Islam in England#Ethnic group

{{See also|List of English words of Arabic origin}}

{{See also|Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe}}

File:Offa king of Mercia 757 793 gold dinar copy of dinar of the Abassid Caliphate 774.jpg / gold dinar of king Offa, copied from the dinars of the Abbasid Caliphate (774); it includes the Arabic text Muhammad is the Apostle of Allah, a line from the Shahada.]]

Although Islam is generally thought of as a contemporary arrival in England, Muslims have been trading and exchanging ideas with the English for centuries.

An early example is the decision of Offa, the 8th-century King of Mercia (one of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms existing at that time), to have a coin minted with an Islamic inscription – largely a copy of coins issued by a contemporary Muslim ruler, Caliph Al-Mansur. These coins may have been minted simply for prestige or to facilitate trade with the expanding Caliphate of Córdoba, as Islamic gold dinars were the most important coinage in the Mediterranean at the time. Offa's coin looked enough like the original that it would be readily accepted in southern Europe, while at the same time his own name was clearly visible.[http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/cm/g/gold_imitation_dinar_of_offa.aspx Gold imitation dinar of Offa] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120912191141/http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/cm/g/gold_imitation_dinar_of_offa.aspx |date=2012-09-12 }}, British Museum

References to Britain are also found in early Islamic geographical literature, such as the 9th century work of Ahmad ibn Rustah, which describes the islands of "Bratiniya".{{Cite journal|title=The Muslim Discovery of Europe|author=Bernard Lewis|journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies|issue=1/3|year=1957|pages=409–416 [410]|publisher=Cambridge University Press|volume=20|doi=10.1017/S0041977X00061954|jstor=610392|s2cid=246638865|author-link=Bernard Lewis}}

Muslim scholarship, especially early Islamic philosophy and Islamic science, was well known through Latin translation among the learned in England by 1386, when Geoffrey Chaucer was writing. In the Prologue to the Canterbury Tales, there is among the pilgrims wending their way to Canterbury a 'Doctour of Phisyk' whose learning included Rhazes (Al-Razi), Avicenna (Ibn Sina, Arabic ابن سينا) and Averroes (Ibn Rushd, Arabic ابن رشد). In the Pardoner's Tale, Chaucer mentions part of Avicenna's work concerning poisons.Chaucer The Canterbury Tales Harmondsworth Penguin 1951 p280 and note p522 Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine (1025), in Latin translation, was a standard text for medical students up until the 18th century.Ziauddin Sardar, [http://www.cgcu.net/imase/islam_science_philosophy.htm Science in Islamic philosophy] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090505185046/http://www.cgcu.net/imase/islam_science_philosophy.htm |date=2009-05-05 }} Roger Bacon, one of the earliest European advocates of the scientific method,{{Cite book | title = Introduction to Forensic Engineering | author = Randall Noon | publisher = CRC Press | year = 1992 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ru_E__W7euUC&q=roger-bacon+scientific-method&pg=PA39 | isbn = 0849381029 }} is known to have studied the works of several early Muslim philosophers.Glick, Thomas F.; Livesey, Steven John; Wallis, Faith: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SaJlbWK_-FcC&dq=bacon+arabic+translation&pg=PA424 Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia], first edition, Routledge, 29 September 2005, {{ISBN|978-0-415-96930-7}}Moorstein, Mark: [https://books.google.com/books?id=36g9_8MX53cC&dq=firnas+bacon&pg=PA237 Frameworks: Conflict in Balance], page 237, iUniverse, Inc., 9 June 2004, 308 pp, {{ISBN|978-0-595-31824-7}} In particular, his work on optics in the 13th century was influenced by the Book of Optics (1021) by Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen).{{Cite book|last=Lindberg |first=David C. |year=1996 |title=Roger Bacon and the Origins of Perspectiva in the Middle Ages |publisher=Clarendon Press |page=11 |isbn=9780198239925}}

Professor John Makdisi's article "The Islamic Origins of the Common Law", published in the North Carolina Law Review,{{Cite journal |last=Makdisi |first=John A. |date=6 January 1999 |title=The Islamic Origins of the Common Law |url=https://scholarship.law.unc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3823&context=nclr |journal=North Carolina Law Review |volume=77 |issue=5 |pages=1635 |via=University of North Carolina School of Law}} suggests that English common law was inspired by medieval Islamic law.{{cite news|author=Mukul Devichand|title=Is English law related to Muslim law?|work=BBC News|date=24 September 2008|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/7631388.stm|access-date=2008-10-05}} Makdisi drew comparisons between the "royal English contract protected by the action of debt" and the "Islamic Aqd", the "English assize of novel disseisin" (a petty assize adopted in the 1166 at the Assizes of Clarendon) and the "Islamic Istihqaq", and the "English jury" and the "Islamic Lafif" in the classical Maliki school of Islamic jurisprudence, and argued that these institutions were transmitted to England by the Normans,{{citation needed|date=July 2023}} "through the close connection between the Norman kingdoms of Roger II in Sicily — ruling over a conquered Islamic administration — and Henry II in England."{{Cite journal|first=Jamila|last=Hussain|title=Book Review: The Justice of Islam by Lawrence Rosen|journal=Melbourne University Law Review|volume=30|year=2001}} Makdisi also argued that the "law schools known as Inns of Court" in England (which he asserts are parallel to Madrasahs) may have also originated from Islamic law.{{citation needed|date=July 2023}} He states that the methodology of legal precedent and reasoning by analogy (Qiyas) are also similar in both the Islamic and common law systems.{{Cite book|title=Islamic Finance: Law, Economics, and Practice|url=https://archive.org/details/islamicfinancela00elga_455|url-access=limited|first=Mahmoud A.|last=El-Gamal|year=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-86414-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/islamicfinancela00elga_455/page/n35 16]}} Other legal scholars such as Monica Gaudiosi, Gamal Moursi Badr and A. Hudson have argued that the English trust and agency institutions, which were introduced by Crusaders, may have been adapted from the Islamic Waqf and Hawala institutions they came across in the Middle East.{{Cite journal |last=Gaudiosi |first=Monica M. |title=The Influence of the Islamic Law of Waqf on the Development of the Trust in England: The Case of Merton College |journal=University of Pennsylvania Law Review |volume=136 |issue=4 |date=April 1988 |pages=1231–1261 |doi=10.2307/3312162 |jstor=3312162 |s2cid=153149243 |url=https://scholarship.law.upenn.edu/penn_law_review/vol136/iss4/6 |url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal|title=Islamic Law: Its Relation to Other Legal Systems|first=Gamal Moursi|last=Badr|journal=The American Journal of Comparative Law|volume=26|issue=2 – Proceedings of an International Conference on Comparative Law, Salt Lake City, Utah, February 24–25, 1977|date=Spring 1978|pages=187–198 [196–8]|doi=10.2307/839667|jstor=839667}}{{Cite book |last=Hudson |first=A. |title=Equity and Trusts |url=https://archive.org/details/equitytrustsrded00huds |url-access=limited |year=2003 |edition=3rd |publisher=Cavendish Publishing |location=London |isbn=1-85941-729-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/equitytrustsrded00huds/page/n100 32] }} Paul Brand also notes parallels between the Waqf and the trusts used to establish Merton College by Walter de Merton, who had connections with the Knights Templar, but Brand also points out that the Knights Templar were primarily concerned with fighting the Muslims rather than learning from them, making it less likely that they would imitate Muslim legal institutions.

{{See also|Islamic Civilization during the European Renaissance}}

The first English convert to Islam mentioned by name is John Nelson.{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/uk_1.shtml|title=History of Islam in the UK|publisher=BBC|access-date=2013-10-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022091816/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/uk_1.shtml|archive-date=2013-10-22|url-status=unfit}} The 16th-century writer Richard Hakluyt claimed he was forced to convert, though he mentions in the same story other Englishmen who had converted willingly.

{{Blockquote|This king had a son which was a ruler in an island called Gerbi, whereunto arrived an English ship called the Green Dragon, of the which was master one M. Blonket, who, having a very unhappy boy on that ship, and understanding that whosoever would turn Turk should be well entertained of them a yeoman of our Queen's guard, whom the king's son had enforced to turn Turk; his name was John Nelson.[http://historicaltextarchive.com/books.php?op=viewbook&bookid=51&cid=3 Voyager's Tales, 3, The voyage made to Tripolis in Barbary,1584], Richard Haklyut}}

File:MoorishAmbassador to Elizabeth I.jpg, a Moorish ambassador to Queen Elizabeth I in 1600]]

Captain John Ward of Kent was one of a number of English sailors who became pirates based in the Maghreb and also converted to Islam (see also Barbary pirates).

Unitarians became interested in the faith, and Henry Stubbe wrote so favourably about Islam that it is thought he too had converted to the faith.

From 1609 to 1616, England lost 466 ships to Barbary pirates, who sold the passengers into slavery in North Africa.Rees Davies, [https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml British Slaves on the Barbary Coast], BBC, 1 July 2003 In 1625, it was reported that Lundy, an island in the Bristol Channel which had been a pirate lair for much of the previous half century, had been occupied by three Ottoman pirates who were threatening to burn Ilfracombe; Algerine rovers were using the island as a base in 1635, although the island had itself been attacked and plundered by a Spanish fleet in 1633.{{cite web|url=http://www.lundyisland.co.uk/history.htm|title=Lundy}} In 1627, Barbary pirates under command of the Dutch renegade Jan Janszoon operating from the Moroccan port of Salé occupied Lundy, before they were expelled by Sir John Pennington.{{Cite book| title=Piracy: the complete history | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=USiyy1ZA-BsC&pg=PA91 | access-date=2011-04-15 | publisher=Osprey Publishing | isbn=978-1-84603-240-0 | last=Konstam |first=Angus | year=2008 |page=91}} During this time there were reports of captured slaves being sent to Algiers and of the Islamic flag flying over Lundy.{{Cite web | title=Pirates who got away with it | work=Study of sails on pirate ships | url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/africa/article1449736.ece | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070302095231/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/africa/article1449736.ece | url-status=dead | archive-date=March 2, 2007 | access-date=2007-11-25 | location=London | date=2007-02-28 | first=Simon | last=de Bruxelles }}{{Cite book | author1=Davies, Norman | title=Europe a History | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jrVW9W9eiYMC&q=barbary+lundy&pg=PA561 | access-date=2007-11-25 | year=1996 | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0-19-820171-7 }}

The Muslim Moors had a noticeable influence on the works of George Peele and William Shakespeare. Some of their works featured Moorish characters, such as Peele's The Battle of Alcazar and Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice, Titus Andronicus and Othello, which featured a Moorish Othello as its title character. These works are said to have been inspired by several Moorish delegations from Morocco to Elizabethan England around 1600.Professor Nabil Matar (April 2004), Shakespeare and the Elizabethan Stage Moor, Sam Wanamaker Fellowship Lecture, Shakespeare's Globe Theatre]] (cf. Mayor of London (2006), [http://www.london.gov.uk/gla/publications/equalities/muslims-in-london.pdf Muslims in London] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080626154647/http://www.london.gov.uk/gla/publications/equalities/muslims-in-london.pdf |date=June 26, 2008 }}, pp. 14-15, Greater London Authority) A portrait was painted of one of the Moorish ambassadors, Abd el-Ouahed ben Messaoud ben Mohammed Anoun, who had come to promote an Anglo-Moroccan alliance.

Turbans were worn in Renaissance England.{{Cite book |title=Images of the other: Europe and the Muslim world before 1700; [2nd Annual Conference on Cross-Cultural Encounters in the Mediterranean held at the American University in Cairo, 5 - 7 May, 1996] |date=1997 |publisher=American Univ. in Cairo Pr |isbn=978-977-424-388-2 |editor-last=Blanks |editor-first=David R. |series=Buḥūṯ al-Qāhira fī 'l-ʿulūm al-iǧtimāʿīya |location=Cairo}} While friendly relations were formed between England and the Islamic civilizations of the Middle East in the early 16th century, Persian and Turkish style fashions were sometimes worn by the higher classes as a form of party or fancy dress.

File:Elizabeth I in coronation robes.jpg

Diplomatic relations were also established with the Ottoman Empire with the chartering of the Levant Company and the dispatch of the first English ambassador to the Porte, William Harborne, in 1578.Kupperman, p.39 For the first time, a Treaty of Commerce was signed in 1580.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MziRd4ddZz4C&pg=PA353 |title=The Encyclopedia of world history by Peter N. Stearns, p.353 |access-date=2 May 2010}} Numerous envoys were dispatched in both directions and epistolar exchanges occurred between Elizabeth and Sultan Murad III. In one correspondence, Murad entertained the notion that Islam and Protestantism had "much more in common than either did with Roman Catholicism, as both rejected the worship of idols", and argued for an alliance between England and the Ottoman Empire.Kupperman, p.40 To the dismay of Catholic Europe, England exported tin and lead (for cannon-casting) and ammunition to the Ottoman Empire, and Elizabeth seriously discussed joint military operations with Murad III during the outbreak of war with Spain in 1585, as Francis Walsingham was lobbying for a direct Ottoman military involvement against the common Spanish enemy.Kupperman, p.41Nabil I. Matar, "Renaissance England and the Turban." Although she never did receive any assistance from the Ottomans, her relations with the sultans did not waver.

In 17th-century England, there was a "second wave" of interest in the study of Arabic science and Islamic philosophy. Arabic manuscripts were considered the key to a "treasure house" of ancient knowledge, which led to the founding of Arabic chairs at Oxford and Cambridge Universities, where Arabic was taught. A large collection of Arabic manuscripts were acquired, collected in places such as the Bodleian Library at Oxford. These Arabic manuscripts were sought after by natural philosophers for their research in subjects such as observational astronomy or mathematics, and also encompassed subjects ranging from science, religion, and medicine, to typography and garden plants.{{Cite book|title=The Arabick interest of the natural philosophers in seventeenth-century England|author=G. A. Russell|publisher=Brill Publishers|year=1994|isbn=90-04-09888-7}}

Besides scientific and philosophical literature, works of Arabic fictional literature were also translated into Latin and English during the 17th and 18th centuries. The most famous of these was the One Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights), which was first translated into English in 1706 and has since then had a profound influence on English literature. Another famous work was Ibn Tufail's philosophical novelJon Mcginnis, Classical Arabic Philosophy: An Anthology of Sources, p. 284, Hackett Publishing Company, {{ISBN|0-87220-871-0}}.Samar Attar, The Vital Roots of European Enlightenment: Ibn Tufayl's Influence on Modern Western Thought, Lexington Books, {{ISBN|0-7391-1989-3}}.[http://bookshop.blackwell.co.uk/jsp/id/The_Vital_Roots_of_European_Enlightenment/9780739119891] Hayy ibn Yaqdhan, which was translated into Latin as Philosophus Autodidactus by Edward Pococke the Younger in 1671 and then into English by Simon Ockley in 1708. The English translation of Hayy ibn Yaqdhan, set on a desert island, may have inspired Daniel Defoe to write Robinson Crusoe, considered the first novel in English, in 1719.Nawal Muhammad Hassan (1980), Hayy bin Yaqzan and Robinson Crusoe: A study of an early Arabic impact on English literature, Al-Rashid House for Publication.Cyril Glasse (2001), New Encyclopedia of Islam, p. 202, Rowman Altamira, {{ISBN|0-7591-0190-6}}.Amber Haque (2004), "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists", Journal of Religion and Health 43 (4): 357-377 [369].Martin Wainwright, [http://books.guardian.co.uk/review/story/0,12084,918454,00.html Desert island scripts], The Guardian, 22 March 2003. Later translated literary works include Layla and Majnun and Ibn al-Nafis' Theologus Autodidactus.

Bengal (now Bangladesh and West Bengal), a province of Mughal India with a Muslim majority and Hindu minority, was annexed by the East India Company after the Battle of Plassey in 1757. The cheap textiles and other manufactured goods from Bengal directly contributed to the Industrial Revolution in England,{{cite book |author=Junie T. Tong |year=2016 |title=Finance and Society in 21st Century China: Chinese Culture Versus Western Markets |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_UQGDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA151 |publisher=CRC Press |page=151 |isbn=978-1-317-13522-7}}{{cite book |editor1=John L. Esposito |editor1-link=John L. Esposito |year=2004 |title=The Islamic World: Past and Present |volume=1: Abba - Hist. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KZcohRpc4OsC&pg=PT190 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=174 |isbn=978-0-19-516520-3}}{{cite book |author=Indrajit Ray |year=2011 |title=Bengal Industries and the British Industrial Revolution (1757-1857) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CHOrAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA7 |publisher=Routledge |pages=7–10 |isbn=978-1-136-82552-1}}Shombit Sengupta, [http://www.financialexpress.com/archive/bengals-plunder-gifted-the-british-industrial-revolution/576476/ Bengals plunder gifted the British Industrial Revolution], The Financial Express, February 8, 2010 with the textiles produced in Bengal being used to support British industries such as textile manufacturing, aided by the invention of devices such as the spinning jenny. With the establishment of Crown control in India after 1857, the British Empire ruled over a large Muslim population.David Motadel (2014), [https://books.google.com/books?id=u0RYBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA267 Islam and the European Empires, page 267], Oxford University PressFrancis Robinson (2001), [https://pure.royalholloway.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/the-british-empire-and-the-muslim-world(d3ea8d76-c7d4-47d9-b56b-23baafdbb13e).html The British Empire and the Muslim world], The Oxford History of the British Empire, volume 4, pages 398-420, Oxford University Press{{cite EB1911|wstitle=British Empire |volume= 04 }}

By the time of Union with Scotland in 1707, only small numbers of Muslims were living in England. The first large group of Muslims to arrive, in the 18th century, were lascars (sailors) recruited from the Indian subcontinent (largely from the Bengal region) to work for the Honourable East India Company, many of whom settled down and took local wives (due to a lack of Indian women living in England at the time).{{Cite book|title=Counterflows to Colonialism: Indian Traveller and Settler in Britain 1600–1857|first=Michael Herbert|last=Fisher|year=2006|publisher=Orient Blackswan|isbn=81-7824-154-4|pages=111–9, 129–30, 140, 154–6, 160–8, 172, 181}} 38 lascars are reported arriving in British ports in 1760.{{cite web|url=http://www.southampton.ac.uk/archaeology/research/projects/lascar_lives_and_the_east_india_company.page|title=Lascar lives and the east India company - Archaeology - University of Southampton|access-date=2016-01-31|archive-date=2020-10-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201023004853/https://www.southampton.ac.uk/archaeology/research/projects/lascar_lives_and_the_east_india_company.page|url-status=dead}}{{Cite book|title=Counterflows to Colonialism|first=Michael Herbert|last=Fisher|year=2006|publisher=Orient Blackswan|isbn=81-7824-154-4|pages=111–9, 129–30, 140, 154–6, 160–8, 181}} Between 1803 and 1813, there were more than 10,000 lascars from the Indian subcontinent visiting British port cities and towns.{{cite book|last=Fisher|first=Michael H. |title=Counterflows to Colonialism: Indian Travellers and Settlers in Britain, 1600-1857|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iPHqigUD6FUC|year=2004|publisher=Permanent Black|location=Delhi|isbn=978-81-7824-154-8|pages=140, 154–6, 160–8, 172}} By 1842, 3,000 lascars visited the UK annually, and by 1855, 12,000 lascars were arriving annually in British ports. In 1873, 3,271 lascars arrived in Britain.{{cite book |first=Humayun|last=Ansari|title=The Infidel Within: The History of Muslims in Britain, 1800 to the Present|year=2004|publisher=C. Hurst & Co. Publishers|isbn=1-85065-685-1|page=35}} Throughout the early 19th century lascars visited Britain at a rate of 1,000 every year, which increased to a rate of 10,000 to 12,000 every year throughout the late 19th century.{{cite web|first=Diane|last=Robinson-Dunn|title=Lascar Sailors and English Converts: The Imperial Port and Islam in late 19th-Century England|publisher=Seascapes, Littoral Cultures, and Trans-Oceanic Exchanges|date=February 2003|url=http://www.historycooperative.org/proceedings/seascapes/dunn.html|access-date=13 January 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120802143210/http://www.historycooperative.org/proceedings/seascapes/dunn.html|archive-date=2 August 2012}}{{cite book |editor-last1=Behal |editor-first1=Rana P. |editor-last2=van der Linden |editor-first2=Marcel |year=2006 |title=Coolies, Capital and Colonialism: Studies in Indian Labour History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oy67XQk5cukC&pg=PA114 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=114 |isbn=978-0-521-69974-7}}

Due to the majority being lascars, the earliest Muslim communities were found in port towns. Naval cooks also came, many of them from the Sylhet Division of what is now Bangladesh. One of the most famous early Muslim immigrants to England was Sake Dean Mahomet, a captain of the East India Company army who in 1810 founded London's first Indian restaurant, the Hindoostane Coffee House. He is also reputed for introducing shampoo and therapeutic massage to the United Kingdom.{{cite news|title=Curry house founder is honoured|date=29 September 2005|work=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/4290124.stm|access-date=2008-10-09}}

By 1911, the British Empire had a Muslim population of 94 million, larger than the empire's 58 million Christian population. By the 1920s, the British Empire included roughly half of the world's Muslim population. More than 400,000 Muslim soldiers of the British Indian Army fought for Britain during World War I, where 62,060 were killed in action,[https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/forgotten-army-400000-muslim-soldiers-9589884 The 'forgotten' army of 400,000 Muslim soldiers who fought for British freedom in World War I], Daily Mirror, 9 January 2017 and half a million Muslim soldiers of the British Indian Army fought for Britain against the Nazis in World War II.Ziauddin Sardar (2012), [https://books.google.com/books?id=38OHCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA131 Critical Muslim 2: The Idea of Islam, page 131], Oxford University Press David Lloyd George, British Prime Minister from 1916 to 1922, stated: "we are the greatest Mahomedan power in the world and one-fourth of the population of the British Empire is Mahomedan. There have been no more loyal adherents to the throne and no more effective and loyal supporters of the Empire in its hour of trial." This statement was later reiterated by Gandhi in 1920.

Muslim mass immigration to Britain began after World War II, as a result of the destruction and labour shortages caused by the war.MariaCaterina La Barbera (2014), [https://books.google.com/books?id=q_yWBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA230 Identity and Migration in Europe: Multidisciplinary Perspectives, page 230], Springer Science+Business MediaRichard D. Hecht, Vincent F. Biondo (2010), [https://books.google.com/books?id=ivnWCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA859 Religion and Everyday Life and Culture, page 859], ABC-CLIO In 1951 there were around 21,000 Muslims in Britain.{{Cite web |title=muslims in the 2001 Census of England and Wales: Gender and Economic Disadvantage |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248995081}}{{Cite web |title=UK MUSLIM DEMOGRAPHICS (C-RE8-02527) |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/wikileaks-files/london-wikileaks/8304838/UK-MUSLIM-DEMOGRAPHICS-C-RE8-02527.html |access-date=2022-12-13 |website=www.telegraph.co.uk|date=4 February 2011 }} Muslim migrants from former British colonies, predominantly India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, were recruited in large numbers by government and businesses to rebuild the country.[https://cla.umn.edu/ihrc/news-events/other/muslim-migration-europe Muslim Migration to Europe] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701092902/https://cla.umn.edu/ihrc/news-events/other/muslim-migration-europe |date=2017-07-01 }}, University of Minnesota, 17 June 2015 Large numbers of doctors recruited from India and Pakistan, encouraged by health minister Enoch Powell in the early 1960s, also played a key role in the establishment of the NHS health service.[https://www.theguardian.com/society/2008/jun/18/nhs60.nhs2 How migrants helped make the NHS], The Guardian, 18 June 2008

British Asians (both Muslim and non-Muslim) faced increased discrimination following Enoch Powell's Rivers of Blood speech and the establishment of the National Front in the late 1960s. This included overt racism in the form of Paki bashing, predominantly from white power skinheads, the National Front, and the British National Party, throughout the 1970s and 1980s.Nahid Afrose Kabir (2012), [https://books.google.com/books?id=GRPsAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT53 Young British Muslims], Edinburgh University Press Drawing inspiration from the civil rights movement, the black power movement, and the anti-apartheid movement, young British Pakistani and British Bangladeshi activists began a number of anti-racist Asian youth movements in the 1970s and 1980s, including the Bradford Youth Movement in 1977, the Bangladeshi Youth Movement following the murder of Altab Ali in 1978, and the Newham Youth Movement following the murder of Akhtar Ali Baig in 1980.Timothy Peace (2015), [https://books.google.com/books?id=9JFMCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT55 European Social Movements and Muslim Activism: Another World but with Whom?, page 55], Springer Science+Business Media

The settlements with large number of Muslims are Bradford, Luton, Blackburn, Birmingham, London and Dewsbury. There are also high numbers in High Wycombe, Aylesbury, Slough, Leicester, Manchester and the mill towns of Northern England.

[[File:Islam in England census 2011.svg|right|200px|thumb|Muslim population in English local authority areas.

{{legend|#fafafa|0.0%-0.9%}}

{{legend|#b6faaf|1%-1.9%}}

{{legend|#8fe087|2%-4.9%}}

{{legend|#5ac64f|5%-9.9%}}

{{legend|#0e9400|10%-19.9%}}

{{legend|#0a6800|20% and more}}]]

The local authorities with a Muslim population greater than 10 percent as of 2021 were:

Most large cities have one area that is majority Muslim even if the rest of the city has a fairly small Muslim population; see, for example, Harehills in Leeds. In addition, it is possible to find small areas that are almost entirely Muslim: for example, Savile Town in Dewsbury.{{cite web|url=http://www.kirklees-pct.nhs.uk/fileadmin/documents/meetings/march_07/KPCT-07-42%20Report%20estate%20strategy.doc |title=Development of an Estates Strategy |access-date=2009-02-25 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929124958/http://www.kirklees-pct.nhs.uk/fileadmin/documents/meetings/march_07/KPCT-07-42%20Report%20estate%20strategy.doc |archive-date=2007-09-29}} paragraph 4.3

In September 2009, the ONS published information showing that Mohammed (or variations of it) was the third most popular boys' name in England and Wales, and the most popular name in London.

Some 38% of England's Muslims live in London, where 1,012,823 identified as Muslim in 2011, representing 12.4% of London's population of 8,173,941.

Sunni Muslims comprise the majority of the English Muslim population, with the majority following the Hanafi school of law, including members of the Barelvi and Deobandi movements. There are also Shafi'i, Maliki, and Hanbali followers. A minority of Sunni Muslims in England, who may or may not follow one of the aforementioned schools of law, are affiliated with the Salafi movement.{{cite web|last1=Staetsky|first1=L. Daniel|title=Antisemitism in contemporary Great Britain: A study of attitudes towards Jews and Israel|url=http://www.jpr.org.uk/documents/JPR.2017.Antisemitism_in_contemporary_Great_Britain.pdf|website=Institute for Jewish Policy Research|access-date=14 September 2017|date=September 2017|pages=47 & 59|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170914004825/http://www.jpr.org.uk/documents/JPR.2017.Antisemitism_in_contemporary_Great_Britain.pdf|archive-date=14 September 2017}}

Shia mosques are usually Twelvers but cater to Zaydis and Ismailis also and they usually include facilities for women. There are 200,000 Shias in Britain from Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, Turkey and elsewhere.{{cite news|author=Esther Addley |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/jun/28/religion.uk |title=A glad day for mourning | World news |newspaper=The Guardian |date=2003-06-28 |access-date=2013-10-20}} Various Shia mosques include the Husseini Islamic Centre in Stanmore, Harrow which acts as one of the main Shia Muslim mosques in Britain. Others include Al Masjid ul Husseini in Northolt, Ealing, Imam Khoei Islamic Centre in Queens Park, Brent & Islamic Centre of England, Maida Vale.

File:Sadiq Khan.jpg, a British Pakistani and the first Muslim elected as Mayor of London.]]

According to the 2011 census, 2.7 million Muslims live in England and Wales, where they form 5.0% of the population.

{{See also|British Pakistanis}}

The single largest group of Muslims in England and Wales are of Pakistani descent. Pakistanis from Mirpur District were one of the first South Asian Muslim communities to permanently settle in the United Kingdom, arriving in Birmingham and Bradford in the late 1930s. Immigration from Mirpur grew from the late 1950s, accompanied by immigration from other parts of Pakistan especially from Punjab which included cities like Sialkot, Jhelum, Gujar Khan and Gujrat and also from the north-west Punjab including the Chhachhi Pathans from Attock District, and some from villages of Ghazi, Nowshera and Peshawar. There is also a fairly large Pakistani community from Kenya and Uganda found in London. People of Pakistani extraction are particularly notable in West Midlands (Birmingham), West Yorkshire (Bradford), London (Waltham Forest, Newham), Lancashire/Greater Manchester, and several industrial towns like Luton, Slough, High Wycombe and Oxford.

{{See also|British Bangladeshi}}

People of Bangladeshi descent are one of the largest Muslim communities (after Pakistanis), 16.8% of Muslims in England and Wales are of Bangladeshi descent, the ethnic group in the UK with the largest proportion of people following a single religion, being 92% Muslim.{{cite web |url=http://www.statistics.gov.uk/CCI/nugget.asp?ID=1089&Pos=2&ColRank=2&Rank=768 |title=Ethnicity and identity |publisher=National Statistics |access-date=2008-07-21}} Majority of these Muslim come from the Sylhet region of Bangladesh, mainly concentrated in London (Tower Hamlets, Newham and Redbridge), Luton, Birmingham and Oldham. The Bangladeshi Muslim community in London form 24% of the Muslim population, larger than any other ethnic group.{{cite web|url=http://www.london.gov.uk/gla/publications/factsandfigures/DMAG-Briefing2004-16-2001CensusProfilesBangladeshisinLondon.pdf |title=2001 Census Profiles: Bangladeshis in London |publisher=Greater London Authority |access-date=2004-08-01 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050407115423/http://www.london.gov.uk/gla/publications/factsandfigures/DMAG-Briefing2004-16-2001CensusProfilesBangladeshisinLondon.pdf |archive-date=April 7, 2005 }}

Initial limited mosque availability meant that prayers were conducted in small rooms of council flats until the 1980s when more and larger facilities became available. Some synagogues and community buildings were turned into mosques and existing mosques began to expand their buildings. This process has continued down to the present day with the East London Mosque recently expanding into a large former car park where the London Muslim Centre is now used for prayers, recreational facilities and housing.{{cite web|url=http://www.surrey.ac.uk/Arts/CRONEM/SOASBangladeshi%20diaspora%20PaperDRAFT-7June2005.pdf |title=Bangladeshi Diaspora in the UK: Some observations on socio-culturaldynamics, religious trends and transnational politics |publisher=University of Surrey |access-date=2008-06-03 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100923014220/http://www.surrey.ac.uk/Arts/CRONEM/SOASBangladeshi%20diaspora%20PaperDRAFT-7June2005.pdf |archive-date=2010-09-23 }} Most people regard themselves as part of the ummah, and their identity based on their religion rather than their ethnic group.{{cite web|url=http://www.cardiff.ac.uk/socsi/resources/wrkgpaper-93.pdf |title=Genetics, Religion and Identity: A Study of British Bangladeshis – 2004-2007 |publisher=School of Social Sciences – Cardiff University – funded by the Economic and Social Research Council |access-date=2008-09-15}} Cultural aspects of a 'Bengali Islam' are seen as superstition and as un-Islamic. The identity is far stronger in comparison to the native land.

Other groups also attract a few people, the Salafi – who view the teachings of the first generations as the correct one,{{cite web|url=http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/bukhari/048.sbt.html#003.048.819|title=Compendium of Muslim texts – Volume 3, Book 48, Number 819 |publisher=University of Southern California |access-date=2008-08-16}} and appeals to younger Muslims as a way to differentiate themselves towards their elders.The Next Attack, By Daniel Benjamin Steven Simon, {{ISBN|0-8050-7941-6}} – Page 55 Other large groups include another Sunni movement, the Fultoli movement (initiated by Abdul Latif Chowdhury), and the Tablighi Jamaat – which is a missionary and revival movement,{{Cite web|last=M. Jawed Iqbal |author2=Ebrahim Desai |title=Inviting to Islam |publisher=www.askimam.org |date=9 June 2007 |url=http://www.askimam.org/fatwa/fatwa.php?askid=02baa777b4211ddad49f0b5256de3934 |access-date=2008-08-16 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090115113221/http://www.askimam.org/fatwa/fatwa.php?askid=02baa777b4211ddad49f0b5256de3934 |archive-date=15 January 2009 }} and avoids political attention. All these groups work to stimulate Islamic identity among local Bengalis or Muslims and particularly focus on the younger members of the communities.{{cite web|url=http://www.bdirectory.co.uk/index.php?id=190l |title=bdirectory: Islamist politics among Bangladeshis in the UK |publisher=David Garbin – Cronem, University of Surrey |access-date=2008-07-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090112131826/http://www.bdirectory.co.uk/index.php?id=190l |archive-date=2009-01-12 }}{{cite web |url=http://www.eastlondonmosque.org.uk/ |title=East London Mosque and London Muslim Centre |publisher=East London Mosque |access-date=2008-07-26}}{{cite web |url=http://www.opendemocracy.net/democracy-protest/bangladeshi_3715.jsp |title=Bangladeshis in east London: from secular politics to Islam |publisher=Delwar Hussain – openDemocracy: free thinking for the world |access-date=2008-07-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080830004653/http://www.opendemocracy.net/democracy-protest/bangladeshi_3715.jsp |archive-date=2008-08-30 |url-status=dead }}

{{See also|British Indian}}

8% of Muslims in England and Wales are of Indian descent, especially those who are from Gujarat, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The Gujarati Muslims from Surat and Bharuch districts in India started to arrive from the 1930s, settling in the towns of Dewsbury and Batley in Yorkshire and parts of Lancashire. There are large numbers of Gujarati Muslims in Dewsbury, Blackburn (inc. Darwen), Bolton, Preston, Nuneaton, Gloucester and London (Newham, Waltham Forest and Hackney). Immigration of Muslims into UK, was primarily started off by Indians during the colonial rule.

{{See also|Somalis in the United Kingdom}}

The United Kingdom, with 43,532 Somalia-born residents in 2001,{{cite web|url=http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/18/23/34792376.xls |title=Country-of-birth database |publisher=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development |access-date=2009-01-25 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090617032129/http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/18/23/34792376.xls |archive-date=2009-06-17 }} and an estimated 101,000 in 2008,{{cite web|url=http://www.statistics.gov.uk/downloads/theme_population/Population-by-country-of-birth-and-nationality-Jan08-Dec08.zip |title=Table 1.3: Estimated population resident in the United Kingdom, by foreign country of birth, 60 most common countries of birth, January 2008 to December 2008 |publisher=Office for National Statistics |access-date=2009-10-04 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605092034/http://www.statistics.gov.uk/downloads/theme_population/Population-by-country-of-birth-and-nationality-Jan08-Dec08.zip |archive-date=2011-06-05 }} Figure given is the central estimate. See the source for 95 per cent confidence intervals. is home to the largest Somali community in Europe. A 2009 estimate by Somali community organisations puts the Somali population figure at 90,000 residents.{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7747162.stm|title=British Somalis play politics from afar|last=Dissanayake|first=Samanthi|date=2008-12-04|work=BBC News|access-date=2009-01-25}} Although most Somalis in the UK are recent arrivals, the first Somali immigrants were seamen and traders who arrived and settled in port cities in the late 19th century. Established Somali communities are found in Bristol, Liverpool and London, and newer ones have formed in Leicester, Manchester and Sheffield.{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/5029390.stm|title=Somalis' struggle in the UK|last=Casciani|first=Dominic|date=2006-05-30|work=BBC News|access-date=2009-01-25}}{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/uk/05/born_abroad/countries/html/somalia.stm|title=Born abroad: Somalia|work=BBC News|access-date=2009-01-25 | date=2005-09-07}} It has been estimated that between 7,000 and 9,000 Somalis live in Liverpool.{{cite web |url=http://www.liverpoolpct.nhs.uk/Library/Impact/IA0073.doc |format=DOC |title=Liverpool City Council/Liverpool PCT Equality Impact Assessment Template |url-status=dead |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20100408051421/http://www.liverpoolpct.nhs.uk/Library/Impact/IA0073.doc |archive-date=April 8, 2010 |access-date=January 5, 2024}}{{cite web|url=http://www.faea.es/english/oralidad.php |title=Integration of the Somali Community into Europe |publisher=Federation of Adult Education Associations |access-date=3 February 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091216182416/http://faea.es/english/oralidad.php |archive-date=16 December 2009 }}

{{main|Turks in the United Kingdom}}

Turks first began to emigrate in large numbers from the island of Cyprus for work and then again when Turkish Cypriots were forced to leave their homes during the Cyprus conflict.{{Citation needed|date=March 2012}} Turks then began to come from Turkey for economic reasons. Recently, smaller groups of Turks have begun to immigrate to the United Kingdom from other European countries.{{Harvard citation no brackets|Lytra|Baraç|2009|loc=60}} As of 2011, there is a total of about 500,000 people of Turkish origin in the UK,{{cite news |title=UK immigration analysis needed on Turkish legal migration, say MPs |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2011/aug/01/turkish-immigration-possibilities-assessed |first=Alan |last=Travis |work=The Guardian |date=1 August 2011 |access-date=1 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110802151021/http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2011/aug/01/turkish-immigration-possibilities-assessed |archive-date=2011-08-02 |url-status=live }} made up of approximately 150,000 Turkish nationals and about 300,000 Turkish Cypriots.{{Harvard citation no brackets|Home Affairs Committee|2011|loc=Ev 34}} Furthermore, in recent years, there has been a growing number of ethnic Turks with Bulgarian, German, Greek, Macedonian, and Romanian citizenship who have also migrated to the United Kingdom. The majority live in London.

Image:Marmaduke Pickthall Portrait.jpg, author of The Meaning of the Glorious Koran.]]

The 2001 census stated that there were 179,409 Muslims who described themselves as 'white' in the 2001 census.{{Cite journal |last=Peach |first=Ceri |date=July 2006 |title=Muslims in the 2001 Census of England and Wales: Gender and economic disadvantage |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01419870600665284 |journal=Ethnic and Racial Studies |language=en |volume=29 |issue=4 |pages=629–655 |doi=10.1080/01419870600665284 |issn=0141-9870|url-access=subscription }} About one third of white Muslims are of White Slavic and Balkan Muslim origin, and would likely have originated from locations such as Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, Adyghe, Chechnya, Albania, Macedonia, and Bulgaria. Another one third have origins in Turkey, the Middle East and North Africa. The remainder of white Muslims identified themselves as White British and White Irish, including converts.

There are also a number of Muslim immigrants in England that arrived from Nigeria. Nigerian Muslims in the UK are represented by several community organizations, including the Nigeria Muslim forum, which is affiliated with the Council of Nigerian Muslim Organisations in UK and Ireland (CNMO) and the Muslim Council of Britain (MCB).{{cite web|url=http://www.nmfuk.org/|title=NMF}}

{{main|Maghreb}}

Although data is short, findings indicate Maghrebis make up a substantial community in Europe and England. Britain has long ties with Maghrebis, through contact with the Moors. Nevertheless, Britain has a far lower count of Maghrebis in comparison to France, Belgium, the Netherlands and Spain, where the majority of Muslims are Maghrebi.{{Cite book | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=08-xgLnsgmwC&q=maghrebis+in+uk+islam&pg=PA93 | title = Radical Islam and International Security: Challenges and Responses | isbn = 9780415444606 | last1 = Inbar | first1 = Efraim | last2 = Frisch |first2=Hillel| date = January 2008 | publisher = Routledge }}

{{See also|Terrorism in the United Kingdom}}

Social disturbance began in the Muslim community in England in 1988 with the publication of the satirical novel The Satanic Verses in London. Ayatollah Khomeini condemned the book with a fatwa in 1989.{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/14/newsid_2541000/2541149.stm |title=BBC ON THIS DAY | 14 | 1989: Ayatollah sentences author to death |work=BBC News |access-date=2013-10-20}} The Satanic Verses controversy led to Muslim men first in Bolton{{cite web |author1=Robin Lustig |author2=Martin Bailey |author3=Simon de Bruxelles |author4=Ian Mather |date=18 February 1989 |title=War of the Word |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/1989/feb/19/race.world |work=The Guardian |access-date=2014-07-07 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141008235518/http://www.theguardian.com/uk/1989/feb/19/race.world |archive-date=8 October 2014 |df=dmy-all }} and then in BradfordWinder, Robert. Bloody Foreigners: The Story of Immigration to Britain. Abacus, London: 2013: p. 414 organised book-burnings.

The 7 July 2005 London bombings were a series of coordinated blasts that hit the public transport system during the morning rush hour, killing 52 people and also the four bombers. The latter were British Muslims, three of Pakistani and one of Jamaican heritage. They were apparently motivated by Britain's involvement in the Iraq War and other conflicts.{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/uk/05/london_blasts/investigation/html/pakistan.stm |title=Indepth | London Attacks |work=BBC News |access-date=2013-10-20}}{{cite news|title=Al-Qaeda commander linked to 2005 London bombings led attacks on Nato convoys|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/pakistan/4313740/Al-Qaeda-commander-linked-to-2005-London-bombings-led-attacks-on-Nato-convoys.html|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=22 January 2009}} In response, Dr. Afifi al-Akiti, the KFAS Fellow in Islamic Studies at the Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies, and the Islamic Centre Lecturer in Islamic Studies in the Faculty of Theology – University of Oxford, wrote an internationally acclaimed Fatwa against terrorism titled "Defending the Transgressed by Censuring the Reckless against the Killing of Civilians".{{cite web|url=https://www.nottingham.edu.my/NewsEvents/News/2018/University-of-Nottingham-confers-honorary-degrees.aspx|title=University of Nottingham confers honorary degrees|work=The Week}}

In May 2013, British soldier Lee Rigby was publicly killed in Woolwich, London. Two converts to Islam of Nigerian heritage were found guilty of the murder, one of them having claimed to be a soldier of Allah as his unsuccessful legal defence.{{cite web|url=http://www.theweek.co.uk/uk-news/lee-rigby-trial/56124/lee-rigby-trial-two-men-found-guilty-murdering-soldier|title=Lee Rigby killer sues prison service over lost teeth|work=The Week}}

In 2017, there were four terrorist attacks: the Westminster attack, the Manchester Arena bombing, the 2017 London Bridge attack and the Parsons Green train bombing.

File:Markazi Masjid - junction of Pentland Street & South Street (geograph 3932877).jpg.The Savile Town is a Muslim majority town in England with 93% being Asian Muslims{{Cite journal|last1=Hirst|first1=Andy|last2=Rinne|first2=Sinni|date=2017|title=RESEARCH REPORT: Pilot evaluation of Kumon Y'all befriending project|url=https://www.equalityhumanrights.com/sites/default/files/prejudice-unlawful-behaviour-anti-prejudice-projects-kumon-yall.pdf|journal=Equality and Human Rights Commission}}]]

According to analysis based on the 2001 census, Muslims in England face poor standards of housing, poorer levels of education and are more vulnerable to long-term illness,{{cite news | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4771233.stm | title=Muslim hardship under spotlight | work=BBC News | date=14 May 2006 | access-date=17 June 2010}} and that Muslims in the UK had the highest rate of unemployment, the poorest health, the most disability and fewest educational qualifications among religious groups.{{cite news | url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2004/oct/12/religion.news | newspaper=The Guardian | author=John Carvel | title=Census shows Muslims' plight | date=12 October 2004 | access-date=17 June 2010 | location=London}} The figures were, to some extent, explained by the fact that Muslims were the least well-established group, having the youngest age profile.

Conversely, Muslim Council of Britain estimates that there are more than 10,000 British Muslim millionaires.{{Cite news|url=https://www.standard.co.uk/lifestyle/london-life/londons-mecca-rich-the-rise-of-the-muslim-multi-millionaires-splashing-their-cash-8913153.html|title=London's Mecca rich: the rise of the Muslim multi-millionaires splashing their cash|access-date=7 May 2020}} There is a growing substantial British Muslim business community, led by multi-billionaires such as Sir Anwar Pervez.{{cite web |url=http://www.islamictimes.co.uk/content/view/180/7 |url-status=dead |title=Ten Wealthiest Muslims In The UK |website=Islamic Times |access-date=February 27, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006032016/http://www.islamictimes.co.uk/content/view/180/7 |archive-date=October 6, 2011 }}

On a study of more than 13,000 young people, approximately 53% of British Muslims choose to attend university.{{cite news | url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/universityeducation/8655201/Christian-and-atheist-children-least-likely-to-go-to-university.html | title=Christian and atheist children least likely to go to university | newspaper=Telegraph | date=14 May 2006 | access-date=22 Jul 2011}} This is higher than the figure for Christians (45%) and Atheists (32%), but lower than the figure of Hindus and Sikhs, who score 77% and 63% respectively.

Muslim schools regularly outperform those of other faiths. In 2015, Over half of Muslim schools have average of students achieving higher GCSEs (71%) than the national figure (64%).{{cite news | url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/865920/8-muslim-schools-in-the-top-50-exam-league-in-england/?amp=1| title=8 Muslim schools in top 50 exam league in England|access-date=7 May 2020}}

{{See also|Islamophobia in the United Kingdom}}

There have been cases of threats,[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/dorset/4674273.stm Muslims threatened after bombings] BBC News 12 July 2005 one alleged fatal attack,{{Cite web|title=Islamophobia blamed for attack|author=Vikram Dood|work=The Guardian|date=13 July 2005|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2005/jul/13/race.july7|access-date=2010-04-04 | location=London}} and non-fatal attacks on Muslims and on Muslim targets, including attacks on Muslim graves[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/beds/bucks/herts/6109056.stm Muslim graves damaged in cemetery] BBC News, 2 November 2006 and mosques.{{Cite web|title=Muslim teenager stabbed during attack on UK mosque |publisher=Arabic News |date=3 October 2006 |url=http://www.arabicnews.com/ansub/Daily/Day/061003/2006100304.html |access-date=2010-04-04 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111107111929/http://www.arabicnews.com/ansub/Daily/Day/061003/2006100304.html |archive-date=2011-11-07 }} In January 2010, a report from the University of Exeter's European Muslim Research Centre noted that the number of anti-Muslim hate crimes has increased, ranging from "death threats and murder to persistent low-level assaults, such as spitting and name-calling," for which the media and politicians have been blamed with fueling anti-Muslim hatred.{{Cite web|title=Media and politicians 'fuel rise in hate crimes against Muslims'|author=Vikram Dood|work=The Guardian|date=28 January 2010|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2010/jan/28/hate-crimes-muslims-media-politicians|access-date=2010-04-04 | location=London}}{{Cite web|title=Muslims in the UK: beyond the hype|author=Jonathan Githens-Mazer & Robert Lambert|work=The Guardian|date=28 January 2010|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/belief/2010/jan/28/muslims-media-hate-crimes|access-date=2010-04-04 | location=London}}{{Cite web|author=Dr. Jonathan Githens-Mazer & Dr. Robert Lambert |title=Islamophobia and Anti-Muslim Hate Crime: a London Case Study |publisher=University of Exeter |url=http://centres.exeter.ac.uk/emrc/publications/Islamophobia_and_Anti-Muslim_Hate_Crime.pdf |access-date=2010-04-08 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528190239/http://centres.exeter.ac.uk/emrc/publications/Islamophobia_and_Anti-Muslim_Hate_Crime.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-28 }}

The British media has been criticised for propagating negative stereotypes of Muslims and fueling Islamophobic prejudice.{{Cite book|last=Richardson|first=John E.|title=(Mis)representing Islam: the racism and rhetoric of British broadsheet newspapers|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company|year=2004|isbn=90-272-2699-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WanqiF2XULsC}} In 2006, several British cabinet ministers were criticised for helping to "unleash a public anti-Muslim backlash" by blaming the Muslim community over issues of integration despite a study commissioned by the Home Office on white and Asian-Muslim youths demonstrating otherwise: that Asian-Muslim youths "are in fact the most tolerant of all" and that white youths "have far more intolerant attitudes," concluding that the attitudes held by members of the white community was a greater "barrier to integration."{{Cite web|title=White pupils less tolerant, survey shows|author=Vikram Dood|work=The Guardian|date=21 October 2006|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2006/oct/21/schools.religion|access-date=2010-04-04 | location=London}}{{cite news|title=Muslim students 'more tolerant'|work=BBC News|date=11 October 2006|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/lancashire/6033155.stm|access-date=2010-04-05}} Another survey by Gallup in 2009 also found that the Muslim community claimed to feel more patriotic about Britain than the general British population as a whole,{{Cite web|title=Muslims more patriotic than Brits|publisher=Politics|date=7 May 2009|author=Ian Dunt|url=http://www.politics.co.uk/news/equality/muslims-more-patriotic-than-brits-$1293822.htm|access-date=2010-04-05|archive-date=2009-12-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091207201815/http://www.politics.co.uk/news/equality/muslims-more-patriotic-than-brits-$1293822.htm|url-status=dead}}{{Cite news |title=Poll: European Muslims more patriotic than average populace |work=Haaretz |agency=Deutsche Presse-Agentur |date=7 May 2009 |url=http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1083892.html |access-date=2010-04-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160529225941/http://www.haaretz.com/news/poll-european-muslims-more-patriotic-than-average-populace-1.275583 |archive-date=2016-05-29 }} while another survey found that Muslims assert that they support the role of Christianity in British life more so than British Christians themselves.{{Cite web|title=79 per cent of Muslims say Christianity should have strong role in Britain|author=Nick Allen|date=24 February 2009|work=The Daily Telegraph|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/religion/4799345/79-per-cent-of-Muslims-say-Christianity-should-have-strong-role-in-Britain.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101224071654/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/religion/4799345/79-per-cent-of-Muslims-say-Christianity-should-have-strong-role-in-Britain.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=24 December 2010|access-date=2010-04-05 | location=London}} In January 2010, the British Social Attitudes Survey found that the general public "is far more likely to hold negative views of Muslims than of any other religious group," with "just one in four" feeling "positively about Islam," and a "majority of the country would be concerned if a mosque was built in their area, while only 15 per cent expressed similar qualms about the opening of a church."{{Cite web|title=Britain divided by Islam, survey finds|work=The Daily Telegraph|date=11 January 2010|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/religion/6965276/Britain-divided-by-Islam-survey-finds.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100114211350/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/religion/6965276/Britain-divided-by-Islam-survey-finds.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=14 January 2010|access-date=2010-04-04 | location=London}} The "scapegoating" of British Muslims by the media and politicians in the 21st century has been compared in the media to the rise of antisemitism in the early 20th century.{{cite web|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article6832035.ece|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510093750/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article6832035.ece|url-status=dead|archive-date=May 10, 2011|title=Login}}

A poll by the London Evening Standard in December 2007, which surveyed a range of the capital's communities, including Muslims, found that 49% of those surveyed considered Islam as generally intolerant, while 44% saw it as generally tolerant. A total of 51% felt that Muslims were isolated from other communities to a degree, with 12% believing that the majority of them were. A large majority (81% to 7%) believed that the most holy day in Islam, Eid, should not be officially celebrated by the British government, and 88% opposed Muslim teachers covering their faces at work (see British debate over veils). A majority (55%) wanted immigration of Muslims to be cut, with 33% wanting it cut greatly. Islam was seen as the cause of the 7 July attacks on the city in 2005 by 52% of the population, with 35% seeing it as a major factor. Views from the survey which were not in line with the largely negative views included that 71% would vote for a Muslim Mayor of London if they were the best candidate (with 16% against such a vote).{{cite web|url= http://d25d2506sfb94s.cloudfront.net/cumulus_uploads/document/hbqseo7dhf/11.2007%20Evening%20Standard%20-%20Is%20Islam%20good%20for%20London.pdf |title=11.2007 Evening Standard - Is Islam good for London }}

{{main|List of mosques in the United Kingdom#England}}

File:London Central Mosque 2.jpg, built in 1977.]]

• East London Mosque
• Finsbury Park Mosque, de-radicalised
• Abbey Mills Mosque
• London Central Mosque, aka the Islamic Cultural Centre in Regent's Park

File:Front View of Jamea Masjid.gif in Preston, known for its architectural design.]]

• Jamea Masjid in Preston
• Shah Jahan Mosque in Woking was the first purpose-built mosque in Britain
• Markazi Mosque in Dewsbury
• Manchester Central Mosque
• Al-Rahma Mosque in Liverpool
• Birmingham Central Mosque
• Leeds Grand Mosque
• Medina Mosque in Sheffield

• List of British Muslims
• Islamic Party of Britain
• Islam in Northern Ireland
• Islam in Scotland
• Islam in Wales
• Islam in the United Kingdom
• Islam by country
• Islam in Europe
• Religion in England
• The Muslim Weekly
• Islam in London
• English Defence League

{{Reflist|35em}}

• Lewis, Philip: Islamic Britain: religion, politics and identity among British Muslims; Bradford in the 1990s, London: Tauris, 1994. {{ISBN|1-85043-861-7}}
• {{citation |last1=Lytra|first1=Vally|last2=Baraç|first2=Taşkın|year=2009|chapter=Multilingual practices and identity negotiations among Turkish-speaking young people in a diasporic context |title=Youngspeak in a Multilingual Perspective|editor-link1=Anna-Brita Stenström|editor1-last=Stenström|editor1-first=Anna-Brita|editor2-last=Jørgensen|editor2-first=Annette Myre|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing|isbn=978-90-272-5429-0}}.
• Matar, Nabil Turks, Moors, and Englishmen in the Age of Discovery, Columbia University Press, 2000. {{ISBN|0-231-11015-4}}
• {{citation|last=Home Affairs Committee|year=2011|title=Implications for the Justice and Home Affairs area of the accession of Turkey to the European Union|url=http://www.statewatch.org/news/2011/aug/eu-hasc-turkey-jha-report.pdf|publisher=The Stationery Office|isbn=978-0-215-56114-5}}

{{commons category}}

• {{cite EB1911|wstitle=Mahommedan Religion |last1= Thatcher |first1= Griffithes Wheeler |last2= |first2= |volume= 17 |pages= 417-424}}
• [http://www.statistics.gov.uk/census2001/profiles/rank/ewmuslim.asp Ranking of Local Authorities in England and Wales according to percentage of Muslim population in the 2001 census]
• [http://www.museumoflondon.org.uk/English/Collections/Onlineresources/RWWC/themes/1301/1188 Reassessing what we collect website – Muslim London] History of Muslim London with objects and images
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20090712043802/http://bostonreview.net/BR34.2/bowen.php Private Arrangements: Recognizing sharia in Britain] - anthropologist John R. Bowen explores Islamic courts in England
• [https://faizeislam.net/ FaizeIslam]

{{Islam in Europe}}