Alcoholic beverage#Fermented water

{{Main|History of alcoholic drinks}}

Discovery of late Stone Age jugs suggests that intentionally fermented drinks existed at least as early as the Neolithic period.{{Cite book |last=Patrick |first=Clarence Hodges |title=Alcohol, Culture, and Society |publisher=Duke University Press (reprint edition by AMS Press, New York, 1970) |year=1952 |isbn=978-0-404-04906-5 |location=Durham, NC |pages=26–27}}

The oldest verifiable brewery has been found in a prehistoric burial site in a cave near Haifa in modern-day Israel. Researchers have found residue of 13,000-year-old beer that they think might have been used for ritual feasts to honor the dead. The traces of a wheat-and-barley-based alcohol were found in stone mortars carved into the cave floor.{{Cite news |date=15 September 2018 |title='World's oldest brewery' found in cave in Israel, say researchers |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-45534133 |access-date=26 January 2021}}

Image:Carmona Wine Vessel.jpg

The Carmona Wine Urn is a first century Roman glass urn containing intact wine. Discovered in 2019 in Carmona, Spain during excavations of the city's western Roman necropolis, analysis of the urn's contents five years after has deemed the vessel the oldest surviving wine in the world, surpassing the previous record holder, the Speyer wine bottle (discovered in 1867) by three centuries.{{Cite web |last=Agencies |date=2024-06-18 |title=The oldest wine in the world has been preserved in a Roman mausoleum in Spain for 2,000 years |url=https://english.elpais.com/culture/2024-06-18/the-oldest-wine-in-the-world-has-been-preserved-in-a-roman-mausoleum-in-spain-for-2000-years.html |access-date=2024-07-30 |website=EL PAÍS English |language=en-us}}{{Cite journal |last1=Cosano |first1=Daniel |last2=Manuel Román |first2=Juan |last3=Esquivel |first3=Dolores |last4=Lafont |first4=Fernando |last5=Ruiz Arrebola |first5=José Rafael |date=2024-09-01 |title=New archaeochemical insights into Roman wine from Baetica |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports |volume=57 |pages=104636 |doi=10.1016/j.jasrep.2024.104636 |bibcode=2024JArSR..57j4636C |issn=2352-409X|doi-access=free}}

Beer was likely brewed from barley as early as 13,000 years ago in the Middle East.{{cite journal |vauthors=Rosso AM |title=Beer and wine in antiquity: beneficial remedy or punishment imposed by the Gods? |journal=Acta medico-historica Adriatica |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=237–262 |year=2012 |pmid=23560753}} Pliny the Elder wrote about the golden age of winemaking in Rome, the 2nd century BCE (200–100 BCE), when vineyards were planted.{{cite book |vauthors=Brostrom GG, Brostrom JJ |title=The Business of Wine: An Encyclopedia: An Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tEqx2zwuq-gC&pg=PA6|date=30 December 2008|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-35401-4|pages=6–}}

Examination and analysis of ancient pottery jars from the neolithic village of Jiahu in the Henan province of northern China revealed residue left behind by the alcoholic drinks they had once contained. Chemical analysis of the residue confirmed that a fermented drink made of grape and hawthorn fruit wine, honey mead and rice beer was being produced in 7000–5600 BC.{{Cite book |last=Chrzan |first=Janet |title=Alcohol: Social Drinking in Cultural Context |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-415-89249-0 |page=13}}{{Cite journal |last1=McGovern |first1=P.E. |last2=Zhang |first2=J. |last3=Tang |first3=J. |last4=Zhang |first4=Z. |last5=Hall |first5=G.R. |last6=Moreau |first6=R.A. |last7=Nunez |first7=A. |last8=Butrym |first8=E.D. |last9=Richards |first9=M.P. |last10=Wang |first10=C.-S. |last11=Cheng |first11=G. |last12=Zhao |first12=Z. |last13=Wang |first13=C. |year=2004 |title=Fermented beverages of pre- and proto-historic China |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=101 |issue=51 |pages=17593–17598 |bibcode=2004PNAS..10117593M |doi=10.1073/pnas.0407921102 |pmc=539767 |pmid=15590771 |doi-access=free}}

The earliest evidence of winemaking was dated at 6,000 to 5,800 BCE in Georgia in the South Caucasus.{{cite journal | vauthors = McGovern P, Jalabadze M, Batiuk S, Callahan MP, Smith KE, Hall GR, Kvavadze E, Maghradze D, Rusishvili N, Bouby L, Failla O, Cola G, Mariani L, Boaretto E, Bacilieri R, This P, Wales N, Lordkipanidze D | title = Early Neolithic wine of Georgia in the South Caucasus | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 114 | issue = 48 | pages = E10309–E10318 | date = November 2017 | pmid = 29133421 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1714728114 | pmc = 5715782 | bibcode = 2017PNAS..11410309M | doi-access = free }}

The earliest clear chemical evidence of beer produced from barley dates to about 3500–3100 BCE, from the site of Godin Tepe in the Zagros Mountains of western Iran.{{cite book |last=McGovern |first=Patrick |year=2009 |title=Uncorking the Past |isbn=978-0-520-25379-7 |pages=66–71}}{{cite news |title=Jar in Iranian ruins betrays beer drinkers of 3500 BCE |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/11/05/world/jar-in-iranian-ruins-betrays-beer-drinkers-of-3500-bc.html |date=1992-11-05 |last1=Wilford |first1=John Noble |newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=10 November 2010}}

Celtic people were known to have been making types of alcoholic cider as early as 3000 BCE.{{cite web |date=13 February 2019 |title=The history and origins of cider |url=https://www.greatbritishchefs.com/features/cider-history-origins |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210621131130/https://www.greatbritishchefs.com/features/cider-history-origins |archive-date=21 June 2021}}{{cite web |date=25 April 2022 |title=The History of Cider |url=https://www.sandfordorchards.co.uk/blog/the-history-of-cider/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221029205227/https://www.sandfordorchards.co.uk/blog/the-history-of-cider/ |archive-date=29 October 2022 |access-date=29 October 2022}} and wine was consumed in Classical Greece at breakfast or at symposia, and in the 1st century BCE.[http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2007/03/16/oldgrapes_arc.html?category=archaeology&guid=20070316120000 Ancient Mashed Grapes Found in Greece] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080103133450/http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2007/03/16/oldgrapes_arc.html?category=archaeology&guid=20070316120000|date=3 January 2008}} Discovery News.

Medieval Muslim chemists such as Jābir ibn Ḥayyān (Latin: Geber, ninth century) and Abū Bakr al-Rāzī (Latin: Rhazes, {{circa|865–925}}) experimented extensively with the distillation of various substances. The distillation of wine is attested in Arabic works attributed to al-Kindī ({{circa|801}}–873 CE) and to al-Fārābī ({{circa|872}}–950), and in the 28th book of al-Zahrāwī's (Latin: Abulcasis, 936–1013) Kitāb al-Taṣrīf (later translated into Latin as Liber servatoris).{{cite book |last1=al-Hassan |first1=Ahmad Y. |title=Studies in al-Kimya': Critical Issues in Latin and Arabic Alchemy and Chemistry |publisher=Georg Olms Verlag |year=2009 |location=Hildesheim |pages=283–298 |chapter=Alcohol and the Distillation of Wine in Arabic Sources from the 8th Century |author-link=Ahmad Y. al-Hassan}} (same content also available on [http://www.history-science-technology.com/notes/notes7.html the author's website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151229003135/http://www.history-science-technology.com/notes/notes7.html|date=29 December 2015}}); cf. {{cite book |last1=Berthelot |first1=Marcellin |title=La Chimie au Moyen Âge |last2=Houdas |first2=Octave V. |publisher=Imprimerie nationale |year=1893 |volume=I–III |location=Paris |author1-link=Marcellin Berthelot}} vol. I, pp. 141, 143. 12th century: The process of distillation spread from the Middle East to Italy, where distilled alcoholic drinks were recorded in the mid-12th century.{{Cite book |last=Forbes |first=Robert James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XeqWOkKYn28C |title=A Short History of the Art of Distillation: From the Beginnings up to the Death of Cellier Blumenthal |publisher=Brill |year=1970 |isbn=978-90-04-00617-1 |access-date=28 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230123191201/https://books.google.com/books?id=XeqWOkKYn28C |archive-date=23 January 2023 |url-status=live}}

In Italy, the works of Taddeo Alderotti (1223–1296) describe a method for concentrating alcohol involving repeated fractional distillation through a water-cooled still.{{Cite book |last=Holmyard |first=Eric John |title=Alchemy |date=1957 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-486-26298-7 |location=Harmondsworth |author-link=Eric John Holmyard}} pp. 51–52. By the early 14th century, distilled alcoholic drinks had spread throughout the European continent. Distillation spread to Ireland and Scotland no later than the 15th century, as did the common European practice of distilling "aqua vitae", primarily for medicinal purposes.Whiskey: Technology, Production and Marketing: Handbook of Alcoholic Beverages Series p2 Academic Press 2003

in 1690, England passed "An Act for the Encouraging of the Distillation of Brandy and Spirits from Corn" Preventing Alcohol Abuse: Alcohol, Culture, and Control By David J. Hanson page 3 Alcoholic beverages played an important role in the Thirteen Colonies from their early days when drinking wine and beer at that time was safer than drinking water – which was usually taken from sources also used to dispose of sewage and garbage.{{Cite web |title=America's History of Drinking |url=https://www.alcohol.org/guides/americas-history-of-drinking/ |website=Alcohol.org}} Drinking hard liquor was common occurrence in early nineteenth-century United States.{{cite book |last=Garrison |first=James Holley |title=Behold Me Once More. The Confessions of James Holley Garrison, brother of William Lloyd Garrison |publisher=Houghton, Mifflin |year=1954 |editor-last=Merrill |editor-first=Walter McIntosh |location=Boston |page=4 |chapter=Introduction to Part I}}

The Whiskey Rebellion (also known as the Whiskey Insurrection) was a violent tax protest in the United States beginning in 1791 and ending in 1794 during the presidency of George Washington. The so-called "whiskey tax" was the first tax imposed on a domestic product by the newly formed federal government. Beer was difficult to transport and spoiled more easily than rum and whiskey.

The Rum Rebellion of 1808 was a coup d'état in the then-British penal colony of New South Wales, staged by the New South Wales Corps in order to depose Governor William Bligh. Australia's first and only military coup, its name derives from the illicit rum trade of early Sydney, over which the 'Rum Corps', as it became known, maintained a monopoly. During the first half of the 19th century, it was widely referred to in Australia as the Great Rebellion.{{cite news|url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article126244849|title=NOTABLE AUSTRALIAN EVENTS.|date=7 November 1897|newspaper=The Sunday Times|access-date=25 February 2019|issue=619|location=New South Wales, Australia|page=9|via=National Library of Australia}} The alcohol monopoly system has a long history in various countries, often implemented to limit the availability and consumption of alcohol for public health and social welfare reasons.

The alcohol monopoly was created in the Swedish town of Falun in 1850, to prevent overconsumption and reduce the profit motive for sales of alcohol. It later went all over the country in 1905 when the Swedish parliament ordered all sales of vodka to be done via local alcohol monopolies.Systembolaget.se [http://systembolaget.se/NR/rdonlyres/8C39020E-492A-47A1-B578-021AF5833CD6/0/foretagspres_03_eng.pdf About Systembolaget] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071018220736/http://systembolaget.se/NR/rdonlyres/8C39020E-492A-47A1-B578-021AF5833CD6/0/foretagspres_03_eng.pdf |date=18 October 2007 }} In 1894, the Russian Empire established a state monopoly on vodka, which became a major source of revenue for the Russian government.

Later in the nineteenth century opposition to alcohol grew in the form of the temperance movement, in the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Scandinavia and India, and it eventually led to national prohibitions in Canada (1918 to 1920), Norway (spirits only from 1919 to 1926), Finland (1919 to 1932), and the United States (1920 to 1933), as well as provincial prohibition in India (1948 to present).{{Citation |last1=Edman |first1=Johan |title=Temperance and Modernity: Alcohol Consumption as a Collective Problem, 1885–1913 |date=September 2015 |journal=Journal of Social History |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=20–52 |doi=10.1093/jsh/shv029 |doi-access=free}}

File:GravityTap.jpg Rauchbier, a traditional smoked beer, being poured from a cask into a beer glass]]

{{Main|Beer}}

{{See also|Beer styles|List of beer styles}}

Beer is a beverage fermented from grain mash. It is typically made from barley or a blend of several grains and flavored with hops. Most beer is naturally carbonated as part of the fermentation process. If the fermented mash is distilled, then the drink becomes a spirit. Beer is the most consumed alcoholic beverage in the world.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6xul0O_SI1MC&q=most+consumed+beverage&pg=PA1|title=The Barbarian's Beverage: A History of Beer in Ancient Europe|year=2005|publisher=Routledge|location=Abingdon, Oxon|isbn=978-0-415-31121-2|page=1|access-date=21 September 2010|last=Nelson|first=Max|archive-date=23 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230123191200/https://books.google.com/books?id=6xul0O_SI1MC&q=most+consumed+beverage&pg=PA1|url-status=live}}

{{Main|Cider}}

Cider or cyder ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|aɪ|d|ər}} {{respell|SY|dər}}) is a fermented alcoholic drink made from any fruit juice; apple juice (traditional and most common), peaches, pears ("Perry" cider) or other fruit. Cider alcohol content varies from 1.2% ABV to 8.5% or more in traditional English ciders. In some regions, cider may be called "apple wine".{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=sTsC65kCJbUC&pg=PA169 |title=The Prokaryotes: Proteobacteria: alpha and beta subclasses |page=169|author=Martin Dworkin, Stanley Falkow|publisher=Springer|year= 2006|access-date=29 July 2011|isbn=978-0-387-25495-1 }}

{{see also|Kilju}}

Fermented water is an ethanol-based water solution with approximately 15-17% ABV without sweet reserve. Fermented water is exclusively fermented with white sugar, yeast, and water. Fermented water is clarified after the fermentation to produce a colorless or off-white liquid with no discernible taste other than that of ethanol.

{{Main|Mead}}

Mead ({{IPAc-en|m|iː|d}}), also called hydromel, is an alcoholic drink made by fermenting honey with water, sometimes with various fruits, spices, grains, or hops. The alcoholic content of mead may range from as low as 3% ABV to more than 20%. The defining characteristic of mead is that the majority of the drink's fermentable sugar is derived from honey. Mead can also be referred to as "honeywine."

{{Main|Pulque}}

Pulque is the Mesoamerican fermented drink made from the "honey water" of maguey, Agave americana. Pulque can be distilled to produce tequila or Mezcal.Super, "Alcoholic Beverages", pp. 45–46.

{{Main|Rice wine}}

Rice wine is an alcoholic drink fermented and possibly distilled from rice, consumed in East Asia, Southeast Asia and South Asia. Sake, huangjiu, mijiu, and cheongju are popular examples of East Asian rice wine.

File:Red and white wine 12-2015.jpg of red and white wine]]

{{Main|Wine}}

Wine is a fermented beverage most commonly produced from grapes. Wine involves a longer fermentation process than beer and often a long aging process (months or years), resulting in an alcohol content of 9%–16% ABV.

Sparkling wines such as French Champagne, Catalan Cava and Italian Prosecco are also made from grapes, with a secondary fermentation.

Fruit wines are made from fruits other than grapes, such as plums, cherries, or apples.

{{Main|Liquor}}

File:Rum display in liquor store.jpg

Distilled beverages (also called liquors or spirit drinks) are alcoholic drinks produced by distilling (i.e., concentrating by distillation) ethanol produced by means of fermenting grain, fruit, or vegetables.{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9106006/distilled-spirit|title=Distilled spirit/distilled liquor|publisher=Britannica |access-date=5 February 2013|archive-date=9 May 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509044547/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9106006/distilled-spirit|url-status=live}} Unsweetened, distilled, alcoholic drinks that have an alcohol content of at least 20% ABV are called spirits.Lichine, Alexis. Alexis Lichine's New Encyclopedia of Wines & Spirits (5th edition) (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1987), 707–709. For the most common distilled drinks, such as whisky (or whiskey) and vodka, the alcohol content is around 40%. The term hard liquor is used in North America to distinguish distilled drinks from undistilled ones (implicitly weaker). Brandy, gin, mezcal, rum, tequila, vodka, whisky (or wiskey), baijiu, shōchū and soju are examples of distilled drinks. Distilling concentrates the alcohol and eliminates some of the congeners. Freeze distillation concentrates ethanol along with methanol and fusel alcohols (fermentation by-products partially removed by distillation) in applejack.

Fortified wine is wine, such as port or sherry, to which a distilled beverage (usually brandy) has been added.{{cite book|last=Lichine|first=Alexis|title=Alexis Lichine's New Encyclopedia of Wines & Spirits|edition=5th|location=New York|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|year=1987|page=236|isbn=978-0-394-56262-9}} Fortified wine is distinguished from spirits made from wine in that spirits are produced by means of distillation, while fortified wine is wine that has had a spirit added to it. Many different styles of fortified wine have been developed, including port, sherry, madeira, marsala, commandaria, and the aromatized wine vermouth.{{cite book|editor-last=Robinson|editor-first=J.|title=The Oxford Companion to Wine|edition=3rd|location=New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2006|page=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00janc/page/279 279]|isbn=978-0-19-860990-2|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00janc/page/279}}

{{Main|Rectified spirit}}

Rectified spirit, also called "neutral grain spirit", is alcohol which has been purified by means of "rectification" (i.e. repeated distillation). The term neutral refers to the spirit's lack of flavor that would have been present if the mash ingredients had been distilled to a lower level of alcoholic purity. Rectified spirit also lacks any flavoring added to it after distillation (as is done, for example, with gin). Other kinds of spirits, such as whiskey, (or whisky) are distilled to a lower alcohol percentage to preserve the flavor of the mash.

Rectified spirit is a clear, colorless, flammable liquid that may contain as much as 95% ABV. It is often used for medicinal purposes. It may be a grain spirit, or it may be made from other plants. It is used in mixed drinks, liqueurs, and tinctures, and also as a household solvent.

{{See also|Congener (beverages)|Wine chemistry|Hangover}}

In the alcoholic drinks industry, congeners are substances produced during fermentation. These substances include small amounts of chemicals such as occasionally desired alcohols, like propanol and 3-methyl-1-butanol, as well as compounds that are never desired such as acetone, acetaldehyde and glycols. Congeners are responsible for most of the taste and aroma of distilled alcoholic drinks and contribute to the taste of non-distilled drinks.{{cite web|url=https://winebusinessanalytics.com/features/article/74439/Understanding%20Congeners%20in%20Wine |title=Understanding Congeners in Wine |last=Ingraham |first=John L. |date=May 2010 |website=Wine Business Analytics |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230531031415/https://winebusinessanalytics.com/features/article/74439/Understanding%20Congeners%20in%20Wine |archive-date=31 May 2023 |access-date=1 May 2024}} It has been suggested that these substances contribute to the symptoms of a hangover.{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/8416431.stm |title=Whisky hangover 'worse than vodka, study suggests' |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230123191147/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/8416431.stm |archive-date=23 January 2023 |work=BBC News |access-date=19 December 2009}} Tannins are congeners found in wine in the presence of phenolic compounds. Wine tannins add bitterness, have a drying sensation, taste herbaceous, and are often described as astringent. Wine tannins add balance, complexity, structure and make a wine last longer, so they play an important role in the aging of wine.{{cite web|url=http://winefolly.com/review/wine-characteristics/|title=The 5 Basic Wine Characteristics|work=Wine Folly|access-date=6 May 2015|date=23 July 2012|archive-date=15 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150315223831/http://winefolly.com/review/wine-characteristics/|url-status=live}}

{{Main|Top-shelf liquor}}

Top-shelf liquor (or "premium liquor") is a term used in marketing to describe higher-priced alcoholic beverages, typically stored on the top shelves within bars.{{Cite web |title=What Are Top Shelf Liquors—And Does it Matter {{!}} Wine Enthusiast |url=https://www.wineenthusiast.com/basics/top-shelf-liquor-explained/ |access-date=2024-01-14 |website=www.wineenthusiast.com|date=April 2022 }}

A mixed drink is a beverage in which two or more ingredients are mixed, and is often alcoholic.{{Cite web |title=What Is the Difference Between a Cocktail and a Mixed Drink? |url=https://www.foodandwine.com/cocktails-spirits/bartenders/what-is-the-difference-between-a-cocktail-and-a-mixed-drink |access-date=2023-05-05 |website=Food & Wine |language=en}}

{{Main|Alcopop}}

An alcopop (or cooler) is any of certain mixed alcoholic beverages with relatively low alcohol content (e.g., 3–7% alcohol by volume), including:

1. Malt beverages to which various fruit juices or other flavorings have been added
2. Wine coolers: beverages containing wine to which ingredients such as fruit juice or other flavorings have been added
3. Mixed drinks containing distilled alcohol and sweet liquids such as fruit juices or other flavourings[http://www.ilga.gov/legislation/fulltext.asp?DocName=&SessionId=51&GA=95&DocTypeId=SB&DocNum=1625&GAID=9&LegID=29771&SpecSess=&Session= SB1625, Illinois General Assembly 1977] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205091420/http://www.ilga.gov/legislation/fulltext.asp?DocName=&SessionId=51&GA=95&DocTypeId=SB&DocNum=1625&GAID=9&LegID=29771&SpecSess=&Session= |date=2008-12-05 }} (Amendment to The Liquor Control Act of 1934, Section 6-35; 235 ILCS 5/6-35)

{{Main|Alcohol powder}}

Alcohol powder or powdered alcohol or dry alcohol is a product generally made using micro-encapsulation. When reconstituted with water, the powder becomes an alcoholic drink.{{Cite web|url = http://www.nabca.org/assets/Docs/Research/PowderedAlcoholPaper.pdf|title = Powdered Alcohol: An Encapsulation|accessdate = 4 January 2016|website = NABCA Research|publisher = National Alcohol Beverage Control Association}}

{{Main|Well drink}}

A well drink or rail drink is an alcoholic beverage or mixed drink made using the lower-cost liquors stored within easy reach of the bartender in the bar's "speed rail", "speed rack", or "well", a rack or shelf at a lower level than the bar that the bartender uses to prepare drinks.{{cite book |editor1-first=Anne |editor1-last=Lai |others=Harvard Student Agencies, Inc. |title=Bartending 101: The Basics of Mixology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QyusKkN-tqgC&q=rail+well+vs+call+vs+top-shelf&pg=PA7 |edition=4th |year=2005 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |isbn=978-0-312-34906-6 |pages=7–9 |quote=In professional bars, a 'speed rail' usually replaces the front bar. This rack, attached to the bar or sink directly in front of the bartender, holds 'house brands' (usually less-expensive brands) of front-bar liquor. The bartender defers to the well brand of liquor for every drink unless the customer specifies a well-known brand, or 'call brand,' as it is known in bartending lingo. The more expensive call brands stay on the back bar. That means that you will prepare a White Russian with generic coffee brandy instead of the most commonly known call brand (Kahlúa) unless the drink specifically requests otherwise (or if your bar is using Kahlúa as its well brand). There is a further classification of alcohols called the 'premium' or 'top-shelf' brands. These are even higher quality bottles of liquor – such as Bombay gin or Old Grand Dad bourbon. |name-list-style=vanc }}{{cite book |last1=Kulp |first1=Kayleigh |name-list-style=vanc |year=2014 |title=Booze for Babes: The Smart Woman's Guide to Drinking Spirits Right |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JWCrqWDA_foC&pg=PA113 |publisher=Hundred Proof Publishing Co. |page=113 |isbn=978-0-9857731-0-6 |quote=Rail liquors are the selection of bottles bartenders keep in the long shelf under the bar counter, called the rail. These bottles are usually the cheapest liquor they carry, and are often used automatically unless you, or the cocktail menu, specify otherwise. }}{{cite book |last1=Katsigris |first1=Costas |last2=Thomas |first2=Chris |title=The Bar and Beverage Book |edition=5th |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2012 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=mwCACgAAQBAJ&q=well&pg=PA704 |isbn=9780470248454 |page=704 |quote=speed rail, speed rack. A bottle-width rack for liquor bottles that is attached to the apron of underbar equipment.}}

{{main|List of countries by alcohol consumption per capita}}

{{also|Alcohol preferences in Europe}}

File:AlcoholPerCapita.jpg

File:Liquor store in Breckenridge Colorado.jpg in the United States. Global sales of alcoholic beverages exceeded $1.5 trillion in 2017.{{cite journal |last1=Jernigan |first1=D |last2=Ross |first2=CS |title=The Alcohol Marketing Landscape: Alcohol Industry Size, Structure, Strategies, and Public Health Responses. |journal=Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs. Supplement |date=March 2020 |volume=Sup 19 |issue=Suppl 19 |pages=13–25 |doi=10.15288/jsads.2020.s19.13 |pmid=32079559|pmc=7064002 }}]]

The average number of people who drink {{as of|2016|lc=y}} was 39% for males and 25% for females (2.4 billion people in total). Females on average drink 0.7 drinks per day while males drink 1.7 drinks per day. The rates of drinking varies significantly in different areas of the world.

Gr1 lrg.jpg|alt=Age-standardised prevalence of current drinking for females (A) and males (B) in 2016, in 195 locations.|Age-standardised prevalence of current drinking for females (A) and males (B) in 2016, in 195 locations

Average standard alcoholic drinks consumed per day in 2016, age-standardised.jpg|alt=Average standard drinks (10 g of pure ethanol per serving) consumed per day, age-standardised, for females (A) and males (B) in 2016, in 195 locations.|Average standard drinks (10 g of pure ethanol per serving) consumed per day, age-standardised, for females (A) and males (B) in 2016, in 195 locations

{{Further|List of drinking games}}

Drinking games are games which involve the consumption of alcoholic beverages and often enduring the subsequent intoxication resulting from them. Evidence of the existence of drinking games dates back to antiquity. Drinking games have been banned at some institutions, particularly colleges and universities.Jillian Swords. The Appalachian: [http://theapp.appstate.edu/content/view/2671/1/ "New alcohol policy bans drinking games"]. September 18, 2007. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090716190250/http://theapp.appstate.edu/content/view/2671/1/ |date=July 16, 2009 }}

{{Main|Drinking song}}

A drinking song is a song sung while drinking an alcoholic beverage.

A beer garden (German: Biergarten) is an outdoor area in which beer and food are served, typically at shared tables shaded by trees.

A beer hall ({{Langx|de|Bierpalast, Bierhalle}}) is a large pub that specializes in beer.

A cider house is an establishment that sells alcoholic cider for consumption on the premises. Some cider houses also sell cider "to go", for consumption off the premises. A traditional cider house was often little more than a room in a farmhouse or cottage, selling locally fermented cider.

An ouzeri (Greek ουζερί {{IPA|el|uzeˈri|IPA}}) is a type of Greek tavern which serves ouzo (a Greek liquor) and mezedes (small finger foods).

Pulquerías (or pulcherías) are a type of tavern in Mexico that specialize in serving an alcoholic beverage known as pulque.

A tiki bar is a themed drinking establishment that serves elaborate cocktails, especially rum-based mixed drinks such as the Mai Tai and Zombie cocktails.{{cite book |last1=Kirsten |first1=Sven |title=The Book of Tiki |date=2000 |publisher=Taschen |page=55}} Tiki bars are aesthetically defined by their tiki culture décor which is based upon a romanticized conception of tropical cultures, most commonly Polynesian.

A toddy shop is a drinking establishment seen in some parts of India (particularly Kerala) where palm toddy, a mildly alcoholic beverage made from the sap of palm trees, is served along with food.

A wine bar is a tavern-like business focusing on selling wine, rather than liquor or beer. A typical feature of many wine bars is a wide selection of wines available by the glass. Some wine bars are profiled on wines of a certain type of origin, such as Italian wine or Champagne.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}} While many wine bars are private "stand-alone" establishments, in some cases, wine bars are associated with a specific wine retailer or other outlet of wine, to provide additional marketing for that retailer's wine portfolio. In countries where licensing regulations allow this, some wine bars also sell the wines they serve, and effectively function as a hybrid between a wine shop and a wine bar.

A beer festival is an event at which a variety of beers are available for purchase. There may be a theme, for instance beers from a particular area, or a particular brewing style such as winter ales.

Annual wine festivals celebrate viticulture and usually occur after the harvest of the grapes which, in the northern hemisphere, generally falls at the end of September and runs until well into October or later. They are common in most wine regions around the world and are to be considered in the tradition of other harvest festivals.

File:Story Bridge Hotel 06.JPG of three beers, on a wooden beer paddle, served by a bar in Brisbane, Australia]]

Beer tasting is a way to learn more about the history, ingredients, and production of beer, as well as different beer styles, hops, yeast, and beer presentation. A common approach is to analyze the appearance, smell, and taste of the beer, and then make a final judgment on the beer's quality. There are various scales used by beer journalists and experts to rate beer, such as the 1-20 scale used by British sommelier Jancis Robinson and the 1-100 scale used by American sommelier Joshua M. Bernstein. Professional organizations like the Wine & Spirit Education Trust often rate beer using verbal grades ranging from "faulty" to "outstanding" on a 1-5 scale.

Wine tasting, on the other hand, is the sensory examination and evaluation of wine. While the practice of wine tasting is ancient, a more formalized methodology has been established since the 14th century. Modern, professional wine tasters use specialized terminology to describe the range of perceived flavors, aromas, and general characteristics of a wine. More informal, recreational tasting may involve similar terminology, but with a less analytical process and a more general, personal appreciation of the wine.

Craft beer tourism refers to tourism where the primary motivation of travel is to visit a brewery, beer festival, beer related activity or other event that allows attendees to experience all aspects of the craft beer-making, consuming and purchasing process.{{Cite journal|last=Franconi|first=Jennifer|date=2012|title=Beer Tourists: Who Are They|url=https://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1786&context=ttra|journal=Scholarworks @ Umass Amherst}}

Enotourism, oenotourism, wine tourism, or vinitourism refers to tourism whose purpose is or includes the tasting, consumption or purchase of wine, often at or near the source. Where other types of tourism are often passive in nature, enotourism can consist of visits to wineries, tasting wines, vineyard walks, or even taking an active part in the harvest.

{{main|Apéritif and digestif}}

An apéritif is any alcoholic beverage usually served before a meal to stimulate the appetite,{{Cite journal | pmid = 15059684| year = 2004| last1 = Caton| first1 = S.J.| title = Dose-dependent effects of alcohol on appetite and food intake| journal = Physiology & Behavior| volume = 81| issue = 1| pages = 51–58| last2 = Ball| first2 = M| last3 = Ahern| first3 = A| last4 = Hetherington| first4 = M.M.| doi = 10.1016/j.physbeh.2003.12.017| s2cid = 22424908}} while a digestif is any alcoholic beverage served after a meal for the stated purpose of improving digestion. Fortified wine, liqueurs, and dry champagne are common apéritifs. Because apéritifs are served before dining, they are usually dry rather than sweet. One example is Cinzano, a brand of vermouth. Digestifs include brandy, fortified wines and herb-infused spirits (Drambuie).

{{main|Cooking with alcohol}}

File:Réduction du vin rouge.jpg of red wine for a sauce by cooking it on a stovetop. It is called a reduction because the heat boils off some of the water and most of the more volatile alcohol, leaving a more concentrated, wine-flavoured sauce.]]

Pure ethanol tastes bitter to humans; some people also describe it as sweet.{{Cite journal | pmid = 10940547| year = 2000| last1 = Scinska| first1 = A| title = Bitter and sweet components of ethanol taste in humans| journal = Drug and Alcohol Dependence| volume = 60| issue = 2| pages = 199–206| last2 = Koros| first2 = E| last3 = Habrat| first3 = B| last4 = Kukwa| first4 = A| last5 = Kostowski| first5 = W| last6 = Bienkowski| first6 = P | doi=10.1016/s0376-8716(99)00149-0}} However, ethanol is also a moderately effective solvent for many fatty substances and essential oils. This facilitates the use of flavoring and coloring compounds in alcoholic drinks as a taste mask, especially in distilled drinks. Some flavors may be naturally present in the beverage's raw material. Beer and wine may also be flavored before fermentation, and spirits may be flavored before, during, or after distillation. Sometimes flavor is obtained by allowing the beverage to stand for months or years in oak barrels, usually made of American or French oak. A few brands of spirits may also have fruit or herbs inserted into the bottle at the time of bottling.

Wine is important in cuisine not just for its value as an accompanying beverage, but as a flavor agent, primarily in stocks and braising, since its acidity lends balance to rich savory or sweet dishes.{{Cite web | url=http://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/features/6-secrets-of-cooking-with-wine#1 |title=6 Secrets of Cooking with Wine |access-date=12 April 2017 |archive-date=22 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170322203424/http://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/features/6-secrets-of-cooking-with-wine#1 |url-status=live}} Wine sauce is an example of a culinary sauce that uses wine as a primary ingredient.{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bHp1GJk8IMcC&pg=PA15 |title=Parker's Wine Buyer's Guide, 7th Edition |publisher=Simon and Schuster |author=Parker, Robert M. |year=2008 |page=15 |isbn=978-1-4391-3997-4}} Natural wines may exhibit a broad range of alcohol content, from below 9% to above 16% ABV, with most wines being in the 12.5–14.5% range.{{cite book |author=Jancis Robinson |title=The Oxford Companion to Wine |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00janc |url-access=registration |edition=3rd |year=2006 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-860990-2}} See alcoholic strength at p. 10. Fortified wines (usually with brandy) may contain 20% alcohol or more.

{{For|historical use of wine or beer as sweetener/preservation in early desalinating sea water|Grog#Background}}

Alcohol has been used to preserve food.{{cite web |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284830829 |title=Ethanol as a food preservative |access-date=21 April 2024}}

{{expand section|date=March 2024}}

Terms for foods always served with alcoholic beverages:

• Anju—Korean term for drinking food
• Kap klaem—Thai term for drinking food
• Sakana—Japanese term for snacks served while drinking

Vinegar (vyn egre; sour wine) is an aqueous solution of acetic acid and trace compounds that may include flavorings. Vinegar typically contains from 5% to 18% acetic acid by volume.{{cite web |title=Acetic acid: general information |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/acetic-acid-properties-uses-and-incident-management/acetic-acid-general-information |website=GOV.UK |publisher=Government Digital Service |access-date=19 March 2024 |language=en}} Usually, the acetic acid is produced by a double fermentation, converting simple sugars to ethanol using yeast and ethanol to acetic acid using acetic acid bacteria.{{cite journal |last1=Nakayama |first1=Takeyoshi |title=Studies on acetic acid-bacteria I. Biochemical studies on ethanol oxidation |journal=The Journal of Biochemistry |volume=46 |issue=9 |date=September 1959 |pages=1217–1225 |doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.jbchem.a127022}}

The source materials for making vinegar are varied – different fruits, grains, alcoholic beverages, and other fermentable materials are used:{{cite web |title=Vinegar |url=https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/food-features/vinegar/ |publisher=TH Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University |access-date=4 March 2020 |date=1 October 2019 |archive-date=14 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221114123724/https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/food-features/vinegar/ |url-status=live}}

• Apple cider vinegar, or cider vinegar, is a vinegar made from cider.{{cite book |title=Natural Standard Herb & Supplement Guide: An Evidence-Based Reference |chapter=Apple Cider Vinegar |publisher=Elsevier |year=2010 |edition=1st |page=59 |editor=Ulbricht CE |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WB8PDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA59 |isbn=978-0-323-07295-3}}
• Rice vinegar is a vinegar made from rice wine.

Image:Vin Jaune.jpg with walnuts and Comté cheese]]

{{main|Wine and food matching}}

Wine and food matching is the process of pairing food dishes with wine to enhance the dining experience. In many cultures, wine has had a long history of being a staple at the dinner table and in some ways both the winemaking and culinary traditions of a region will have evolved together over the years. Rather than following a set of rules, local cuisines were paired simply with local wines. The modern "art" of food pairings is a relatively recent phenomenon, fostering an industry of books and media with guidelines for pairings of particular foods and wine. In the restaurant industry, sommeliers are often present to make food pairing recommendations for the guest. The main concept behind pairings is that certain elements (such as texture and flavor) in both food and wine interact with each other, and thus finding the right combination of these elements will make the entire dining experience more enjoyable. However, taste and enjoyment are very subjective and what may be a "textbook perfect" pairing for one taster could be less enjoyable to another.K. MacNeil The Wine Bible pg 83-88 Workman Publishing 2001 {{ISBN|1-56305-434-5}}

{{for|historical use|Drink offering|Law of Moses}}

Alcoholic beverages are typical offerings for the folk saint Maximón,{{cite web|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612142143/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/destinations/north-america/guatemala/maximon-santiago-atitlan-maya-saint/ |archive-date=12 June 2018 |url-status=live |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/destinations/north-america/guatemala/maximon-santiago-atitlan-maya-saint/ |title=Meet Maximón: The Liquor-Drinking, Chain-Smoking Saint |website=National Geographic |last=Khan |first=Gulnaz |date=24 January 2018}} and Santa Muerte.{{cite journal |last=Araujo Peña |first=Sandra Alejandro |author2=Barbosa Ramírez Marisela |author3=Galván Falcón Susana |author4=García Ortiz Aurea |author5=Uribe Ordaz Carlos |title=El culto a la Santa Muerte: un estudio descriptivo |trans-title=The Santa Muerte Cult:A descriptive study |journal=Revista Psichologia |publisher=Universidad de Londres |location=Mexico City |url=http://www.udlondres.com/revista_psicologia/articulos/stamuerte.htm |language=es |access-date=7 October 2009}}{{cite news |title=La Guerra Santa de la Santa Muerte |first=Hector |last=Villarreal |url=http://semanal.milenio.com/node/331 |newspaper=Milenio semana |publisher=Milenio |location=Mexico City |date=5 April 2009 |access-date=7 October 2009 |language=es |trans-title=The Holy War of Santa Muerte |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091016071830/http://semanal.milenio.com/node/331 |archive-date=16 October 2009 }} Both folk saints have been described as narco-saints.{{cite web| url=https://nypost.com/2021/12/21/religious-saints-of-murders-outlaws-worshiped-by-cartels/ |title=Santa Muerte and five more 'religious' saints worshiped by drug cartels |last=Vincent |first=Isabel |date=21 December 2021 |website=New York Post |access-date=10 June 2022}}{{cite web| url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/09/big-in-mexico/375060/ |title=The Rise of the Narco-Saints |last=Flannagin |first=Jake |date=September 2014 |website=The Atlantic |access-date=10 June 2022}}

{{main|Libation}}

A libation is a ritual pouring of a liquid, or grains such as rice, as an offering to a deity or spirit, or in memory of the dead. It was common in many religions of antiquity and continues to be offered in cultures today. Wine or other alcoholic drinks are often used for libation.

File:Cérémonies coutumières.jpg, in a community in southern Benin]]

Libation was part of ancient Egyptian society where it was a drink offering to honor and please the various divinities, sacred ancestors, humans present and humans who are alive but not physically present, as well as the environment.{{cite book |last1=Nehusi |first1=Kimani S.K. |title=Libation. An Afrikan Ritual of Heritage in the Circle of Life |date=2016 |publisher=University Press of America |isbn=978-0-7618-6710-4 |page=14 |language=en }} It is suggested that libation originated somewhere in the upper Nile Valley and spread out to other regions of Africa and the world.Delia, 1992, pp. 181-190{{full citation needed|date=March 2024}}{{cite book |last=James |first=George G. M. |year=1954 |title=Stolen Legacy |place=New York |publisher=Philosophical Library}} According to Ayi Kwei Armah, "[t]his legend explains the rise of a propitiatory custom found everywhere on the African continent: libation, the pouring of alcohol or other drinks as offerings to ancestors and divinities."{{cite book |last=Armah |first=Ayi Kwei |year=2006 |title=The Eloquence of the Scribes: a memoir on the sources and resources of African literature |place=Popenguine, Senegal |publisher=Per Ankh |page=207}}

In the Quechua and Aymara cultures of the South American Andes, it is common to pour a small amount of one's beverage on the ground before drinking as an offering to the Pachamama, or Mother Earth. This especially holds true when drinking Chicha, an alcoholic beverage unique to this part of the world. The libation ritual is commonly called challa and is performed quite often, usually before meals and during celebrations. The sixteenth century writer Bernardino de Sahagún records the Aztec ceremony associated with drinking octli:

Libation was done in this manner: when octli was drunk, when they tasted the new octli, when someone had just made octli...he summoned people. He set it out in a vessel before the hearth, along with small cups for drinking. Before having anyone drink, he took up octli with a cup and then poured it before the hearth; he poured the octli in the four directions. And when he had poured the octli then everyone drank it.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nH_P1Gn1twwC&q=octli|title=Primeros Memoriales|first1=Bernardino de|last1=Sahagún|first2=Henry B.|last2=Nicholson|date=23 March 1997|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|isbn=9780806129099 |via=Google Books}}

File:US Navy 100912-M-2275H-196 A command chaplain holds church services aboard USS Kearsarge.jpg pouring sacramental wine from a cruet into a chalice]]

{{main|Sacramental wine}}

{{see also|Alcohol in the Bible|Religion and alcohol}}

The amount of sacramental wine consumed during the Eucharist is typically limited to a single sip or small portion, which does not result in a measurable increase in the participant's blood alcohol content. This controlled and symbolic consumption of the sacramental wine is an integral part of the Eucharistic rite and does not lead to intoxication.

According to the Catholic Church, the sacramental wine used in the Eucharist must contain alcohol. Canon 924 of the present Code of Canon Law (1983) states:

§3 The wine must be natural, made from grapes of the vine, and not corrupt.[http://www.deacons.net/Canon_Law/cci.htm Code of Canon Law, 1983] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060619055307/http://www.deacons.net/Canon_Law/cci.htm |date=19 June 2006 }}

{{main|Eucharist in Lutheranism}}

In Lutheranism, the Catechism teaches:

{{blockquote|289. What are the visible elements in the Sacrament?

The visible elements are bread and wine.

935. Matt. 26:26-27 Jesus took bread … Then He took the cup.

Note: “The fruit of the vine” (Luke 22:18) in the Bible means wine, not grape juice. See also 1 Cor. 11:21{{cite web |last1=Weber |first1=Karl |title=Fruit of Which Vine? |url=https://steadfastlutherans.org/blog/2013/05/fruit-of-which-vine/ |publisher=Steadfast Lutherans |access-date=18 April 2024 |language=English |date=31 May 2013}}}}

Some Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) congregations make grape juice available for children and those who are abstaining from alcohol and some will accommodate those with an allergy to wheat, gluten, or grapes.[http://www.fairbankslutheran.org/ An example of a church that does]. See the "Sunday Worship" section on the "Welcome" page.

File:Whitewillowtincture.jpg bark and ethanol, containing salicin (from which salicylic acid-based products like aspirin are derived)]]

A tincture is typically an extract of plant or animal material dissolved in ethanol (ethyl alcohol). Solvent concentrations of 25–60% are common, but may run as high as 90%.Groot Handboek Geneeskrachtige Planten by Geert Verhelst In chemistry, a tincture is a solution that has ethanol as its solvent. In herbal medicine, alcoholic tinctures are made with various ethanol concentrations, which should be at least 20% alcohol for preservation purposes.{{Cite web|last=Ullian|first=Naomi|date=19 September 2016|title=How To Make A Medicinal Mushroom Double-Extraction Tincture|url=https://theherbalacademy.com/make-medicinal-mushroom-double-extraction-tincture/|access-date=12 January 2021|website=Herbal Academy|language=en-US}}

A flaming drink is often ignited for aesthetic and entertainment purposes.

Alcoholic beverage may be consumed to celebrate observances such as the International Beer Day, International whisk(e)y day, or National Vodka Day. They also drink them for social events like International Women's Collaboration Brew Day, where people come together to make beer.

{{Main|Alcohol measurements}}

Alcohol measurements are units of measurement for determining amounts of beverage alcohol. Alcohol concentration in beverages is commonly expressed as alcohol by volume (ABV), ranging from less than 0.1% in fruit juices to up to 98% in rare cases of spirits. A standard drink is used globally to quantify alcohol intake, though its definition varies widely by country. Serving sizes of alcoholic beverages also vary by country.

File:Lady relaxing next to glass of red wine and glass of 1664 beer.jpg

{{columns-list|colwidth=10em|

• Absinthiana
• Beer bong
• Beer engine
• Beer tap
• Beer tower
• Hogshead
• Margarita machine
• Port tongs
• Wine dispenser

}}

• Cocktail waitress
• Beer sommelier
• Beer wench
• Wine sommelier
• Winemaker

{{anchor|Legal considerations}}

{{main|Alcohol laws}}

{{main|Drinking age}}

Alcohol laws regulate the manufacture, packaging, labelling, distribution, sale, consumption, blood alcohol content of motor vehicle drivers, open containers, and transportation of alcoholic drinks. Such laws generally seek to reduce the adverse health and social impacts of alcohol consumption. In particular, alcohol laws set the legal drinking age, which usually varies between 15 and 21 years old, sometimes depending upon the type of alcoholic drink (e.g., beer vs wine vs hard liquor or distillates). Some countries do not have a legal drinking or purchasing age, but most countries set the minimum age at 18 years.

Some countries, such as the U.S., have the drinking age higher than the legal age of majority (18), at age 21 in all 50 states. Such laws may take the form of permitting distribution only to licensed stores, monopoly stores, or pubs and they are often combined with taxation, which serves to reduce the demand for alcohol (by raising its price) and it is a form of revenue for governments. These laws also often limit the hours or days (e.g., "blue laws") on which alcohol may be sold or served, as can also be seen in the "last call" ritual in US and Canadian bars, where bartenders and servers ask patrons to place their last orders for alcohol, due to serving hour cutoff laws. In some countries, alcohol cannot be sold to a person who is already intoxicated. Alcohol laws in many countries prohibit drunk driving.

In some jurisdictions, alcoholic drinks are totally prohibited for reasons of religion (e.g., Islamic countries with sharia law) or for reasons of local option, public health, and morals (e.g., Prohibition in the United States from 1920 to 1933). In jurisdictions which enforce sharia law, the consumption of alcoholic drinks is an illegal offense,{{cite book|last1=Williams|first1=Lizzie|title=Nigeria: The Bradt Travel Guide|page=101}} although such laws may exempt non-Muslims.Alcohol and Temperance in Modern History p. 329 David M. Fahey, Ian R. Tyrrell (2003)

File:Indonesian police destroys illegal alcohol.jpg to destroy bottles of illegal alcohol confiscated in Serpong, out of Jakarta, Indonesia, April 13, 2018.]]

{{main|Alcohol-related crime}}

Alcohol is used in rum-running, the illegal business of smuggling alcoholic beverages where such transportation is forbidden by law.

Wine fraud relates to the commercial aspects of wine. The most prevalent type of fraud is one where wines are adulterated, usually with the addition of cheaper products (e.g. juices) and sometimes with harmful chemicals and sweeteners (compensating for color or flavor).

Moonshine is illegal to produce and sell in most countries. In Prohibition-era United States, moonshine distillation was done at night to deter discovery.{{cite web |last=Sumich |first=Jason |title=It's All Legal Until You Get Caught: Moonshining in the Southern Appalachians |url=http://anthro.appstate.edu/field-schools/papers/2007/sumich |access-date=21 March 2014 |publisher=Appalachian State University}} Once the liquor was distilled, drivers called "runners" or "bootleggers" smuggled moonshine liquor across the region in cars specially modified for speed and load-carrying capacity.{{cite book |last1=Cooper |first1=William J. |last2=Terrill |first2=Thomas E. |title=The American South: A History, Volume II |date=2009 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |location=Lanham, Md. |isbn=978-0-7425-6097-0 |page=625 |edition=4th |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=foGTgJkUOTEC&q=bootleg+moonshine}}

Outbreaks of methanol poisoning have occurred when methanol is used to adulterate moonshine.{{cite web |date=November 2012 |title=Application to Include Fomepizole on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines |url=https://www.who.int/selection_medicines/committees/expert/19/applications/Fomepizole_4_2_AC_Ad.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714170743/https://www.who.int/selection_medicines/committees/expert/19/applications/Fomepizole_4_2_AC_Ad.pdf |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=4 October 2020 |page=10}}

In Australia, a sly-grog shop (or shanty) is an unlicensed hotel, liquor-store or other vendor of alcoholic beverages, sometimes with the added connotation of selling poor-quality products.{{Cite web |date=2024-01-17 |title=Sly-grog shop (or shanty) - Araluen Valley History |url=https://araluenvalley-history.com.au/public-houses/sly-grog-shop-or-shanty/ |access-date=2024-10-07 |language=en-AU}}

Pruno also known as prison hooch or prison wine, is a term used in the United States to describe an improvised alcoholic beverage. It is variously made from apples, oranges, fruit cocktail, fruit juices, hard candy, sugar, high fructose syrup, and possibly other ingredients, including crumbled bread.{{cite book |last1=B. Lance |first1=Courtney |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hWcfDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA266 |title=Pruno, Ramen, and a Side of Hope |date=February 2015 |publisher=Post Hill Press |isbn=978-1618689252 |page=266}}

Most countries have specifically for the offense of drunk driving. Driving under the influence (DUI) or driving while intoxicated (DWI), is the crime of driving a motor vehicle while impaired by alcohol or other drugs (including those prescribed by physicians).{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hfw5AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA1 |title=Driving Under the Influence: A Report to Congress on Alcohol Limits |publisher=U.S. Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration |year=1992 |pages=1– |access-date=18 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240905055402/https://books.google.com/books?id=Hfw5AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false |archive-date=5 September 2024 |url-status=live}}

Public intoxication laws vary widely by jurisdiction, but include public nuisance laws, open-container laws, and prohibitions on drinking alcohol in public or certain areas.{{Cite book |last1=Clinard |first1=Marshall |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cm5zmpcVNfQC&pg=PA273 |title=Sociology of Deviant Behavior |last2=Meier |first2=Robert |date=14 February 2007 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=9780495093350 |pages=273 |access-date=20 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240905055434/https://books.google.com/books?id=cm5zmpcVNfQC&pg=PA273 |archive-date=5 September 2024 |url-status=live}}

{{Main|Health effects of alcohol}}

Alcohol is a depressant, which in low doses causes euphoria, reduces anxiety, and increases sociability. In higher doses, it causes drunkenness, stupor, unconsciousness, or death. A meta analysis of 107 cohort studies concludes low daily alcohol intake provides no health benefits and increased consumption, even at relatively low levels of daily intake (>2 beverages for women and >3 beverages for men), increases health- and mortality-risks.{{cite web |last1=Bisognano |first1=John |date=5 April 2023 |title=Daily Alcohol Intake and Risk of All-Cause Mortality |url=https://www.acc.org/Latest-in-Cardiology/Journal-Scans/2023/04/05/16/04/association-between-daily-alcohol |website=American College of Cardiology}}{{Cite news |last= |first= |last2= |first2= |date=2024-07-25 |title=Moderate drinking not better for health than abstaining, analysis suggests |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/article/2024/jul/25/moderate-drinking-not-better-for-health-than-abstaining-analysis-suggests?CMP=oth_b-aplnews_d-1 |access-date=2024-08-16 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}

Short-term effects of alcohol consumption range from a decrease in anxiety and motor skills and euphoria at lower doses to intoxication (drunkenness), to stupor, unconsciousness, anterograde amnesia (memory "blackouts"), and central nervous system depression at higher doses. Cell membranes are highly permeable to alcohol, so once it is in the bloodstream, it can diffuse into nearly every cell in the body. Alcohol can greatly exacerbate sleep problems. During abstinence, residual disruptions in sleep regularity and sleep patterns are the greatest predictors of relapse.{{cite journal |vauthors=Feige B, Scaal S, Hornyak M, Gann H, Riemann D |date=January 2007 |title=Sleep electroencephalographic spectral power after withdrawal from alcohol in alcohol-dependent patients |journal=Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=19–27 |doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2006.00260.x |pmid=17207097}} Long-term use can lead to an alcohol use disorder, an increased risk of developing physical dependence, cardiovascular disease, and several types of cancer.

File:Intervention alcohol warning labels, Jsad.2020.81.262fig1.jpgSome nations have introduced alcohol packaging warning messages that inform consumers about alcohol and cancer, as well as fetal alcohol syndrome.{{cite web|title=Cancer warning labels to be included on alcohol in Ireland, minister confirms|url=https://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/republic-of-ireland/cancer-warning-labels-to-be-included-on-alcohol-in-ireland-minister-confirms-37357231.html|publisher=Belfast Telegraph|language=English|date=26 September 2018|access-date=20 February 2023|archive-date=11 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411134121/https://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/republic-of-ireland/cancer-warning-labels-to-be-included-on-alcohol-in-ireland-minister-confirms-37357231.html|url-status=live}} The addition of warning labels on alcoholic beverages is historically supported by organizations of the temperance movement, such as the Woman's Christian Temperance Union, as well as by medical organisations, such as the Irish Cancer Society.{{cite journal |last1=Chandler |first1=Ellen |title=FASD - Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder |journal=White Ribbon Signal |date=2012 |volume=117 |issue=2 |page=2}}{{cite news |last1=Finn |first1=Christina |title=Irish Cancer Society urges minister not to drop proposed cancer warning labels on alcohol products |url=https://www.thejournal.ie/irish-cancer-society-cancer-labels-4248754-Sep2018/ |website=TheJournal.ie |language=en |access-date=20 February 2023 |archive-date=20 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230220082259/https://www.thejournal.ie/irish-cancer-society-cancer-labels-4248754-Sep2018/ |url-status=live}}

The International Agency for Research on Cancer lists ethanol as a carcinogen and states that: "There is sufficient evidence and research showing the carcinogenicity of acetaldehyde (the major metabolite of ethanol) which is excreted by the liver enzyme when one drinks alcohol."[http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Classification/ClassificationsGroupOrder.pdf Agents Classified by the IARC Monographs, Volumes 1–111] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111025122327/http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Classification/ClassificationsGroupOrder.pdf |date=25 October 2011}}. monographs.iarc.fr The World Health Organization also considers alcohol to be a carcinogen with no quantity of consumption considered to be safe. WHO estimates nearly half of alcohol-attributable cancers in the WHO European Region are linked to light or moderate drinking defined as "less than 1.5 litres of wine or less than 3.5 litres of beer or less than 450 millilitres of spirits per week".{{Cite web |title=No level of alcohol consumption is safe for our health |url=https://www.who.int/europe/news/item/04-01-2023-no-level-of-alcohol-consumption-is-safe-for-our-health |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112022159/https://www.who.int/europe/news/item/04-01-2023-no-level-of-alcohol-consumption-is-safe-for-our-health |archive-date=12 January 2023 |access-date=12 January 2023 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}

Public awareness of the link between alcohol consumption and cancer is alarmingly low in the U.S.[https://www.nytimes.com/2024/09/18/health/alcohol-cancer-young-adults.html Deep Links Between Alcohol and Cancer Are Described in New Report: Scientists continue to rethink the idea that moderate drinking offers health benefits.] by Roni Caryn Rabin, the New York Times on Sept. 18, 2024. Last access 9/26/2024. Dr. Vivek Murthy, the U.S. Surgeon General asked for Cancer Warnings on Alcohol.{{Cite news |last=Rabin |first=Roni Caryn |date=2025-01-03 |title=Surgeon General Calls for Cancer Warnings on Alcohol |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2025/01/03/health/alcohol-surgeon-general-warning.html |access-date=2025-01-08 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}

{{div col|colwidth=30em}}

• List of alcoholic drinks
• List of national drinks
• List of whisky brands
• List of rum brands
• List of tequilas
• List of vodka brands
• Liquor
• Beer and breweries by region
• List of barley-based drinks
• List of beer cocktails
• List of cocktails
• List of IBA official cocktails
• Beer and breweries by region
• Alcoholic beverage industry in Europe
• Alcohol (chemistry)
• Homebrewing

{{div col end}}

{{Clear}}

{{Reflist}}{{Commons category|Alcoholic beverages}}

{{wikivoyage|Alcoholic beverages}}

{{Cookbook|Alcoholic Drink}}

{{Alcoholic beverages}}

{{Bartend}}{{Beer Styles}}{{Cocktails}}

{{Wine by country}}

{{Lists of beverages}}

{{Alcohol and health}}

{{Portalbar|Drink|Beer|Liquor|Wine}}

{{Authority control}}

Category:Alcoholic drinks

Category:Fermented drinks

Category:Drinking culture

Category:Alcohol industry