5–|id=GGKEY:SXHP29BAXQY|access-date=2 November 2020|archive-date=8 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211108000034/https://books.google.com/books?id=G5z04Q046UgC&q=kao+ch%27ang&pg=PA5|url-status=live}} The Qu family was linked by marriage alliances to the Turks, with a Turk being the grandmother of King Qu Boya.{{cite book|author=Jonathan Karam Skaff|title=Straddling steppe and town: Tang China's relations with the nomads of inner Asia (640–756).|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tDgfAQAAMAAJ&q=The+most+striking+example+of+this+phenomena+occurred+in+the+Kingdom+of+Gaochang+when+Qu+Boya+Hffi|year=1998|publisher=University of Michigan.|page=57|isbn=9780599084643|access-date=2 June 2016|archive-date=8 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211108000035/https://books.google.com/books?id=tDgfAQAAMAAJ&q=The+most+striking+example+of+this+phenomena+occurred+in+the+Kingdom+of+Gaochang+when+Qu+Boya+Hffi|url-status=live}}{{cite book|title=Asia Major|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8O8VAQAAMAAJ&q=kao+ch%27ang+turkic|year=1998|publisher=Institute of History and Philology of the Academia Sinica|page=87|access-date=2 June 2016|archive-date=8 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211108000037/https://books.google.com/books?id=8O8VAQAAMAAJ&q=kao+ch%27ang+turkic|url-status=live}}

Tang dynasty (618–907) emperors exchanged and the rulers of the Uyghur Khaganate exchanged princesses in marriage to consolidate the special trade and military relationship that developed after the Khaganate supported the Chinese during the An Lushan Rebellion.Veit, p.57 The Uyghur Khaganate exchanged princesses in marriage with Tang dynasty China in 756 to seal the alliance against An Lushan. The Uyghur Khagan Bayanchur Khan had his daughter Uyghur Princess Pijia (毗伽公主) married to Chinese prince Li Chengcai (李承采) of the Tang dynasty, Prince of Dunhuang (敦煌王), son of Li Shouli, Prince of Bin, while Chinese princess Ninguo of the Tang dynasty married Uyghur Khagan Bayanchur. At least three Tang imperial princesses are known to have married khagans between 758 and 821. These unions temporarily stopped in 788, partly because stability within China meant that they were politically unnecessary. However, threats from Tibet in the west, and a renewed need for Uyghur support, precipitated the marriage of Princess Taihe to Bilge Khagan.

The ethnically Chinese Cao family ruling Guiyi Circuit established marriage alliances with the Uighurs of the Ganzhou Kingdom, with both the Cao rulers marrying Uighur princesses and with Cao princesses marrying Uighur rulers. The Ganzhou Uighur Khagan's daughter was married to Cao Yijin in 916.{{cite book|title=Eighteen Lectures on Dunhuang|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HvIa9sere_8C&pg=PA44|date=7 June 2013|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-25233-2|pages=44–|access-date=15 July 2016|archive-date=6 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160506072358/https://books.google.com/books?id=HvIa9sere_8C&pg=PA44|url-status=live}}{{cite book|author=Lilla Russell-Smith|title=Uygur Patronage In Dunhuang: Regional Art Centres On The Northern Silk Road In The Tenth and Eleventh Centuries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hzsnT67gykkC&pg=PA63|year=2005|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-14241-1|pages=63–|access-date=15 July 2016|archive-date=31 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210731142514/https://books.google.com/books?id=hzsnT67gykkC&pg=PA63|url-status=live}}{{cite book|author1=Wenjie Duan|author2=Chung Tan|title=Dunhuang Art: Through the Eyes of Duan Wenjie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0SdXEVaFTJ0C&q=Cao+Yijin+Shengtian&pg=PA189|date=1 January 1994|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-313-7|pages=189–|access-date=2 November 2020|archive-date=8 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211108000035/https://books.google.com/books?id=0SdXEVaFTJ0C&q=Cao+Yijin+Shengtian&pg=PA189|url-status=live}}

The Chinese Cao family ruling Guiyi Circuit established marriage alliances with the Saka Kingdom of Khotan, with both the Cao rulers marrying Khotanese princesses and with Cao princesses marrying Khotanese rulers. A Khotanese princess who was the daughter of the King of Khotan married Cao Yanlu.{{cite book|author=Lilla Russell-Smith|title=Uygur Patronage In Dunhuang: Regional Art Centres On The Northern Silk Road In The Tenth and Eleventh Centuries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hzsnT67gykkC&q=Cao+Yanlu+Khotan&pg=PA23|year=2005|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-14241-1|pages=23–|access-date=2 November 2020|archive-date=8 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211108000039/https://books.google.com/books?id=hzsnT67gykkC&q=Cao+Yanlu+Khotan&pg=PA23|url-status=live}}

The Khitan Liao dynasty arranged for women from the Khitan royal consort Xiao clan to marry members of the Han Chinese Han 韓 clan, which originated in Jizhou 冀州 before being abducted by the Khitan and becoming part of the Han Chinese elite of the Liao.{{Cite web |url=https://www.academia.edu/3806884 |title=Biran 2012, p. 88. |access-date=4 December 2017 |archive-date=31 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210731142504/https://www.academia.edu/3806884/Michal_Biran._Khitan_Migrations_in_Inner_Asia_Central_Eurasian_Studies_3_2012_85-108 |url-status=live |last1=Biran |first1=Michal }}[https://web.archive.org/web/20140414060414/http://cces.snu.ac.kr/article/jces3_4biran.pdf Biran 2012, p. 88.][http://arizona.openrepository.com/arizona/bitstream/10150/195429/1/azu_etd_1292_sip1_m.pdf Cha 2005] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012011621/http://arizona.openrepository.com/arizona/bitstream/10150/195429/1/azu_etd_1292_sip1_m.pdf|date=12 October 2013}}, p. 51. [http://arizona.openrepository.com/arizona/handle/10150/195429] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141221092455/http://arizona.openrepository.com/arizona/handle/10150/195429|date=21 December 2014}}[http://sunzi.lib.hku.hk/ER/detail/hkul/3631975] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160808081049/http://sunzi.lib.hku.hk/ER/detail/hkul/3631975|date=8 August 2016}}[https://www.amazon.co.uk/lives-907-1125-aristocratic-women-China/dp/0542321823] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160813234732/https://www.amazon.co.uk/lives-907-1125-aristocratic-women-China/dp/0542321823|date=13 August 2016}}

Han Chinese Geng family intermarried with the Khitan and the Han 韓 clan provided two of their women as wives to Geng Yanyi and the second one was the mother of Geng Zhixin.{{cite book|title=Political Strategies of Identity Building in Non-Han Empires in China|editor-last1=Fiaschetti|editor-first1=Francesca|editor-last2=Schneider|editor-first2=Julia|chapter=Fan and Han: The Origins and Uses of a Conceptual Dichotomy in Mid-Imperial China, ca. 500–1200|last=Yang|first=Shao-yun|chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/4886627|year=2014|publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag|location=Wiesbaden|page=22|access-date=4 December 2017|archive-date=31 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210731142505/https://www.academia.edu/4886627|url-status=live}} Empress Rende's sister, a member of the Xiao clan, was the mother of Han Chinese General Geng Yanyi.{{cite book|title=Orient|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SWttAAAAMAAJ&q=General+Geng+Yanyi%27s+mother+%28a+lady+of+Xiao%29+was+a+sister+of+Empress+Rende+of+the+Liao+Dynasty.+Queen+dowager+of|year=2004|publisher=Maruzen Company|page=41|access-date=2 June 2016|archive-date=8 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211108000038/https://books.google.com/books?id=SWttAAAAMAAJ&q=General+Geng+Yanyi%27s+mother+%28a+lady+of+Xiao%29+was+a+sister+of+Empress+Rende+of+the+Liao+Dynasty.+Queen+dowager+of|url-status=live}}

Han Durang (Yelu Longyun) was the father of Queen dowager of State Chen, who was the wife of General Geng Yanyi and buried with him in his tomb in Zhaoyang in Liaoning.{{cite book|title=Orient|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SWttAAAAMAAJ&q=2+in+Zhaoyang,+Liaoning+According+to+the+epitaph,+this+tomb+is+the+burial+place+of+General+Geng+Yanyi+and+Queen+dowager+of+State+Chen.+General+Geng+Yanyi%27s+...+Queen+dowager+of+State+Chen%27s+father+was+Han+Durang+%28Yelu+Longyun%29+...|year=2004|publisher=Maruzen Company|page=41|access-date=2 June 2016|archive-date=8 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211108000054/https://books.google.com/books?id=SWttAAAAMAAJ&q=2+in+Zhaoyang%2C+Liaoning+According+to+the+epitaph%2C+this+tomb+is+the+burial+place+of+General+Geng+Yanyi+and+Queen+dowager+of+State+Chen.+General+Geng+Yanyi%27s+...+Queen+dowager+of+State+Chen%27s+father+was+Han+Durang+%28Yelu+Longyun%29+...|url-status=live}} His wife was also known as "Madame Han".{{cite book|author1=Hsueh-man Shen|title=Gilded splendor: treasures of China's Liao Empire (907–1125)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WX8YAAAAYAAJ&q=...+like+this+example.+but+made+from+gray+and+green+sandstone+were+excavated+from+the+tomb+of+Geng+Yanyi+and+his+wife.1+Geng+Yanyi+was+a+highly+decorated+Chinese+official+who+served+the+Liao+government,+and+his+wife,+Madame+Han,+was+...|date=1 September 2006|publisher=5 continents|isbn=978-88-7439-332-9|page=106|access-date=2 June 2016|archive-date=31 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210731142513/https://books.google.com/books?id=WX8YAAAAYAAJ&q=...+like+this+example.+but+made+from+gray+and+green+sandstone+were+excavated+from+the+tomb+of+Geng+Yanyi+and+his+wife.1+Geng+Yanyi+was+a+highly+decorated+Chinese+official+who+served+the+Liao+government,+and+his+wife,+Madame+Han,+was+...|url-status=live}} The Geng's tomb is located in Liaoning at Guyingzi in Chaoying.{{cite book|author=Jiayao An|title=Early Chinese Glassware|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jnzrAAAAMAAJ&q=27%29+Glass+handled+cup+%28excavated+from+the+tomb+of+the+Geng+family+at+Guyingzi,+Chaoyang,+Liaoning%29+[pi.+V11.6]+...+27%29+was+found+in+the+tomb+of+Geng+Yanyi+of+the+Liao+period,+at+Guyingzi,+Chaoyang,+Liaoning+province.1391+It+is+of+transparent+dark+green+glass+containing+...+29%29+Glass+eared+cup+%28excavated+from+Han+tomb+no.|year=1987|publisher=Millennia|page=12|access-date=2 June 2016|archive-date=8 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211108000038/https://books.google.com/books?id=jnzrAAAAMAAJ&q=27%29+Glass+handled+cup+%28excavated+from+the+tomb+of+the+Geng+family+at+Guyingzi%2C+Chaoyang%2C+Liaoning%29+%5Bpi.+V11.6%5D+...+27%29+was+found+in+the+tomb+of+Geng+Yanyi+of+the+Liao+period%2C+at+Guyingzi%2C+Chaoyang%2C+Liaoning+province.1391+It+is+of+transparent+dark+green+glass+containing+...+29%29+Glass+eared+cup+%28excavated+from+Han+tomb+no.|url-status=live}}http://kt82.zhaoxinpeng.com/view/138019.htm{{dead link|date=April 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} https://www.academia.edu/4954295/La_Steppe_et_l_Empire_la_formation_de_la_dynastie_Khitan_Liao_ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210731143426/https://www.academia.edu/4954295/La_Steppe_et_l_Empire_la_formation_de_la_dynastie_Khitan_Liao_ |date=31 July 2021 }}

Emperors of the proceeding Song dynasty (960–1279) tended to marry from within their own borders. Tang emperors, mainly took their wives from high-ranking bureaucratic families, but the Song dynasty did not consider rank important when it came to selecting their consorts.Zhao, p.34 It has been estimated that only a quarter of Song consorts were from such families, with the rest being from lower status backgrounds. For example, Liu, consort of Emperor Zhenzong, had been a street performer and consort Miao, wife of Emperor Renzong was the daughter of his own wet nurse.

During the Qing dynasty (1644–1912), emperors chose their consorts primarily from one of the eight Banner families, administrative divisions that divide all native Manchu families.Walthall, p.138 To maintain the ethnic purity of the ruling dynasty, after the Kangxi Period (1662–1722), emperors and princes were forbidden to marry non-Manchu and non-Mongol wives.Walthall, p.149 Imperial daughters however were not covered by this ban, and as with their preceding dynasties, were often married to Mongol princes to gain political or military support, especially in the early years of the Qing dynasty; three of the nine daughters of Emperor Nurhaci and twelve of Emperor Hongtaiji's daughters were married to Mongol princes.

The Manchu imperial Aisin Gioro clan practiced marriage alliances with Han Chinese Ming generals and Mongol princes. Aisin Gioro women were married to Han Chinese generals who defected to the Manchu side during the Manchu conquest of China. The Manchu leader Nurhaci married one of his granddaughters to the Ming general Li Yongfang (李永芳) after he surrendered Fushun in Liaoning to the Manchu in 1618 and a mass marriage of Han Chinese officers and officials to Manchu women numbering 1,000 couples was arranged by Prince Yoto 岳托 (Prince Keqin) and Hongtaiji in 1632 to promote harmony between the two ethnic groups.{{cite book|author=Anne Walthall|title=Servants of the Dynasty: Palace Women in World History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QXHbhsfaJAYC&q=To+win+the+support+and+cooperation+of+Ming+generals+in+Liaodong,+Nurhaci+gave+them+Aisin+Gioro+women+as+wives.+In+1618,+before+he+attacked+Fushun+city,+he+promised+the+Ming+general+defending+the+city+a+woman+from+the+Aisin+Gioro+clan&pg=PA148|year=2008|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-25444-2|pages=148–|access-date=2 November 2020|archive-date=8 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211108000038/https://books.google.com/books?id=QXHbhsfaJAYC&q=To+win+the+support+and+cooperation+of+Ming+generals+in+Liaodong%2C+Nurhaci+gave+them+Aisin+Gioro+women+as+wives.+In+1618%2C+before+he+attacked+Fushun+city%2C+he+promised+the+Ming+general+defending+the+city+a+woman+from+the+Aisin+Gioro+clan&pg=PA148|url-status=live}}{{cite book|author=Frederic Wakeman|title=Fall of Imperial China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ORBmFSFcJKoC&q=Li+was+made+a+banner+general,+was+given+gifts+of+slaves+and+serfs,+and+was+betrothed+to+a+young+woman+of+the+Aisin+Gioro+clan.+Although+Li%27s+surrender+at+the+time+was+exceptional,+his+integration+into+the+Manchu+elite+was+only+the+first&pg=PA79|date=1 January 1977|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-0-02-933680-9|pages=79–|access-date=2 November 2020|archive-date=8 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211108000150/https://books.google.com/books?id=ORBmFSFcJKoC&q=Li+was+made+a+banner+general%2C+was+given+gifts+of+slaves+and+serfs%2C+and+was+betrothed+to+a+young+woman+of+the+Aisin+Gioro+clan.+Although+Li%27s+surrender+at+the+time+was+exceptional%2C+his+integration+into+the+Manchu+elite+was+only+the+first&pg=PA79|url-status=live}} Aisin Gioro women were married to the sons of the Han Chinese generals Sun Sike (Sun Ssu-k'o) 孫思克, Geng Jimao (Keng Chi-mao), Shang Kexi (Shang K'o-hsi), and Wu Sangui (Wu San-kuei).{{cite book|author=Rubie Sharon Watson|title=Marriage and Inequality in Chinese Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gAIcwz3V_JsC&pg=PA179|year=1991|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-07124-7|pages=179–180|access-date=30 June 2016|archive-date=11 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200911045020/https://books.google.com/books?id=gAIcwz3V_JsC&pg=PA179|url-status=live}}

Nurhaci's son Abatai's daughter was married to Li Yongfang.{{Cite web |url=http://www.lishiquwen.com/news/7356.html |title=李永芳将军的简介 李永芳的后代-历史趣闻网 |access-date=30 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171203055230/http://www.lishiquwen.com/news/7356.html |archive-date=3 December 2017 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}{{cite web |url=http://www.fs7000.com/wap/?9179.html |title=曹德全：首个投降后金的明将李永芳_[历史人物]_抚顺七千年-Wap版 |access-date=2016-06-30 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161007063611/http://www.fs7000.com/wap/?9179.html |archive-date=7 October 2016 |df=dmy-all }}{{Cite web | url=http://www.75800.com.cn/lx2/pAjRqK/9N6KahmKbgWLa1mRb1iyc_.html | title=手游加入竞赛系统《坦克世界：闪击战》发力电竞09-08作者：endure58 endure58未经授权不得转载-莴苣设备有限公司 | access-date=30 June 2016 | archive-date=7 October 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161007091128/http://www.75800.com.cn/lx2/pAjRqK/9N6KahmKbgWLa1mRb1iyc_.html | url-status=live }}{{Cite news | url=https://read01.com/aP055D.html | title=第一個投降滿清的明朝將領結局如何？ | access-date=30 June 2016 | archive-date=25 February 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225193102/https://read01.com/aP055D.html | url-status=live }} The offspring of Li received the "Third Class Viscount" ({{zh|c=三等子爵|p=sān děng zǐjué|labels=no}}) title.{{cite book|author=Evelyn S. Rawski|title=The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions|url=https://archive.org/details/lastemperorssoc00raws|url-access=registration|date=15 November 1998|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-92679-0|pages=[https://archive.org/details/lastemperorssoc00raws/page/72 72]–}} Li Yongfang was the great-great-great-grandfather of Li Shiyao 李侍堯.{{cite ECCP|title=Li Shih-yao}}{{Cite web |url=http://12103081.wenhua.danyy.com/library1210shtml30810106630060.html |title=Archived copy |access-date=30 June 2016 |archive-date=11 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160811190256/http://12103081.wenhua.danyy.com/library1210shtml30810106630060.html |url-status=live }}

The "efu" 額駙 rank was given to husbands of Qing princesses. Geng Zhongming, a Han bannerman, was awarded the title of Prince Jingnan, and his son Geng Jinmao managed to have both his sons Geng Jingzhong and Geng Zhaozhong 耿昭忠 become court attendants under the Shunzhi Emperor and married Aisin Gioro women, with Prince Abatai's granddaughter marrying Geng Zhaozhong 耿昭忠 and Haoge's (a son of Hong Taiji) daughter marrying Geng Jingzhong.{{cite book|author=FREDERIC WAKEMAN JR.|title=The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA1017|year=1985|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-04804-1|pages=1017–|access-date=15 July 2016|archive-date=19 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210619162742/https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA1017|url-status=live}} A daughter 和硕柔嘉公主 of the Manchu Aisin Gioro Prince Yolo 岳樂 (Prince An) was wedded to Geng Juzhong 耿聚忠 who was another son of Geng Jingmao.{{cite book|author=FREDERIC WAKEMAN JR.|title=The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA1018|year=1985|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-04804-1|pages=1018–|access-date=30 June 2016|archive-date=19 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210619162741/https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA1018|url-status=live}}

The fourteenth daughter of Kangxi (和硕悫靖公主) was wedded to Sun Chengen, the son (孫承恩) of Sun Sike (Sun Ssu-k'o) 孫思克, a Han bannerman.{{cite book|author=Rubie Sharon Watson|title=Marriage and Inequality in Chinese Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gAIcwz3V_JsC&pg=PA179|year=1991|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-07124-7|pages=179–|access-date=30 June 2016|archive-date=11 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200911045020/https://books.google.com/books?id=gAIcwz3V_JsC&pg=PA179|url-status=live}}

==Korea==

File:Prince and Princess Euimin.jpg

The Silla Kingdom had a practice that limited the succession to the throne to members of the seonggol, or "sacred bone", rank. To maintain their "sacred bone" rank, members of this caste often intermarried with one another in the same fashion that European royals intermarried to maintain a "pure" royal pedigree.Kim, p.56

The Goryeo dynasty had a history of incestuous marriage within the royal family in its early years, starting from Gwangjong, the fourth king, who married his half-sister Queen Daemok. To avoid scandals, the female members of the dynasty would be ceremonially adopted by their maternal families after birth. This practice of dynastic incest ended with the overthrow of Queen Heonae, the mother of Mokjong, the seventh king, after she attempted to seize the throne for herself and her illegitimate sons by placing these sons as Mokjong's heir, only to be foiled by a coup masterminded by the Goryeo general Kang Cho.

After the Second Manchu invasion of Korea, Joseon Korea was forced to give several of their royal princesses as concubines to the Qing Manchu regent Prince Dorgon.{{cite book|author=FREDERIC WAKEMAN JR.|title=The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&q=dorgon+korean+princess&pg=PA892|archive-url=https://archive.today/20161022134104/https://books.google.de/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA892&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&redir_esc=y%23v=onepage&q=dorgon%20korean%20princess&f=false|archive-date=22 October 2016|year=1985|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-04804-1|pages=892–|url-status=live|access-date=25 March 2017|df=dmy-all}}{{cite book|author1=Frank W. Thackeray|author2=John E. Findling|title=Events That Formed the Modern World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BRl1sWYShpcC&q=dorgon+korean+princess&pg=RA1-PA200|archive-url=https://archive.today/20161022123426/https://books.google.nl/books?id=BRl1sWYShpcC&pg=RA1-PA200&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&redir_esc=y%23v=onepage&q=dorgon%20korean%20princess&f=false|archive-date=22 October 2016|date=31 May 2012|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-901-1|pages=200–|url-status=live|access-date=25 March 2017|df=dmy-all}}{{cite ECCP|title=Dorgon|page=217}}{{cite book|author=Raymond Stanley Dawson|title=Imperial China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H5AKAQAAIAAJ&q=dorgon+korean+princess|archive-url=https://archive.today/20161022134507/https://books.google.nl/books?id=H5AKAQAAIAAJ&q=dorgon+korean+princess&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&redir_esc=y|archive-date=22 October 2016|year=1972|publisher=Hutchinson|page=275|isbn=9780091084806|url-status=live|access-date=25 March 2017|df=dmy-all}}{{cite book|author=Raymond Stanley Dawson|title=Imperial China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AFtxAAAAMAAJ&q=and+for+the+first+seven+years+of+his+young+nephew%27s+reign+Dorgon+exercised+supreme+power+and+laid+the+firm+foundations+...+Power+seems+to+have+gone+to+his+head,+for+he+ordered+the+King+of+Korea+to+send+princesses+to+be+his+concubines+and+...|year=1976|publisher=Penguin|page=306|isbn=9780140218992|access-date=18 August 2015|archive-date=31 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210731142859/https://books.google.com/books?id=AFtxAAAAMAAJ&q=and+for+the+first+seven+years+of+his+young+nephew%27s+reign+Dorgon+exercised+supreme+power+and+laid+the+firm+foundations+...+Power+seems+to+have+gone+to+his+head%2C+for+he+ordered+the+King+of+Korea+to+send+princesses+to+be+his+concubines+and+...|url-status=live}} In 1650, Dorgon married the Korean Princess Uisun (義順).{{cite book|title=梨大史苑|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IN42AAAAIAAJ&q=dorgon+korean+princess|archive-url=https://archive.today/20161022134944/https://books.google.nl/books?id=IN42AAAAIAAJ&q=dorgon+korean+princess&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&redir_esc=y|archive-date=22 October 2016|year=1968|publisher=梨大史學會|page=105|url-status=live|access-date=25 March 2017|df=dmy-all}} She was a collateral branch of the Korean royal family, and daughter of Yi Gae-yun (李愷胤).{{Cite web | url=http://www.gachonherald.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=32 | title=The annals of the Joseon princesses. – the Gachon Herald | access-date=18 August 2015 | archive-date=23 July 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210723072600/http://www.gachonherald.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=32 | url-status=live }} Dorgon married two Korean princesses at Lianshan.{{cite book|author=Li Ling|title=Son of Heaven|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ajcaAQAAIAAJ&q=dorgon+korean+princess|archive-url=https://archive.today/20161022135113/https://books.google.de/books?id=ajcaAQAAIAAJ&q=dorgon+korean+princess&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&redir_esc=y|archive-date=22 October 2016|year=1995|publisher=Chinese Literature Press|isbn=978-7-5071-0288-8|page=217|url-status=live|access-date=25 March 2017|df=dmy-all}}

==Japan==

The Japanese may not have seen intermarriage between them and the royal dynasties of the Korean Empire damaging to their prestige either.Kowner, p.478 According to the Shoku Nihongi, an imperially commissioned record of Japanese history completed in 797, Emperor Kanmu who ruled from 781 to 806 was the son of a Korean concubine, Takano no Niigasa, who was descended from King Muryeong of Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea.

In 1920, Crown Prince Yi Un of Korea married Princess Masako of Nashimoto and, in May 1931, Yi Geon, grandson of Gojong of Korea, was married to Matsudaira Yosiko, a cousin of Princess Masako. The Japanese saw these marriages as a way to secure their colonial rule of Korea and introduce Japanese blood in to the Korean royal House of Yi.

=Europe=

==Ancient Rome==

While Roman emperors almost always married wives who were also Roman citizens, the ruling families of the empire's client kingdoms in the Near East and North Africa often contracted marriages with other royal houses to consolidate their position.Warwick, p.36 These marriages were often contracted with the approval, or even at the behest, of the Roman emperors themselves. Rome thought that such marriages promoted stability among their client states and prevented petty local wars that would disturb the Pax Romana.Salisbury, p.137 Glaphyra of Cappadocia was known to have contracted three such royal intermarriages: with Juba II&I, King of Numidia and Mauretania, Alexander of Judea and Herod Archelaus, Ethnarch of Samaria.Roller, p.251

Other examples from the Ancient Roman era include:

==Byzantine Empire==

File:Trebizond1300.png and the surrounding areas were a patchwork of small, independent states and marriage was seen as an important way to maintain alliances]]

Though some emperors, such as Justin I and Justinian I, took low-born wives,{{#tag:ref|Justin I's wife, Euphemia, was reported to be both a slave and a barbarian,Garland, p.14 and Justinian I's wife, Theodora, was an actress and reputed prostitute.Frassetto, p.332|group=n}} dynastic intermarriages in imperial families were not unusual in the Byzantine Empire. Following the fall of Constantinople in 1204, the ruling families, the Laskarides and then the Palaiologoi, thought it prudent to marry into foreign dynasties. One early example is the marriage of John Doukas Vatatzes with Constance, the daughter of Emperor Frederick II of the Holy Roman Empire, to seal their alliance.Ostrogorsky, p.441 After establishing an alliance with the Mongols in 1263, Michael VIII Palaiologos married two of his daughters to Mongol khans to cement their agreement: his daughter Euphrosyne Palaiologina was married to Nogai Khan of the Golden Horde, and his daughter Maria Palaiologina, was married to Abaqa Khan of the Ilkhanate.Nicol, p.304 Later in the century, Andronikos II Palaiologos agreed to marital alliances with Ghazan of the Ilkhanate and Toqta and Uzbeg of the Golden Horde, which were quickly followed by their marriages to his daughters.Jackson, p.203

The Grand Komnenoi of the Empire of Trebizond were famed for marrying their daughters to their neighbours as acts of diplomacy.{{#tag:ref|Donald MacGillivray Nicol says in The Last Centuries of Byzantium 1261–1453: "The daughters of Alexios II Grand Komnenos married the emirs of Sinope and of Erzindjan, his granddaughters married the emir of Chalybia and the Turkoman chieftain of the so-called Ak-Koyunlu, or horde of the White Sheep; his great-granddaughters, the children of Alexios III, who died in 1390, performed even greater service to the Empire."Nicol, p.403|group= n}} Theodora Megale Komnene, daughter of John IV, was married to Uzun Hassan, lord of the Aq Qoyunlu, to seal an alliance between the Empire and the so-called White Sheep. Although the alliance failed to save Trebizond from its eventual defeat, and despite being a devout Christian in a Muslim state, Theodora did manage to exercise a pervasive influence both in the domestic and foreign actions of her husband.Bryer, p.146 Their grandson Ismail I was the founder of the Safavid dynasty of Iran

Though usually made to strengthen the position of the empire, there are examples of interdynastic marriages destabilising the emperor's authority. When Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos married his second wife, Eirene of Montferrat, in 1284 she caused a division in the Empire over her demand that her own sons share in imperial territory with, Michael, his son from his first marriage. She resorted to leaving Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, and setting up her own court in the second city of the Empire, Thessalonica.

==Medieval and early modern Europe==

Careful selection of a spouse was important to maintain the royal status of a family: depending on the law of the land in question, if a prince or king was to marry a commoner who had no royal blood, even if the first-born was acknowledged as a son of a sovereign, he might not be able to claim any of the royal status of his father.

Traditionally, many factors were important in arranging royal marriages. One such factor was the amount of territory that the other royal family governed or controlled. Another, related factor was the stability of the control exerted over that territory: when there was territorial instability in a royal family, other royalty would be less inclined to marry into that family. Another factor was political alliance: marriage was an important way to bind together royal families and their countries during peace and war and could justify many important political decisions.Beeche (2009), p.1

The increase in royal intermarriage often meant that lands passed into the hands of foreign houses, when the nearest heir was the son of a native dynasty and a foreign royal.'Charles V', Encyclopædia Britannica{{#tag:ref|George I inherited the throne of Great Britain through his mother, Sophia of Hanover, a female line descendant of James VI and I.|group= n}}{{#tag:ref|The crowns of the kingdoms of Aragon and Castile came under Habsburg rule when they were inherited by Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, son of Joanna, Queen of Castile and Aragon and Philip the Handsome, son of Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor. |group= n}} Given the success of the Habsburgs' territorial acquisition-via-inheritance, a motto came to be associated with their dynasty: Bella gerant alii, tu, felix Austria, nube! ("Let others wage war. You, happy Austria, marry!")Christakes, p.437

File:BnF, NAL 83, folio 154 v - Francis II and Mary, Queen of Scots.jpg and her husband, Francis II of France shortly after his coronation]]

Monarchs sometimes went to great lengths to prevent this. On her marriage to Louis XIV of France, Maria Theresa, daughter of Philip IV of Spain, was forced to renounce her claim to the Spanish throne.Maland, p.227 When monarchs or heirs apparent wed other monarchs or heirs, special agreements, sometimes in the form of treaties, were negotiated to determine inheritance rights. The marriage contract of Philip II of Spain and Mary I of England, for example, stipulated that the maternal possessions, as well as Burgundy and the Low Countries, were to pass to any future children of the couple, whereas the remaining paternal possessions (including Spain, Naples, Sicily, Milan) would first of all go to Philip's son Don Carlos, from his previous marriage to Maria Manuela of Portugal. If Carlos were to die without any descendants, only then would they pass to the children of his second marriage.Verzijl, p.301 On the other hand, the Franco-Scottish treaty that arranged the 1558 marriage of Mary, Queen of Scots and Francis, the son and heir of Henry II of France, had it that if the queen died without descendants, Kingdom of Scotland would fall to the throne of Kingdom of France.

Religion has always been closely tied to European political affairs, and as such it played an important role during marriage negotiations. The 1572 wedding in Paris of the French princess Margaret of Valois to the leader of France's Huguenots, Henry III of Navarre, was ostensibly arranged to effect a rapprochement between the nation's Catholics and Protestants, but proved a ruse for the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre.anselme, p.145 After the English Reformation, matches between English monarchs and Roman Catholic princesses were often unpopular, especially so when the prospective queen consort was unwilling to convert, or at least practice her faith discreetly.{{#tag:ref|A prime example is the marriage of the Catholic Henrietta Maria and Charles I of England. Her open practice of her faith and insistence on maintaining a Catholic retinue during a time of religious intolerance in English society eventually made her a deeply unpopular queen with the general public.Griffey, p.3|group=n}} Passage of the Act of Settlement 1701 disinherited any heir to the throne who married a Catholic.BAILII, 'Act of Settlement 1700' Other ruling houses, such as the Romanovs{{#tag:ref|Russian dynasts often only married foreign princesses when they converted to Russian Orthodoxy.Mandelstam Balzer, p.56 For example, Alix of Hesse, wife of Nicholas II, converted from her native Lutheranism.Rushton, p.12|group=n}} and Habsburgs,Curtis, p.271 have at times also insisted on dynastic marriages only being contracted with people of a certain faith or those willing to convert. When in 1926 Astrid of Sweden married Leopold III of Belgium, it was agreed that her children would be raised as Catholics but she was not required to give up Lutheranism, although she did eventually choose to convert in 1930.Beéche, p.257 Some potential matches were abandoned due to irreconcilable religious differences. For example, plans for the marriage of the Catholic Władysław IV Vasa and the Lutheran Elisabeth of Bohemia, Princess Palatine proved unpopular with Poland's largely Catholic nobility and were quietly dropped.Czaplinski, pp.205–208

Marriages among ruling dynasties and their subjects have at times been common, with such alliances as that of Edward the Confessor, King of England with Edith of Wessex and Władysław II Jagiełło, King of Poland with Elizabeth Granowska being far from unheard of in medieval Europe. However, as dynasties approached absolutism and sought to preserve loyalty among competing members of the nobility, most eventually distanced themselves from kinship ties to local nobles by marrying abroad.Durant, pp.552–553, 564–566, 569, 571, 573, 576Prazmowska, p.56 Marriages with subjects brought the king back down to the level of those he ruled, often stimulating the ambition of his consort's family and evoking jealousy—or disdain—from the nobility. The notion that monarchs should marry into the dynasties of other monarchs to end or prevent war was, at first, a policy driven by pragmatism. During the era of absolutism, this practice contributed to the notion that it was socially, as well as politically, disadvantageous for members of ruling families to intermarry with their subjects and pass over the opportunity for marriage into a foreign dynasty.Beeche (2010), p.24Greenfeld, p.110

==Post World War I era==

In modern times, among European royalty at least, marriages between royal dynasties have become much rarer than they once were. This happens to avoid inbreeding, since many royal families share common ancestors, and therefore share much of the genetic pool. Members of Europe's dynasties increasingly married members of titled noble families, including George VI of the United Kingdom, Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester, Mary, Princess Royal and Countess of Harewood, Prince Michael of Kent, Charles III of the United Kingdom, Baudouin of Belgium, Albert II of Belgium, Prince Amedeo of Belgium, Franz Joseph II, Prince of Liechtenstein, Hans-Adam II of Liechtenstein, Prince Constantin of Liechtenstein, Princess Nora of Liechtenstein (the Liechtensteins, originally an Austrian noble family, always married nobles much more often than royals), Princess Désirée, Baroness Silfverschiöld, Infanta Pilar, Duchess of Badajoz, Infanta Elena, Duchess of Lugo, Princess Marie Adelaide of Luxembourg, Princess Marie Gabrielle of Luxembourg, Guillaume, Hereditary Grand Duke of Luxembourg, and Princess Charlotte, Duchess of Valentinois or untitled nobility as Philippe of Belgium and Beatrix of the Netherlands, and very often commoners, as Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden, Victoria, Crown Princess of Sweden, Harald V of Norway, Haakon, Crown Prince of Norway, Henri of Luxembourg, Felipe VI of Spain, Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands, Margrethe II of Denmark, Frederik X of Denmark, William, Prince of Wales and Albert II of Monaco have done.

Among Europe's current kings, queens and heirs apparent, only Alois, Hereditary Prince of Liechtenstein married a member of a foreign dynasty, as did the abdicated Juan Carlos I of Spain.{{#tag:ref|Juan Carlos I of Spain married Princess Sophia of Greece and Denmark, a member of the Greek royal family. In 1993, Alois, Hereditary Prince of Liechtenstein married Duchess Sophie in Bavaria, a member of the House of Wittelsbach.Beeche (2009), p.13 Both the Greek royal dynasty, the House of Glücksburg, and the Bavarian royal dynasty, the House of Wittelsbach, have been deposed.|group= n}}

===Members of two reigning houses===

Examples of royal intermarriage since 1918 include:

===Members of one reigning house and one non-reigning house===

Examples since 1918 include:

===Modern examples of dynastic intra-marriage===

Examples since 1918 include:

===Marriages between members of non-reigning houses===

Examples since 1918 include:

As a result of dynastic intra-marriage all of Europe's reigning hereditary monarchs since 1939 descend from a common ancestor, John William Friso, Prince of Orange. Since 2022, all of Europe's reigning hereditary monarchs descend from a more recent common ancestor: Louis IX, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt.Montgomery-Massingberd, p.338

class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto 1em auto;"

|+ Closest Familial Relationship between King Carl XVI Gustaf and other European monarchs

MonarchCousinRemovedMost recent common ancestorDeath of MRCA
Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden|
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-----------
Frederik X of Denmark1strowspan="2" |onceGustaf VI Adolf of Sweden15-Sep-1973
Harald V of Norway2ndrowspan="3" |Oscar II of Swedenrowspan="3" |8-Dec-1907
Henri of Luxembourgrowspan="5"|3rdrowspan="2"|none
Philippe of Belgium
Felipe VI of Spainrowspan="3" |oncerowspan="2"|Victoria of the United Kingdomrowspan="2"|22-Jan-1901
Charles III of the United Kingdom
Willem-Alexander of the NetherlandsGeorge Victor, Prince of Waldeck and Pyrmont12-May-1893
Hans-Adam II of LiechtensteinHalf-4throwspan="2" |twiceMaximilian I Joseph of Bavaria13-Oct-1825
Albert II of MonacoHalf-5thCharles Frederick, Grand Duke of Baden11-Jun-1811

class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto 1em auto;"

|+ Closest Familial Relationship between Prince Hans-Adam II and other European monarchs

MonarchCousinRemovedMost recent common ancestorDeath of MRCA
Hans-Adam II of Liechtenstein|
--|
---|
-----------
Henri of Luxembourgrowspan="2" |3rdnonerowspan="2" |Miguel I of Portugalrowspan="2" |14-Nov-1866
Philippe of Belgiumrowspan="2" |once
Harald V of Norwayrowspan="3" |Half-4throwspan="3" |Maximilian I Joseph of Bavariarowspan="3" |13-Oct-1825
Carl XVI Gustaf of Swedentwice
Frederik X of Denmarkthrice
Charles III of the United Kingdomrowspan="4" |5thnonerowspan="2" |Charles Louis, Hereditary Prince of Badenrowspan="2" |16-Dec-1801
Albert II of Monacorowspan="3" |once
Willem-Alexander of the Netherlandsrowspan="2" |Karl Ludwig, Prince of Hohenlohe-Langenburgrowspan="2" |4-Apr-1825
Felipe VI of Spain

class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto 1em auto;"

|+ Closest Familial Relationship between King Harald V and other European monarchs

MonarchCousinRemovedMost recent common ancestorDeath of MRCA
Harald V of Norway|
--|
---|
-----------
Henri of Luxembourgrowspan="2" |1strowspan="2" |oncerowspan="2" |Prince Carl, Duke of Västergötlandrowspan="2" |24-Oct-1951
Philippe of Belgium
Frederik X of Denmarkrowspan="3" |2ndrowspan="4" |onceFrederick VIII of Denmark14-May-1912
Charles III of the United KingdomEdward VII of the United Kingdom6-May-1910
Carl XVI Gustaf of SwedenOscar II of Sweden8-Dec-1907
Felipe VI of Spainrowspan="2" |3rdChristian IX of Denmark29-Jan-1906
Willem-Alexander of the NetherlandstwiceWilliam, Duke of Nassau20-Aug-1839
Hans-Adam II of LiechtensteinHalf-4thonceMaximilian I Joseph of Bavaria13-Oct-1825
Albert II of Monaco7thnoneLouis IX, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt6-Apr-1790

class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto 1em auto;"

|+ Closest Familial Relationship between Grand Duke Henri and other European monarchs

MonarchCousinRemovedMost recent common ancestorDeath of MRCA
Henri of Luxembourg|
--|
---|
-----------
Philippe of Belgiumrowspan="2" |1stnoneLeopold III of Belgium25-Sep-1983
Harald V of NorwayoncePrince Carl, Duke of Västergötland24-Oct-1951
Frederik X of Denmarkrowspan="4" |3rdrowspan="3" |noneFrederick VIII of Denmark14-May-1912
Carl XVI Gustaf of SwedenOscar II of Sweden8-Dec-1907
Hans-Adam II of LiechtensteinMiguel I of Portugal14-Nov-1866
Charles III of the United Kingdomoncerowspan="2" |Christian IX of Denmarkrowspan="2" |29-Jan-1906
Felipe VI of Spainrowspan="2" |4thnone
Willem-Alexander of the NetherlandsonceWilliam, Duke of Nassau20-Aug-1839
Albert II of Monaco5thnoneCharles, Grand Duke of Baden8-Dec-1818

class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto 1em auto;"

|+ Closest Familial Relationship between Prince Albert II and other European monarchs

MonarchCousinRemovedMost recent common ancestorDeath of MRCA
Albert II of Monaco|
--|
---|
-----------
Henri of Luxembourgrowspan="4" |5throwspan="2" |nonerowspan="2" |Charles, Grand Duke of Badenrowspan="2" |8-Dec-1818
Philippe of Belgium
Hans-Adam II of Liechtensteinrowspan="2" |oncerowspan="4" |Charles Louis, Hereditary Prince of Badenrowspan="4" |16-Dec-1801
Charles III of the United Kingdom
Felipe VI of Spainrowspan="2" |6thnone
Frederik X of Denmarkonce
Carl XVI Gustaf of SwedenHalf-5thtwiceCharles Frederick, Grand Duke of Baden11-Jun-1811
Harald V of Norwayrowspan="2" |7throwspan="2" |nonerowspan="2" |Louis IX, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadtrowspan="2" |6-Apr-1790
Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands

class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto 1em auto;"

|+ Closest Familial Relationship between King Willem-Alexander and other European monarchs

MonarchCousinRemovedMost recent common ancestorDeath of MRCA
Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands|
--|
---|
-----------
Carl XVI Gustaf of Swedenrowspan="2" |3rdonceGeorge Victor, Prince of Waldeck and Pyrmont12-May-1893
Harald V of Norwaytwicerowspan="3" |William, Duke of Nassaurowspan="3" |20-Aug-1839
Henri of Luxembourgrowspan="2" |4throwspan="2" |once
Philippe of Belgium
Frederik X of DenmarkHalf-3rdonceFrederick Francis II, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin15-Apr-1883
Felipe VI of Spainrowspan="3" |5throwspan="2" |nonerowspan="2" |Frederick William III of Prussiarowspan="2" |7-Jun-1840
Charles III of the United Kingdom
Hans-Adam II of LiechtensteinonceKarl Ludwig, Prince of Hohenlohe-Langenburg4-Apr-1825
Albert II of Monaco7thnoneLouis IX, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt6-Apr-1790

class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto 1em auto;"

|+ Closest Familial Relationship between King Philippe and other European monarchs

MonarchCousinRemovedMost recent common ancestorDeath of MRCA
Philippe of Belgium|
--|
---|
-----------
Henri of Luxembourgrowspan="2" |1stnoneLeopold III of Belgium25-Sep-1983
Harald V of NorwayoncePrince Carl, Duke of Västergötland24-Oct-1951
Frederik X of Denmarkrowspan="4" |3rdrowspan="2" |noneFrederick VIII of Denmark14-May-1912
Carl XVI Gustaf of SwedenOscar II of Sweden8-Dec-1907
Hans-Adam II of Liechtensteinrowspan="2" |onceMiguel I of Portugal14-Nov-1866
Charles III of the United Kingdomrowspan="2" |Christian IX of Denmarkrowspan="2" |29-Jan-1906
Felipe VI of Spainrowspan="2" |4thnone
Willem-Alexander of the NetherlandsonceWilliam, Duke of Nassau20-Aug-1839
Albert II of Monaco5thnoneCharles, Grand Duke of Baden8-Dec-1818

class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto 1em auto;"

|+ Closest Familial Relationship between King Felipe VI and other European monarchs

MonarchCousinRemovedMost recent common ancestorDeath of MRCA
Felipe VI of Spain|
--|
---|
-----------
Charles III of the United Kingdom2ndrowspan="3" |onceGeorge I of Greece18-Mar-1913
Carl XVI Gustaf of Swedenrowspan="2" |3rdVictoria of the United Kingdom22-Jan-1901
Harald V of Norwayrowspan="4" |Christian IX of Denmarkrowspan="4" |29-Jan-1906
Henri of Luxembourgrowspan="3" |4throwspan="4" |none
Philippe of Belgium
Frederik X of Denmark
Willem-Alexander of the Netherlandsrowspan="2" |5thFrederick William III of Prussia7-Jun-1840
Hans-Adam II of LiechtensteinonceKarl Ludwig, Prince of Hohenlohe-Langenburg4-Apr-1825
Albert II of Monaco6thnoneCharles Louis, Hereditary Prince of Baden16-Dec-1801

class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto 1em auto;"

|+ Closest Familial Relationship between King Charles III and other European monarchs

MonarchCousinRemovedMost recent common ancestorDeath of MRCA
Charles III of the United Kingdom|
--|
---|
-----------
Felipe VI of Spainrowspan="2" |2ndrowspan="6"|onceGeorge I of Greece18-Mar-1913
Harald V of NorwayEdward VII of the United Kingdom6-May-1910
Henri of Luxembourgrowspan="4" |3rdrowspan="3" |Christian IX of Denmarkrowspan="3" |29-Jan-1906
Philippe of Belgium
Frederik X of Denmark
Carl XVI Gustaf of SwedenVictoria of the United Kingdom22-Jan-1901
Willem-Alexander of the Netherlandsrowspan="3" |5throwspan="2" |noneFrederick William III of Prussia7-Jun-1840
Hans-Adam II of Liechtensteinrowspan="2" |Charles Louis, Hereditary Prince of Badenrowspan="2" |16-Dec-1801
Albert II of Monacoonce

class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto 1em auto;"

|+ Closest Familial Relationship between King Frederik X and other European monarchs

MonarchCousinRemovedMost recent common ancestorDeath of MRCA
Frederik X of Denmark|
--|
---|
-----------
Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden1strowspan="2" |onceGustaf VI Adolf of Sweden15-Sep-1973
Harald V of Norway2ndrowspan="3" |Frederick VIII of Denmarkrowspan="3" |14-May-1912
Henri of Luxembourgrowspan="3" |3rdrowspan="2"|none
Philippe of Belgium
Charles III of the United Kingdomoncerowspan="2" |Christian IX of Denmarkrowspan="2" |29-Jan-1906
Felipe VI of Spain4thnone
Willem-Alexander of the NetherlandsHalf-3rdonceFrederick Francis II, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin15-Apr-1883
Hans-Adam II of LiechtensteinHalf-4ththriceMaximilian I Joseph of Bavaria13-Oct-1825
Albert II of Monaco6thonceCharles Louis, Hereditary Prince of Baden|16-Dec-1801

=Muslim world=

==Al-Andalus==

From the time of the Umayyad conquest of Hispania and throughout the Reconquista, marriage between Spanish and Umayyad royals was not uncommon. Early marriages, such as that of Abd al-Aziz ibn Musa and Egilona at the turn of the 8th century, was thought to help establish the legitimacy of Muslim rule on the Iberian Peninsula.Schaus, p.593 Later instances of intermarriage were often made to seal trade treaties between Christian kings and Muslim caliphs.Albany & Salhab, pp.70–71

==Ottoman Empire==

The marriages of Ottoman sultans and their sons in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries tended to be with members of the ruling dynasties of neighbouring powers. With little regard for religion, the sultans contracted marriages with both Christians and Muslims; the purpose of these royal intermarriages were purely tactical. Christian consorts of Ottoman sultans include Theodora Kantakouzene of Byzantium, Kera Tamara of Bulgaria and Olivera Despina of Serbia. These Christian states along with Muslim beyliks of Germiyan, Saruhan, Karaman and Dulkadir were all potential enemies, and marriage was seen as a way of securing alliances with them.Peirce, pp.30–31 Marriage with foreign dynasties seems to have ceased in 1504, with the last marriage of a sultan to a foreign princess being that of Murad II and Mara Branković, daughter of the Serbian ruler Đurađ Branković, in 1435. By this time, the Ottomans had consolidated their power in the area and absorbed or subjugated many of their former rivals, and so marriage alliances were no longer seen as important to their foreign policy.

The Islamic principle of kafa'a discourages the marriages of women to men of differing religion or of inferior status.{{#tag:ref|Carolyn Fluehr-Lobban explains in her article Islamic Law and Society in the Sudan that "It is preferable that a non-Muslim convert to Islam before marriage to a Muslim man, however, it is not essential – it is essential that a non-Muslim man convert to Islam before contemplating marriage with a Muslim woman"Fluehr-Lobban|group=n}} Neighbouring Muslim powers did not start to give their daughters in marriage to Ottoman princes until the fifteenth century, when they were seen to have grown in importance. This same principle meant that, while Ottoman men were free to marry Christian women, Muslim princesses were prevented from marrying Christian princes.Magill, p.2566

==Post World War I era==

There are several modern instances of intermarriage between members of

the royal families and former royal families of Islamic states (i.e., Jordan, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, the constituent states of the United Arab Emirates, etc.).

Examples include:

There are also numerous cases of intramarriage between cadet branches within the ruling families from the Arabian Peninsula, including the House of Saud, the House of Sabah, the House of Khalifa, the House of Thani, and the House of Busaid. Other such examples include Idris, emir of Cyrenaica and Fatimah el-Sharif (1931) from Senussi family, Prince Hamzah bin Hussein and Princess Noor bint Asem (2003), Hussein of Jordan and Dina bint Abdul-Hamid (1955), Talal of Jordan and Zein Al-Sharaf Talal (1934), and Ghazi of Iraq and Aliya bint Ali (1934), all from the Hashemite dynasty.

=Oceania=

==Hawaii==

Royal incest was extremely common in the Kingdom of Hawaii and its predecessors, despite being rare in other Polynesian societies. Among the aliʻi, the ruling class, marriage between blood relatives of the first degree was believed to produce children with the highest rank under the kapu system, equal to that of the gods. A marriage between brother and sister was considered "the most perfect and revered union". It was believed that the mana of a particular aliʻi could be increased by incestuous unions. According to O. A. Bushnell, "in several accounts about Hawaiians, an ali’i who was the issue of an incestuous marriage [...] was noted for a splendid body and a superior intelligence". Writers have suggested that this preference for brother–sister incest came about as a way to protect the royal bloodline. Notable instances of incestuous relationships among Hawaiian royalty were those between King Kamehameha II and his half-sister Kamāmalu, which was a fully fledged marriage, and between Kamehameha III and his full sister Nahienaena. In the latter case, the siblings had hoped to marry but their union was opposed by Christian missionaries.{{cite journal|url=https://journals.openedition.org/transatlantica/525|title=Hawaiian Royal Incest: A Study in the Sacrificial Origin of Monarchy|author=Joanne Carando|year=2002|journal=Transatlantica|volume=1|access-date=26 July 2018|archive-date=26 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726170316/https://journals.openedition.org/transatlantica/525|url-status=live}}

=Americas=

==Inca Peru==

The Sapa Inca of Peru frequently married their sisters, such between as the children Huayna Capac: Huáscar married Chuqui Huipa, Atahualpa married Coya Asarpay, and Manco Inca Yupanqui married Cura Ocllo.

During and after the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire, dynastic marriages began to occur between Inca princesses and Spanish conquistadors. The aforementioned Cura Ocllo married Gonzalo Pizarro following the death of her brother-husband, and her sister Quispe Sisa married Francisco Pizarro.

Morganatic marriage

{{Further|Morganatic marriage}}

File:Franzferdinand.jpg and his morganatic wife, Countess Sophie Chotek with their children, Sophie and Maximilian. Photo, 1904.]]

At one time, some dynasties adhered strictly to the concept of royal intermarriage. The Habsburgs, Sicilian and Spanish Bourbons, and Romanovs, among others, introduced house laws which governed dynastic marriages;deBadts de Cugnac, p.833, 173–175, 368, 545, 780–782 it was considered important that dynasts marry social equals (i.e., other royalty), thereby ruling out even the highest-born non-royal nobles.Beeche (2010), p.vi-x Those dynasts who contracted undesirable marriages often did so morganatically. Generally, this is a marriage between a man of high birth and a woman of lesser status (such as a daughter of a low-ranked noble family or a commoner).Diesbach, pp.25–26 Usually, neither the bride nor any children of the marriage has a claim on the bridegroom's succession rights, titles, precedence, or entailed property. The children are considered legitimate for all other purposes and the prohibition against bigamy applies.Diesbach, p.35

Examples of morganatic marriages include:

Inbreeding

{{Main|Inbreeding}}

{{See also|List of coupled cousins|List of coupled siblings}}

Over time, because of the relatively limited number of potential consorts, the gene pool of many ruling families grew progressively smaller, until all European royalty was related. This also resulted in many being descended from a certain person through many lines of descent, such as the numerous European royalty descended from Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom or King Christian IX of Denmark.Beeche (2009), p.7 As a result, royal intermarriages became consanguine marriages, which lead to both new health issues arising and existing ones being compounded.

Examples of incestuous marriages and the impact of inbreeding on royal families include:

  • Most rulers of the Ptolemaic dynasty from Ptolemy II were married to their brothers and sisters, in order to keep the Ptolemaic blood "pure" and to strengthen the line of succession.{{#tag:ref|Notable exceptions to that rule are Ptolemy III and Ptolemy V, who married Berenice II (queen of Cyrenaica, half-cousin) and Cleopatra I (Seleucid princess, unrelated), respectively. The two marriages introduced non-Greek blood to the dynasty. Ptolemy II married Arsinoe II, his sister, but later married the unrelated Arsinoe I, who bore Ptolemy III, his successor. Another possible exception to that rule is Ptolemy XII, who married Cleopatra V, whose parents are uncertain for lack of direct sources. |group= n}} Cleopatra VII (also called Cleopatra VI) and Ptolemy XIII, who married and became co-rulers of ancient Egypt following their father's death, are the most widely known example.Bevan
  • King Tutankhamun's father and mother were related.
  • The Persian Sassanian dynasty often married close blood relatives, partially for religious reasons (see xwedodah). One example would be Narseh, who married his sister Shapuhrdukhtag.
  • Four Japanese Emperors married their sisters: namely Emperor Bidatsu, Emperor Yōmei, Emperor Kanmu, and Emperor Junna.
  • Jean V of Armagnac was said to have formed a rare brother-sister liaison,Guyenne, p.45 left descendants and claimed to be married. There is no evidence that this "marriage" was contracted for dynastic rather than personal reasons.
  • The House of Habsburg frequently practiced consanguine marriages as a way of consolidating the dynasty's political power, with both first cousin and uncle–niece pairings common.{{cite journal |last1=Ceballos |first1=FC |last2=Alvarez |first2=G |date=2013 |title=Royal dynasties as human inbreeding laboratories: the Habsburgs |journal=Heredity |volume=111 |issue=2 |pages=114–121 |doi=10.1038/hdy.2013.25 |pmc=3716267 |pmid=23572123}} The most visible consequence of this was an extended lower chin (mandibular prognathism), which was typical for many Habsburg relatives over a period of six centuries; the jaw deformity is so closely associated with the family that it is commonly known as the "Habsburg jaw" or "Habsburg lip".'Topics in the History of Genetics and Molecular Biology: The Habsburg Lip', Michigan State University The Spanish branch took this practice to an extreme: of the eleven marriages contracted by Spanish monarchs between 1450 and 1661, nine contained some element of consanguinity.{{Cite journal |last1=Alvarez |first1=Gonzalo |last2=Ceballos |first2=Francisco C. |last3=Quinteiro |first3=Celsa |date=2009 |title=The role of inbreeding in the extinction of a European royal dynasty |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=e5174 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0005174 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=2664480 |pmid=19367331 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2009PLoSO...4.5174A }} The last of the Spanish line, Charles II—who was severely disabled from birth and possibly impotent— possessed a genome comparable to that of a child born to a brother and sister.{{cite journal |last1=Alvarez |first1=Gonzalo |last2=Ceballos |first2=Francisco C. |last3=Quinteiro |first3=Celsa |date=April 15, 2009 |editor1-last=Bauchet |editor1-first=Marc |title=The Role of Inbreeding in the Extinction of a European Royal Dynasty |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=e5174 |bibcode=2009PLoSO...4.5174A |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0005174 |pmc=2664480 |pmid=19367331 |doi-access=free}}
  • The House of Wittelsbach suffered from several cases of mental illness, often attributed to their frequent intermarriages. Several family members suffered from mental and physical illnesses, as well as epilepsy.Owens, p.41

See also

Notes

{{reflist|30em|group=n}}

References and sources

=References=

{{reflist|15em}}

=Sources=

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{{div col end}}

{{Wedding}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2017}}

{{Types of marriages|state=autocollapse}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Royal Intermarriage}}

Category:Royalty

Category:Monarchy

Category:Types of marriage