Kazakhstan#Public holidays

The English word Kazakh, meaning a member of the Kazakh people, derives from {{Langx|ru|казах}}.{{Cite OED|term=Kazakh}} The native name is {{Langx|kk|қазақ|translit=qazaq|label=none}}. It might originate from the Turkic word verb qaz-, 'to wander', reflecting the Kazakhs' nomadic culture.{{cite encyclopedia |title=Cossack (n.) |url=http://etymonline.com/index.php?term=Cossack&allowed_in_frame=0 |dictionary=The Online Etymology Dictionary |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151002024126/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Cossack&allowed_in_frame=0 |archive-date=2 October 2015 }} The term Cossack is of the same origin.

In Turko-Persian sources, the term Özbek-Qazaq first appeared during the mid-16th century, in the Tarikh-i-Rashidi by Mirza Muhammad Haidar Dughlat, a Chagatayid prince of Kashmir, which locates Kazakh in the eastern part of Desht-i Qipchaq.{{cite book|title=The Qazaq Khanate as Documented in Ming Dynasty Sources|author=Kenzheakhmet Nurlan|page=133|year=2013}} According to Vasily Bartold, the Kazakhs likely began using that name during the 15th century.{{cite book|first=V. V.|last=Barthold|title=Four Studies on the History of Central Asia|translator=V. & T. Minorsky|location=Leiden|publisher=Brill Publishers|date=1962|volume= 3|pages=129}}

Though Kazakh traditionally referred only to ethnic Kazakhs, including those living in China, Russia, Turkey, Uzbekistan and other neighbouring countries, the term is increasingly being used to refer to any inhabitant of Kazakhstan, including residents of other ethnicities.{{cite journal |last=Surucu |first=Cengiz |s2cid=145155985 |title=Modernity, Nationalism, Resistance: Identity Politics in Post-Soviet Kazakhstan |journal=Central Asian Survey |year= 2002 |pages=385–402 |doi=10.1080/0263493032000053208 |volume=21 |issue=4|issn=0263-4937}} In the Kazakh language, the country is called Qazaqstan in the Latin script.{{cite news |title=Kazakhstan to Qazaqstan: Why would a country switch its alphabet? |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-41800186 |work=BBC News |date=31 October 2017}}

{{Main|History of Kazakhstan}}

{{More citations needed section|date=December 2018}}

File:Assimilation of Baltic and Aryan Peoples by Uralic Speakers in the Middle and Upper Volga Basin (Shaded Relief BG).png]]

Kazakhstan has been inhabited since the Paleolithic era.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yZHmpRGYtTEC&q=kazakhstan%2Bpaleolithic&pg=PA91|title=Early Paleolithic in South and East Asia|last=Ikawa-Smith|first=Fumiko|date=1 January 1978|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-081003-5|page=91|language=en|access-date=14 November 2020|archive-date=17 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417174608/https://books.google.com/books?id=yZHmpRGYtTEC&q=kazakhstan+paleolithic&pg=PA91|url-status=live}} The Botai culture (3700–3100 BC) is credited with the first domestication of horses. The Botai population derived most of their ancestry from a deeply European-related population known as Ancient North Eurasians, while also displaying some Ancient East Asian admixture.{{Cite journal |last1=Jeong |first1=Choongwon |last2=Balanovsky |first2=Oleg |last3=Lukianova |first3=Elena |last4=Kahbatkyzy |first4=Nurzhibek |last5=Flegontov |first5=Pavel |last6=Zaporozhchenko |first6=Valery |last7=Immel |first7=Alexander |last8=Wang |first8=Chuan-Chao |last9=Ixan |first9=Olzhas |last10=Khussainova |first10=Elmira |last11=Bekmanov |first11=Bakhytzhan |date=June 2019 |title=The genetic history of admixture across inner Eurasia |journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution |volume=3 |issue=6 |pages=966–976 |doi=10.1038/s41559-019-0878-2 |issn=2397-334X |pmc=6542712 |pmid=31036896 |bibcode=2019NatEE...3..966J }} Pastoralism developed during the Neolithic. The population was Caucasoid during the Bronze and Iron Age period.{{Cite journal

|last = Ismagulov

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|title = Physical Anthropology of Kazakh People and their Genesis

|journal = Science of Central Asia

|url = http://www.scientificfund.kz/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&id=4&Itemid=28

|display-authors = etal

|access-date = 5 November 2022

|archive-date = 10 February 2017

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170210124931/http://www.scientificfund.kz/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=7:physical-anthropology-of-kazakh-people-and-their-genesis

|url-status = dead

}}{{cite journal|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/nomadic-herders-left-strong-genetic-mark-europeans-and-asians|first=Ann|last=Gibbons|date=10 June 2015|title=Nomadic herders left a strong genetic mark on Europeans and Asians|journal=Science|publisher=AAAS|access-date=5 November 2022|archive-date=2 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902191050/https://www.science.org/content/article/nomadic-herders-left-strong-genetic-mark-europeans-and-asians|url-status=live}}

The Kazakh territory was a key constituent of the Eurasian trading Steppe Route, the ancestor of the terrestrial Silk Roads. Archaeologists believe that humans first domesticated the horse in the region's vast steppes. During recent prehistoric times, Central Asia was inhabited by groups such as the possibly Indo-European Afanasievo culture,According to Allentoft et al. (2015) and Haak et al. (2015), later early Indo-Iranian cultures such as Andronovo,{{cite book |last1=Beckwith |first1=Christopher I. |title=Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present |date=16 March 2009 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-2994-1 |page=49 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-Ue8BxLEMt4C |postscript=:}} "Archaeologists are now generally agreed that the Andronovo culture of the Central Steppe region in the second millennium BC is to be equated with the Indo-Iranians." and later Indo-Iranians such as the Saka and Massagetae.{{harvnb|Beckwith|2009|p=68}} "Modern scholars have mostly used the name Saka to refer to Iranians of the Eastern Steppe and Tarim Basin"{{cite book |last=Dandamayev |first=M. A. |author-link=Muhammad Dandamayev |chapter=Media and Achaemenid Iran |editor1-last=Harmatta |editor1-first=János |editor1-link=János Harmatta |year=1994 |title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The Development of Sedentary and Nomadic Civilizations, 700 B. C. to A. D. 250 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9U6RlVVjpakC |publisher=UNESCO |page=37 |isbn=9231028464}} "In modern scholarship the name 'Sakas' is reserved for the ancient tribes of northern and eastern Central Asia and Eastern Turkestan to distinguish them from the related Massagetae of the Aral region and the Scythians of the Pontic steppes. These tribes spoke Iranian languages, and their chief occupation was nomadic pastoralism." Other groups included the nomadic Scythians and the Persian Achaemenid Empire in the southern territory of the modern country. The Andronovo and Srubnaya cultures, precursors to the peoples of the Scythian cultures, were found to harbor mixed ancestry from the Yamnaya Steppe herders and peoples of the Central European Middle Neolithic.{{cite journal|last1=Narasimhan|first1=Vagheesh M.|date=2019|title=The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia|journal=Science|publisher=American Association for the Advancement of Science|volume=365|issue=6457|pages= eaat7487|biorxiv=10.1101/292581|doi=10.1126/science.aat7487|pmc= 6822619|pmid= 31488661}}

In 329 BC, Alexander the Great and his Macedonian army fought in the Battle of Jaxartes against the Scythians along the Jaxartes River, now known as the Syr Darya along the southern border of modern Kazakhstan.

{{main|Turkic migration|First Turkic Khaganate}}

The main migration of Turkic peoples occurred between the 5th and 11th centuries when they spread across most of Central Asia. The Turkic peoples slowly replaced and assimilated the previous Iranian-speaking locals, turning the population of Central Asia from largely Iranian, into primarily of East Asian descent.{{Cite journal |last1=Damgaard |first1=Peter de Barros |last2=Marchi |first2=Nina |last3=Rasmussen |first3=Simon |last4=Peyrot |first4=Michaël |last5=Renaud |first5=Gabriel |last6=Korneliussen |first6=Thorfinn |last7=Moreno-Mayar |first7=J. Víctor |last8=Pedersen |first8=Mikkel Winther |last9=Goldberg |first9=Amy |last10=Usmanova |first10=Emma |last11=Baimukhanov |first11=Nurbol |date=May 2018 |title=137 ancient human genomes from across the Eurasian steppes |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0094-2 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=557 |issue=7705 |pages=369–374 |doi=10.1038/s41586-018-0094-2 |pmid=29743675 |bibcode=2018Natur.557..369D |hdl=1887/3202709 |s2cid=13670282 |issn=1476-4687 |quote=The wide distribution of the Turkic languages from Northwest China, Mongolia and Siberia in the east to Turkey and Bulgaria in the west implies large-scale migrations out of the homeland in Mongolia. |hdl-access=free |access-date=10 August 2022 |archive-date=21 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200221160318/https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0094-2 |url-status=live }} The quotation is from pp. 4–5.

The First Turkic Khaganate was founded by Bumin in 552 on the Mongolian Plateau and quickly spread west toward the Caspian Sea. The Göktürks drove before them various peoples: Xionites, Uar, Oghurs and others. These seem to have merged into the Avars and Bulgars. Within 35 years, the eastern half and the Western Turkic Khaganate were independent. The Western Khaganate reached its peak in the early 7th century.

{{main|Cumania|Golden Horde|Turco-Mongol tradition}}

File:Cumania (1200) eng.png in Eurasia circa 1200. The Kazakhs are descendants of Kipchaks and other Turkic and medieval Mongol tribes.]]

The Cumans entered the steppes of modern-day Kazakhstan around the early 11th century, where they later joined with the Kipchak and established the vast Cuman-Kipchak confederation. While ancient cities Taraz (Aulie-Ata) and Hazrat-e Turkestan had long served as important way-stations along the Silk Road connecting Asia and Europe, true political consolidation began only with the Mongol rule of the early 13th century. Under the Mongol Empire, the first strictly structured administrative districts (Ulus) were established. After the division of the Mongol Empire in 1259, the land that would become modern-day Kazakhstan was ruled by the Golden Horde, also known as the Ulus of Jochi. During the Golden Horde period, a Turco-Mongol tradition emerged among the ruling elite wherein Turkicised descendants of Genghis Khan followed Islam and continued to reign over the lands.

{{Main|Kazakh Khanate}}

In 1465, the Kazakh Khanate emerged as a result of the dissolution of the Golden Horde. Established by Janibek Khan and Kerei Khan, it continued to be ruled by the Turco-Mongol clan of Tore (Jochid dynasty). Throughout this period, traditional nomadic life and a livestock-based economy continued to dominate the steppe. In the 15th century, a distinct Kazakh identity began to emerge among the Turkic tribes. This was followed by the Kazakh War of Independence, where the Khanate gained its sovereignty from the Shaybanids. The process was consolidated by the mid-16th century with the appearance of the Kazakh language, culture, and economy.

[[File:Жуз.svg|thumb|250px|Approximate areas occupied by the three Kazakh jüz in the early 20th century

Nevertheless, the region was the focus of ever-increasing disputes between the native Kazakh emirs and the neighbouring Persian-speaking peoples to the south. At its height, the Khanate would rule parts of Central Asia and control Cumania. The Kazakh Khanate's territories would expand deep into Central Asia. By the early 17th century, the Kazakh Khanate was struggling with the impact of tribal rivalries, which had effectively divided the population into the Great, Middle and Little (or Small) hordes (jüz). Political disunion, tribal rivalries, and the diminishing importance of overland trade routes between east and west weakened the Kazakh Khanate. The Khiva Khanate used this opportunity and annexed the Mangyshlak Peninsula. Uzbek rule there lasted two centuries until the Russian arrival.

During the 17th century, the Kazakhs fought the Oirats, a federation of western Mongol tribes, including the Dzungar.{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Kazakhstan/Cultural-life#toc73648 |title=Kazakhstan to c. AD 1700 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=1 June 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150811050147/https://www.britannica.com/place/Kazakhstan/Cultural-life#toc73648 |archive-date=11 August 2015}} The beginning of the 18th century marked the zenith of the Kazakh Khanate. During this period the Little Horde participated in the 1723–1730 war against the Dzungar Khanate, following their "Great Disaster" invasion of Kazakh territory. Under the leadership of Abul Khair Khan, the Kazakhs won major victories over the Dzungar at the Bulanty River in 1726 and at the Battle of Añyraqai in 1729.{{cite news |url=http://www.economist.com/node/2282291?zid=306&ah=1b164dbd43b0cb27ba0d4c3b12a5e227 |title=Country Briefings: Kazakhstan |newspaper=The Economist |access-date=1 June 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208113054/http://www.economist.com/node/2282291?zid=306&ah=1b164dbd43b0cb27ba0d4c3b12a5e227 |archive-date=8 December 2015}}

Ablai Khan participated in the most significant battles against the Dzungar from the 1720s to the 1750s, for which he was declared a "batyr" ("hero") by the people. The Kazakhs suffered from the frequent raids against them by the Volga Kalmyks. The Kokand Khanate used the weakness of Kazakh jüzs after Dzungar and Kalmyk raids and conquered present Southeastern Kazakhstan, including Almaty, the formal capital in the first quarter of the 19th century. The Emirate of Bukhara ruled Şymkent before the Russians gained dominance.{{Cite web |last=Satubaldina |first=Assel |date=2018-01-17 |title=Şymkent – the city of medieval culture and vibrant modern lifestyle |url=https://astanatimes.com/2018/01/shymkent-the-city-of-medieval-culture-and-vibrant-modern-lifestyle/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107122740/https://astanatimes.com/2018/01/shymkent-the-city-of-medieval-culture-and-vibrant-modern-lifestyle/ |archive-date=7 January 2021 |access-date=2021-01-05 |website=The Astana Times}}

File:Battle Cossacks with Kyrgyz 1826.JPG skirmish with Kazakhs]]

File:Kazakhs 19th Century 4.jpg

In the first half of the 18th century, the Russian Empire constructed the {{Interlanguage link|Irtysh line|ru|Иртышская линия}}, a series of forty-six forts and ninety-six redoubts, including Omsk (1716), Semipalatinsk (1718), Pavlodar (1720), Orenburg (1743) and Petropavlovsk (1752),"Russian Colonization and the Genesis of Kazak National Consciousness". S. Sabol (2003). Springer. p.27 {{ISBN|0230599427}} to prevent Kazakh and Oirat raids into Russian territory."Central Asia, 130 Years of Russian Dominance: A Historical Overview". Edward A. Allworth, Edward Allworth (1994). Duke University Press. p. 10. {{ISBN|0822315211}} In the late 18th century the Kazakhs took advantage of Pugachev's Rebellion, which was centred on the Volga area, to raid Russian and Volga German settlements.{{cite book |last1=Bodger |first1=Alan |title=The Kazakhs and the Pugachev Uprising in Russia, 1773-1775 |date=1988 |publisher=Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies, Indiana University |isbn=9789999328128 |page=22}} In the 19th century, the Russian Empire began to expand its influence into Central Asia. The "Great Game" period is generally regarded as running from approximately 1813 to the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907. The tsars effectively ruled over most of the territory belonging to what is now the Republic of Kazakhstan.

The Russian Empire introduced a system of administration and built military garrisons and barracks in its effort to establish a presence in Central Asia in the so-called "Great Game" for dominance in the area against the British Empire, which was extending its influence from the south in India and Southeast Asia. Russia built its first outpost, Orsk, in 1735. Russia introduced the Russian language in all schools and governmental organisations.

Russia's efforts to impose its system aroused the resentment of the Kazakhs, and, by the 1860s, some Kazakhs resisted its rule. Russia had disrupted the traditional nomadic lifestyle and livestock-based economy, and people were suffering from starvation, with some Kazakh tribes being decimated. The Kazakh national movement, which began in the late 19th century, sought to preserve the native language and identity by resisting the attempts of the Russian Empire to assimilate and stifle Kazakh culture.

From the 1890s onward, ever-larger numbers of settlers from the Russian Empire began colonizing the territory of present-day Kazakhstan, in particular, the province of Semirechye. The number of settlers rose still further once the Trans-Aral Railway from Orenburg to Tashkent was completed in 1906. A specially created Migration Department (Переселенческое Управление) in St. Petersburg oversaw and encouraged the migration to expand Russian influence in the area. During the 19th century, about 400,000 Russians immigrated to Kazakhstan, and about one million Slavs, Germans, Jews, and others immigrated to the region during the first third of the 20th century.{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Kazakhstan |title=Kazakhstan |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |date=16 December 1991 |access-date=9 September 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617101159/https://www.britannica.com/place/Kazakhstan |archive-date=17 June 2015}} Vasile Balabanov was the administrator responsible for the resettlement during much of this time.

The competition for land and water that ensued between the Kazakhs and the newcomers caused great resentment against colonial rule during the final years of the Russian Empire. The most serious uprising, the Central Asian revolt, occurred in 1916. The Kazakhs attacked Russian and Cossack settlers and military garrisons. The revolt resulted in a series of clashes and in brutal massacres committed by both sides.{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761566451_8/Kazakhstan.html|title=Kazakhstan|encyclopedia=Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia|date=2005y|archive-date=15 April 2005|access-date=29 October 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050415185833/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761566451_8/Kazakhstan.html|url-status=dead}} Both sides resisted the communist government until late 1919.

{{Main|Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic}}

File:Stanitsa Sofiiskaya.jpg, 1920s]]

File:Young Pioneers in Kazakh SSR.jpg at a Young Pioneer camp in the Kazakh SSR]]

Following the collapse of central government in Petrograd in November 1917, the Kazakhs (then in Russia officially referred to as "Kirghiz") experienced a brief period of autonomy (the Alash Autonomy) before eventually succumbing to the Bolsheviks' rule. On 26 August 1920, the Kirghiz Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic within the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) was established. The Kirghiz ASSR included the territory of present-day Kazakhstan, but its administrative centre was the mainly Russian-populated town of Orenburg. In June 1925, the Kirghiz ASSR was renamed the Kazak ASSR and its administrative centre was transferred to the town of Kyzylorda, and in April 1927 to Alma-Ata.

Soviet repression of the traditional elite, along with forced collectivisation in the late 1920s and 1930s, brought famine and high fatalities, leading to unrest (see also: Famine in Kazakhstan of 1932–33).{{cite journal |url= http://zhe.stanford.edu/spring05/Kazakhstan2.pdf|url-status= dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060903203830/http://zhe.stanford.edu/spring05/Kazakhstan2.pdf|archive-date= 3 September 2006|title= The Kazakh Catastrophe and Stalin's Order of Priorities, 1929–1933: Evidence from the Soviet Secret Archives|author= Simon Ertz|date= 2005|journal= Stanford's Student Journal of Russian, East European, and Eurasian Studies|volume= 1|pages= 1–12|access-date= 1 June 2010}}{{cite journal |author= Pianciola, Niccolò |url= http://monderusse.revues.org/2623?file=1 |title= Famine in the Steppe. The collectivization of agriculture and the Kazak herdsmen, 1928–1934 |journal= Cahiers du monde russe |year= 2004 |volume= 45 |pages= 137–192 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151023090501/http://monderusse.revues.org/2623?file=1 |archive-date= 23 October 2015 |df= dmy-all }} During the 1930s, some members of the Kazakh intelligentsia were executed – as part of the policies of political reprisals pursued by the Soviet government in Moscow.{{citation needed|date=May 2024}}

On 5 December 1936, the Kazakh Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (whose territory by then corresponded to that of modern Kazakhstan) was detached from the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) and made the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic, a full union republic of the USSR, one of eleven such republics at the time, along with the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic.

The republic was one of the destinations for exiled and convicted persons, as well as for mass resettlements, or deportations affected by the central USSR authorities during the 1930s and 1940s, such as approximately 400,000 Volga Germans deported from the Volga German Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic in September–October 1941, and then later the Greeks and Crimean Tatars. Deportees and prisoners were interned in some of the biggest Soviet labour camps (the Gulag), including ALZhIR camp outside Astana, which was reserved for the wives of men considered "enemies of the people".[http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/world/archives/2007/01/01/2003342918 Children of the gulag live with amnesia]{{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303223853/http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/world/archives/2007/01/01/2003342918 |date=3 March 2016 }}, Taipei Times, 1 January 2007 Many moved due to the policy of population transfer in the Soviet Union and others were forced into involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union.

File:International conference on Primary Health Care - Conferencia Internacional sobre Atención Primaria de Salud - Almaty -1978.jpg]]

The Soviet-German War (1941–1945) led to an increase in industrialisation and mineral extraction in support of the war effort. At the time of Joseph Stalin's death in 1953, however, Kazakhstan still had an overwhelmingly agricultural economy. In 1953, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev initiated the Virgin Lands Campaign designed to turn the traditional pasturelands of Kazakhstan into a major grain-producing region for the Soviet Union. The Virgin Lands policy brought mixed results. However, along with later modernisations under Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev (in power 1964–1982), it accelerated the development of the agricultural sector, which remains the source of livelihood for a large percentage of Kazakhstan's population. Because of the decades of privation, war and resettlement, by 1959 the Kazakhs had become a minority, making up 30 percent of the population. Ethnic Russians accounted for 43 percent.Flynn, Moya (1994). [{{GBurl|id=YLeAxHLmgR8C|p=15}} Migrant Resettlement in the Russian Federation: Reconstructing 'Homes' and 'Homelands'] Anthem Press. p. 15. {{ISBN|1-84331-117-8}}

In 1947, the USSR, as part of its atomic bomb project, founded an atomic bomb test site near the north-eastern town of Semipalatinsk, where the first Soviet nuclear bomb test was conducted in 1949. Hundreds of nuclear tests were conducted until 1989 with adverse consequences for the nation's environment and population.{{Cite news|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2013/05/kazakhstans-painful-nuclear-past-looms-large-over-its-energy-future/275795/|title=Kazakhstan's Painful Nuclear Past Looms Large Over Its Energy Future|last=Keenan|first=Jillian|newspaper=The Atlantic|language=en-US|access-date=27 January 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202233241/https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2013/05/kazakhstans-painful-nuclear-past-looms-large-over-its-energy-future/275795/|archive-date=2 February 2017}} The Anti-nuclear movement in Kazakhstan became a major political force in the late 1980s.

In April 1961, Baikonur became the springboard of Vostok 1, a spacecraft with Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin being the first human to enter space.

In December 1986, mass demonstrations by young ethnic Kazakhs, later called the Jeltoqsan riot, took place in Almaty to protest the replacement of the First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Kazakh SSR Dinmukhamed Konayev with Gennady Kolbin from the Russian SFSR. Governmental troops suppressed the unrest, several people were killed, and many demonstrators were jailed.{{Cite web|last=Putz|first=Catherine|title=1986: Kazakhstan's Other Independence Anniversary|url=https://thediplomat.com/2016/12/1986-kazakhstans-other-independence-anniversary/|access-date=2021-01-05|website=thediplomat.com|language=en-US|archive-date=28 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328214923/https://thediplomat.com/2016/12/1986-kazakhstans-other-independence-anniversary/|url-status=live}} In the waning days of Soviet rule, discontent continued to grow and found expression under Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev's policy of glasnost ("openness").

{{anchor|Independence}}

Kazakhstan declared its sovereignty within the Soviet Union on 25 October 1990. Following the failed August 1991 coup attempt in Moscow, the country proclaimed full independence on 16 December 1991, becoming the last Soviet republic to do so. Ten days after Kazakhstan's declaration, the Soviet Union itself dissolved. This period marked a significant turning point in Kazakhstan's history, as it embarked on a new political and economic path separate from Moscow's control.

Nursultan Nazarbayev, the communist-era leader of Kazakhstan, became the country's first president. Under his leadership, Kazakhstan transitioned from a Soviet-era planned economy to a market economy, focusing on privatization and foreign investments. The emphasis on economic reform, particularly in the oil sector, helped Kazakhstan become one of Central Asia's most economically powerful nations. By 2006, Kazakhstan contributed around 60% of the region's GDP, primarily through its oil exports. However, political reforms lagged behind these economic strides, and Nazarbayev maintained an authoritarian rule throughout his presidency.

In 1997, Nazarbayev moved the capital from Almaty, the country's largest city, to Astana (later renamed Nur-Sultan in 2019),{{Cite news |date=2019-03-20 |title=Nursultan: Kazakhstan renames capital Astana after ex-president |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-47638619 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191225212541/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-47638619 |archive-date=25 December 2019 |access-date=2021-01-05 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}} a decision that symbolized the government's desire to modernize and assert control over the country's vast territories. The capital city change was part of broader efforts to establish a new national identity and shift the political center from the old Soviet-era heartlands.{{Cite web |title=Capital change: A look at some countries that have moved their capitals – Nigeria: Lagos to Abuja |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/international/world-news/capital-change-a-look-at-some-countries-that-have-moved-their-capitals/kazakhstan-almaty-to-nur-sultan/slideshow/69183884.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420174234/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/international/world-news/capital-change-a-look-at-some-countries-that-have-moved-their-capitals/kazakhstan-almaty-to-nur-sultan/slideshow/69183884.cms |archive-date=20 April 2021 |access-date=2021-01-05 |website=The Economic Times}}

Kazakhstan's political landscape during Nazarbayev's rule was characterized by limited political pluralism. In the 2004 parliamentary elections, the pro-government Otan Party, led by Nazarbayev, dominated the Majilis (the lower house of parliament). Other parties sympathetic to the president, such as the agrarian-industrial bloc AIST and the Asar party (founded by Nazarbayev's daughter), secured most of the remaining seats, while opposition parties struggled to gain representation. International observers, including the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, criticized the elections for not meeting democratic standards.{{Cite web |title=Parliamentary Elections, 19 September and 3 October 2004 |url=https://www.osce.org/node/57857 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210108211859/https://www.osce.org/node/57857 |archive-date=8 January 2021 |access-date=2021-01-05 |website=osce.org |language=en}}

Despite claims of progress toward democracy, Kazakhstan's political system remained authoritarian well into the 21st century.Nazarbayev, Nursultan (28 March 2011). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/kazakhstans-steady-progress-toward-democracy/2011/03/28/AF1XPKCC_story.html OP Ed: "Kazakhstan's steady progress toward democracy"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151210234358/https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/kazakhstans-steady-progress-toward-democracy/2011/03/28/AF1XPKCC_story.html|date=10 December 2015}}, Washington Post In 2010, the country was still ranked as an authoritarian regime on The Economist's Democracy Index. Nazarbayev, who had ruled since independence, announced his resignation on 19 March 2019, after nearly three decades in power.{{cite news |date=19 March 2019 |title=Kazakh leader resigns after three decades |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-47628854 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190425061650/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-47628854 |archive-date=25 April 2019 |access-date=19 March 2019 |work=BBC News}} His successor, Kassym-Jomart Tokayev, won the 2019 presidential election and took office on 12 June 2019.{{cite news |date=10 June 2019 |title=Nazarbayev protégé wins Kazakhstan elections marred by protests |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20190610-kazakhstan-presidential-election-tokayev-nazarbayev-protesters-arrested |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922092114/https://www.france24.com/en/20190610-kazakhstan-presidential-election-tokayev-nazarbayev-protesters-arrested |archive-date=22 September 2022 |access-date=16 February 2022 |work=France 24 |language=en}}{{cite web |date=10 June 2019 |title=CEC announces preliminary results of 2019 Presidential Election in Kazakhstan |url=https://www.inform.kz/en/cec-announces-preliminary-results-of-2019-presidential-election-in-kazakhstan_a3536331 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190815174133/https://www.inform.kz/en/cec-announces-preliminary-results-of-2019-presidential-election-in-kazakhstan_a3536331 |archive-date=15 August 2019 |access-date=15 August 2019 |website=inform.kz}} Tokayev's first official act was to rename the capital city to Nur-Sultan, in honor of Nazarbayev’s legacy.{{cite news |date=20 March 2019 |title=Kazakhstan renames capital as new president takes office |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20190320-kazakhstan-capital-new-president-astana-nursultan |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220216140002/https://www.france24.com/en/20190320-kazakhstan-capital-new-president-astana-nursultan |archive-date=16 February 2022 |access-date=16 February 2022 |work=France 24 |language=en}}

However, Tokayev's presidency faced significant challenges. In January 2022, Kazakhstan was gripped by large-scale protests following a sharp rise in fuel prices.{{Cite web |date=2022-01-05 |title=Kazakhstan protests: government resigns amid rare outbreak of unrest. |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jan/04/kazakhstan-president-declares-state-of-emergency-in-protest-hit-areas |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220105122522/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jan/04/kazakhstan-president-declares-state-of-emergency-in-protest-hit-areas |archive-date=5 January 2022 |access-date=2022-01-05 |website=the Guardian |language=en}} The unrest quickly escalated, and Tokayev responded decisively by assuming control of the country's Security Council, removing Nazarbayev from the post and consolidating his own power. This marked a dramatic shift in Kazakhstan's political dynamics, with Tokayev signaling a departure from the old Nazarbayev-era system.{{cite news |title=Kazakhstan's Nazarbayev handed over security council job on his own will: Spokesman |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/world/kazakhstan-s-nazarbayev-handed-over-security-council-job-on-his-own-will-spokesman/2469352 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220216143609/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/world/kazakhstan-s-nazarbayev-handed-over-security-council-job-on-his-own-will-spokesman/2469352 |archive-date=16 February 2022 |access-date=16 February 2022 |work=www.aa.com.tr}} In September 2022, the capital's name was reverted back to Astana, a move seen as part of the broader efforts to distance the country from the former president’s influence.{{cite news |date=14 September 2022 |title=Kazakhstan to change name of capital from Nur-sultan back to Astana |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/sep/14/kazakhstan-to-change-name-of-capital-from-nur-sultan-back-to-astana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220914002239/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/sep/14/kazakhstan-to-change-name-of-capital-from-nur-sultan-back-to-astana |archive-date=14 September 2022 |access-date=21 September 2022 |work=the Guardian |language=en}}

{{Main|Geography of Kazakhstan|List of cities in Kazakhstan}}

File:Kazakhstan BMNG.jpg

As it extends across both sides of the Ural River, considered the dividing line separating Europe and Asia, Kazakhstan is one of only two landlocked countries in the world that has territory in two continents (the other is Azerbaijan).

With an area of {{convert|2700000|km2}}—equivalent in size to Western Europe—Kazakhstan is the ninth-largest country and largest landlocked country in the world. While it was part of the Russian Empire, Kazakhstan lost some of its territory to China's Xinjiang province,{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i1SpCwAAQBAJ&q=kazakhstan%2Blost%2Bsome%2Bof%2Bits%2Bterritory%2Bto%2Brussia%2Band%2Bchina&pg=PT85|title=Xinjiang – China's Northwest Frontier|last=Warikoo|first=K.|date=2 March 2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-29028-5|language=en|access-date=14 November 2020|archive-date=17 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417184150/https://books.google.com/books?id=i1SpCwAAQBAJ&q=kazakhstan+lost+some+of+its+territory+to+russia+and+china&pg=PT85|url-status=live}} and some to Uzbekistan's Karakalpakstan autonomous republic during Soviet years.

File:Eurasian steppe belt.jpg is part of the Eurasian Steppe Belt (in {{Colorsample|#AAEEFF}} on the map).]]

It shares borders of {{convert|6846|km}} with Russia, {{convert|2203|km}} with Uzbekistan, {{convert|1533|km}} with China, {{convert|1051|km}} with Kyrgyzstan, and {{convert|379|km}} with Turkmenistan. Major cities include Almaty, Astana, Shymkent, Aktöbe and Karagandy. It lies between latitudes 40° and 56° N, and longitudes 46° and 88° E. While located primarily in Asia, a small portion of Kazakhstan is also located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe.{{cite encyclopedia|title=Kazakhstan – MSN Encarta |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/refpages/RefArticle.aspx?refid=761566451 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080601203047/http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/refpages/RefArticle.aspx?refid=761566451 |archive-date= 1 June 2008 |url-status=dead}}

Kazakhstan's terrain extends west to east from the Caspian Sea to the Altay Mountains and north to south from the plains of Western Siberia to the oases and deserts of Central Asia. The Kazakh Steppe (plain), with an area of around {{convert|804500|km2}}, occupies one-third of the country and is the world's largest dry steppe region. The steppe is characterised by large areas of grasslands and sandy regions. Major seas, lakes and rivers include Lake Balkhash, Lake Zaysan, the Charyn River and gorge, the Ili, Irtysh, Ishim, Ural and Syr Darya rivers, and the Aral Sea until it largely dried up in one of the world's worst environmental disasters.{{cite news|author=Daily Telegraph|title=Aral Sea 'one of the planet's worst environmental disasters'| url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/earthnews/7554679/Aral-Sea-one-of-the-planets-worst-environmental-disasters.html|date=5 April 2010|access-date=1 May 2010| location=London|work=The Daily Telegraph|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100408214552/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/earthnews/7554679/Aral-Sea-one-of-the-planets-worst-environmental-disasters.html|archive-date=8 April 2010 |url-status=dead}}

File:Steppe of western Kazakhstan in the early spring.jpg

The Charyn Canyon is {{convert|80|km}} long, cutting through a red sandstone plateau and stretching along the Charyn River gorge in northern Tian Shan ("Heavenly Mountains", {{convert|200|km|0|abbr=on}} east of Almaty) at {{coord|43|21|1.16|N|79|4|49.28|E|}}. The steep canyon slopes, columns and arches rise to heights of between {{convert|150|and|300|m|ft|abbr=off}}. The inaccessibility of the canyon provided a safe haven for a rare ash tree, Fraxinus sogdiana, which survived the Ice Age there and has now also grown in some other areas.{{cite journal|doi=10.3390/d15060769|title=Anatomical Structure and Phytochemical Composition of a Rare Species Fraxinus sogdiana Bunge (Oleaceae) Growing in Different Soils in Kazakhstan|journal=Diversity|date=2023 |doi-access=free |last1=Aldibekova |first1=Almagul |last2=Kurmanbayeva |first2=Meruyert |last3=Aksoy |first3=Ahmet |last4=Permitina |first4=Valeria |last5=Dimeyeva |first5=Liliya |last6=Zverev |first6=Nikolai |volume=15 |issue=6 |page=769 |bibcode=2023Diver..15..769A }} Bigach crater, at {{coord|48|30|N|82|00|E|}}, is a Pliocene or Miocene asteroid impact crater, {{convert|8|km|0|abbr=on}} in diameter and estimated to be 5±3 million years old.

Kazakhstan's Almaty region is also home to the Mynzhylky mountain plateau.

{{See also|Energy in Kazakhstan}}

File:Reserve Karkaraly.jpg]]

Kazakhstan has an abundant supply of accessible mineral and fossil fuel resources. Development of petroleum, natural gas, and mineral extractions has attracted most of the over $40 billion in foreign investment in Kazakhstan since 1993 and accounts for some 57 percent of the nation's industrial output (or approximately 13 percent of gross domestic product). According to some estimates,[https://web.archive.org/web/20070507024507/http://www.homestead.com/prosites-kazakhembus/MineralWealth.html Mineral Wealth]. homestead.com Kazakhstan has the second largest uranium, chromium, lead, and zinc reserves; the third largest manganese reserves; the fifth largest copper reserves; and ranks in the top ten for coal, iron, and gold. In 2015, Kazakhstan's gold production is 64 metric tonnes.{{Cite web |title=Gold production |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/gold-production?tab=table |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129233804/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/gold-production?tab=table |archive-date=29 November 2023 |access-date=2024-12-17 |website=Our World in Data |url-status=live }} It is also an exporter of diamonds. Perhaps most significant for economic development, Kazakhstan also has the 11th largest proven reserves of both petroleum and natural gas.International Crisis Group. (May 2007). [http://www.crisisgroup.org/en/regions/asia/central-asia/133-central-asias-energy-risks.aspx Central Asia's Energy Risks, Asia Report No. 133] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303225435/http://www.crisisgroup.org/en/regions/asia/central-asia/133-central-asias-energy-risks.aspx |date=3 March 2016 }} One such location is the Tokarevskoye gas condensate field.

In total, there are 160 deposits with over {{convert|2.7|e9t|e9lt|abbr=off}} of petroleum. Oil explorations have shown that the deposits on the Caspian shore are only a small part of a much larger deposit. It is said that {{convert|3.5|e9t|e9lt|abbr=off}} of oil and {{convert|2.5|e9m3|e9cuft|abbr=off}} of gas could be found in that area. Overall the estimate of Kazakhstan's oil deposits is {{convert|6.1|e9t|e9lt|abbr=off}}. However, there are only three refineries within the country, situated in Atyrau,{{cite web|url=http://kazworld.info/?p=58130|title=Company Overview of Atyrau Refinery LLP – KazWorld.info|work=kazworld.info|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161026232217/http://kazworld.info/?p=58130|archive-date=26 October 2016}} Pavlodar, and Şymkent. These are not capable of processing the total crude output, so much of it is exported to Russia. According to the US Energy Information Administration, Kazakhstan was producing approximately {{convert|1540000|oilbbl}} of oil per day in 2009.{{cite web|url=http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/cfapps/STEO_Query/steotables.cfm?periodType=Annual&startYear=2005&startMonth=1&endYear=2009&endMonth=12&tableNumber=29 |archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20090409081928/http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/cfapps/STEO_Query/steotables.cfm?periodType=Annual&startYear=2005&startMonth=1&endYear=2009&endMonth=12&tableNumber=29 |archive-date= 9 April 2009 |title=Table 3b. Non-OPEC Petroleum Supply |work=U.S. Energy Information Administration. Independent Statistics and Analysis. |publisher=Tonto.eia.doe.gov |date=11 May 2010 |access-date=1 June 2010 |url-status=dead}}

Kazakhstan also possesses large deposits of phosphorite. Two of the largest deposits include the Karatau basin with 650 million tonnes of P₂O₅ and the Chilisai deposit of the Aqtobe phosphorite basin located in northwestern Kazakhstan, with resources of 500–800{{nbsp}}million tonnes of 9 percent ore.[http://www.sunkarresources.com/en/news/chilisai_Phosphate_Project_ore_reserve_update/ Chilisai Phosphate Project Ore Reserve Update] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160402211127/http://www.sunkarresources.com/en/news/chilisai_phosphate_project_ore_reserve_update |date=2 April 2016 }} // SUNKAR RESOURCES PLC[http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/1997/9422097.pdf#page=7 THE MINERAL INDUSTRY OF KAZAKHSTAN—1997] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130303091425/http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/1997/9422097.pdf |date=3 March 2013 }} // USGS: Phosphate Rock – Reserves

On 17 October 2013, the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) accepted Kazakhstan as "EITI Compliant", meaning that the country has a basic and functional process to ensure the regular disclosure of natural resource revenues.[http://eiti.org/news/kazakhstan-accepted-eiti-compliant Kazakhstan accepted as 'EITI Compliant'] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101051159/https://eiti.org/news/kazakhstan-accepted-eiti-compliant |date=1 January 2016 }}. EITI (17 October 2013). Retrieved 8 March 2014.

File:Koppen-Geiger Map v2 KAZ 1991–2020.svg

Kazakhstan has an "extreme" continental and cold steppe climate, and sits solidly inside the Eurasian steppe, featuring the Kazakh steppe, with hot summers and cold winters. Indeed, Astana is the second coldest capital city in the world, after Ulaanbaatar. Precipitation varies between arid and semi-arid conditions, the winter being particularly dry.{{cite web|title=The Coldest Capital Cities In The World|url=http://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-coldest-capital-cities-in-the-world.html|website=WorldAtlas.com|access-date=15 January 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170108040732/http://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-coldest-capital-cities-in-the-world.html|archive-date=8 January 2017}}

{{Main|Wildlife of Kazakhstan}}

File:Vulpes corsac.jpg]]

There are ten nature reserves and ten national parks in Kazakhstan that provide safe haven for many rare and endangered plants and animals. In total there are twenty five areas of conservancy. Common plants are Astragalus, Gagea, Allium, Carex and Oxytropis; endangered plant species include native wild apple (Malus sieversii), wild grape (Vitis vinifera) and several wild tulip species (e.g., Tulipa greigii) and rare onion species Allium karataviense, also Iris willmottiana and Tulipa kaufmanniana.A.F. Kovshar (Ed.): Monitoring biologicheskogo raznoobraziya Zapovednika Aksu-Dzhabagly. In: Tethys Biodiversity Research. Tom 1, S. 17–21.{{cite web |title=Celestial Silk Road 5th–21st June 2016 |url=http://www.viranatura.com/Product_100001_Celestial-Silk-Road-5th-21st-June-2016 |publisher=viranatura.com |access-date=26 May 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305045058/http://www.viranatura.com/Product_100001_Celestial-Silk-Road-5th-21st-June-2016 |archive-date=5 March 2016}} Kazakhstan had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 8.23/10, ranking it 26th globally out of 172 countries.{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. F.|last26=Lieberman|first26=S.|last27=Linkie|first27=M.|last28=Malhi|first28=Y.|last29=Maxwell|first29=S.|last30=Mendez|first30=M.|last31=Mittermeier|first31=R.|last32=Murray|first32=N. J.|last33=Possingham|first33=H.|last34=Radachowsky|first34=J.|last35=Saatchi|first35=S.|last36=Samper|first36=C.|last37=Silverman|first37=J.|last38=Shapiro|first38=A.|last39=Strassburg|first39=B.|last40=Stevens|first40=T.|last41=Stokes|first41=E.|last42=Taylor|first42=R.|last43=Tear|first43=T.|last44=Tizard|first44=R.|last45=Venter|first45=O.|last46=Visconti|first46=P.|last47=Wang|first47=S.|last48=Watson|first48=J. E. M.|title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|page=5978|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|pmid=33293507|pmc=7723057|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G |doi-access=free}}

Common mammals include the wolf, red fox, corsac fox, moose, argali (the largest species of sheep), Eurasian lynx, Pallas's cat, and snow leopards, several of which are protected.

Kazakhstan's Red Book of Protected Species lists 125 vertebrates including many birds and mammals, and 404 plants including fungi, algae and lichens.{{cite web|title=Red Book|url=http://enrin.grida.no/biodiv/biodiv/national/kazakh/nav/species/red.htm|publisher=United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)|access-date=8 December 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205173757/http://enrin.grida.no/biodiv/biodiv/national/kazakh/nav/species/red.htm|archive-date=5 February 2017}}

Przewalski's horse has been reintroduced to the steppes after nearly 200 years.{{cite web |date=14 June 2024 |title=Wild Przewalski's horses return to Kazakhstan after 200 years |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/6/14/wild-przewalskis-horses-return-to-kazakhstan-after-200-years}}

{{Main|Government of Kazakhstan|Politics of Kazakhstan}}

Officially, Kazakhstan is a democratic, secular, constitutional unitary republic; Nursultan Nazarbayev led the country from 1991 to 2019.{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2014/02/07/yes-kazakhstan-should-change-its-name-this-map-shows-why/|title=Yes, Kazakhstan should change its name. This map shows why.|newspaper=Washington Post|access-date=11 August 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170811145614/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2014/02/07/yes-kazakhstan-should-change-its-name-this-map-shows-why/|archive-date=11 August 2017}}{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-47628854|title=Kazakh leader resigns after three decades|date=19 March 2019|access-date=19 March 2019|language=en-GB|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190425061650/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-47628854|archive-date=25 April 2019|url-status=live}} He was succeeded by Kassym-Jomart Tokayev.{{cite web|url=https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2019-03-19/president-of-kazakhstan-nursultan-nazarbayev-resigns|title=Kazakhstan's Leader Nazarbayev Resigns After Three Decades in Power|last=Auyezov|first=Olzhas|date=19 March 2019|website=US News|access-date=1 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401081832/https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2019-03-19/president-of-kazakhstan-nursultan-nazarbayev-resigns|archive-date=1 April 2019|url-status=live}}{{cite news|title=Nazarbayev ally wins big in Kazakhstan election after hundreds arrested|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jun/09/hundreds-arrested-as-kazakhs-protest-against-rigged-election|agency=The Guardian|access-date=12 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190712033625/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jun/09/hundreds-arrested-as-kazakhs-protest-against-rigged-election|archive-date=12 July 2019|url-status=live}} The president may veto legislation that has been passed by the parliament and is also the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The prime minister chairs the cabinet of ministers and serves as Kazakhstan's head of government. There are three deputy prime ministers and sixteen ministers in the cabinet.{{Cite web|title=About Republic of Kazakhstan {{!}} CIS Legislation|url=https://cis-legislation.com/cis/kazakhstan/index.html|access-date=2021-01-05|website=cis-legislation.com|archive-date=9 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109232202/https://cis-legislation.com/cis/kazakhstan/index.html|url-status=live}}

Kazakhstan has a bicameral parliament composed of the Majilis (the lower house) and senate (the upper house).{{cite web |url=http://www.akorda.kz/en/category/kazakhstan |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130323103659/http://akorda.kz/en/category/kazakhstan |archive-date=23 March 2013 |title=Official site of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan – Kazakhstan |publisher=Akorda.kz |access-date=26 March 2013}} Single-mandate districts popularly elect 107 seats in the Majilis; there also are ten members elected by party-list vote. The senate has 48 members. Two senators are selected by each of the elected assemblies (mäslihats) of Kazakhstan's twenty principal administrative divisions (seventeen regions and three nationally significant cities).{{cite web |title=Republic of Kazakhstan |url=https://www.akorda.kz/en/republic_of_kazakhstan/kazakhstan |website=Official Website of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan |publisher=The Republic of Kazakhstan |access-date=10 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241110220907if_/https://www.akorda.kz/en/republic_of_kazakhstan/kazakhstan |archive-date=10 November 2024 |publication-place=Astana |language=en |url-status=live}} The president appoints the remaining fifteen senators. Majilis deputies and the government both have the right of legislative initiative, though the government proposes most legislation considered by the parliament.

In 2020, Freedom House rated Kazakhstan as a "consolidated authoritarian regime", stating that freedom of speech is not respected and "Kazakhstan's electoral laws do not provide for free and fair elections."{{cite web |title=Kazakhstan: Nations in Transit 2020 Country Report |url=https://freedomhouse.org/country/kazakhstan/nations-transit/2020 |website=Freedom House |access-date=30 May 2021 |language=en |archive-date=2 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602212641/https://freedomhouse.org/country/kazakhstan/nations-transit/2020 |url-status=live }}

Reforms have begun to be implemented after the election of Kassym-Jomart Tokayev in June 2019. Tokayev supports a culture of opposition, public assembly, and loosening rules on forming political parties.{{cite news |title=Kazakhstan to Liberalize Rules on Protests and Political Parties |url=https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2019-12-20/kazakhstan-to-liberalize-rules-on-protests-and-political-parties |agency=REUTERS |publisher=USNews |access-date=24 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191224202342/https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2019-12-20/kazakhstan-to-liberalize-rules-on-protests-and-political-parties |archive-date=24 December 2019 |url-status=live }} In June 2019, Tokayev established the National Council of Public Trust as a public platform for national conversation regarding government policies and reforms.{{cite web |title=Kazakhstan President Tokayev's initiatives on public safety, rule of law, human rights |url=http://www.iran-daily.com/News/263944.html |website=iran-daily.com |access-date=8 April 2020 |date=5 January 2020 |archive-date=14 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200114194339/http://www.iran-daily.com/News/263944.html |url-status=live }} 50px Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171016050101/https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ |date=16 October 2017 }}. In July 2019, the President of Kazakhstan announced a concept of a 'listening state' that quickly and efficiently responds to all constructive requests of the country's citizens.{{cite web|url=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/commentary/long-take/first-glimpses-of-tokayevs-kazakhstan/|title=First glimpses of Tokayev's Kazakhstan: The listening state?|date=17 September 2019|website=Atlantic Council|language=en-US|access-date=7 April 2020|archive-date=20 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190920081417/https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/commentary/long-take/first-glimpses-of-tokayevs-kazakhstan/|url-status=live}} A law will be passed to allow representatives from other parties to hold chair positions on some Parliamentary committees, to foster alternative views and opinions.{{when|date=March 2022}} The minimum membership threshold needed to register a political party will be reduced from 40,000 to 20,000 members. Special places for peaceful rallies in central areas will be allocated and a new draft law outlining the rights and obligations of organisers, participants and observers will be passed. In an effort to increase public safety, President Tokayev has strengthened the penalties for those who commit crimes against individuals.

On 17 September 2022, Tokayev signed a decree that limits presidential tenure to one term of seven years.{{Cite web |title=Kazakhstan limits presidential term, renames capital |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/9/17/kazakhstan-limits-presidential-term-renames-capital |access-date=2022-12-21 |website=aljazeera.com |language=en |archive-date=17 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220917174621/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/9/17/kazakhstan-limits-presidential-term-renames-capital |url-status=live }} He furthermore announced the preparation of a new reform package to "decentralize" and "distribute" power between government institutions. The reform package also seeks to modify the electoral system and increase the decision-making authorities of Kazakhstan's regions.{{Cite web |date=2022-11-18 |title=Tokayev bites the reform bullet |url=https://www.eastasiaforum.org/2022/11/19/tokayev-bites-the-reform-bullet/ |access-date=2022-12-21 |website=East Asia Forum |language=en |archive-date=21 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221221081643/https://www.eastasiaforum.org/2022/11/19/tokayev-bites-the-reform-bullet/ |url-status=live }} The powers of the parliament were expanded at the expense of those of the president, relatives of whom are now also barred from holding government positions, while the Constitutional Court was restored and the death penalty abolished.{{Cite web |title=Kazakhstan: Voters back reforms to reject founder's legacy |url=https://www.dw.com/en/kazakhstan-voters-back-reforms-to-reject-founders-legacy/a-62037144 |access-date=2022-12-21 |website=dw.com |language=en |archive-date=21 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221221081812/https://www.dw.com/en/kazakhstan-voters-back-reforms-to-reject-founders-legacy/a-62037144 |url-status=live }}

{{Main|Regions of Kazakhstan|Districts of Kazakhstan}}

Kazakhstan is divided into seventeen regions ({{langx|kk|облыстар}}, {{lang|kk-latn|oblystar}}; {{langx|ru|link=no|области}}, {{lang|ru-latn|oblasti}}) and four cities independent of their geographic region. The regions are subdivided into 177 districts ({{langx|kk|аудандар}}, {{lang|kk-latn|audandar}}; {{langx|ru|link=no|районы}}, {{lang|ru-latn|rayony}}).{{cite web|title=Kazakhstan, Unitary County|url=https://www.oecd.org/regional/regional-policy/profile-Kazakhzstan.pdf|publisher=www.oecd.org|access-date=6 February 2018|url-status=deviated|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180206190320/https://www.oecd.org/regional/regional-policy/profile-Kazakhzstan.pdf|archive-date=6 February 2018}} The districts are further subdivided into rural districts at the lowest level of administration, which include all rural settlements and villages without an associated municipal government.{{cite web|title=On Administrative-Territorial Division of the Republic of Kazakhstan, The Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan dated 8 December 1993|url=http://adilet.zan.kz/eng/docs/Z930004200_|website=Adilet|publisher=Ministry of Justice of the Republic of Kazakhstan Republican Center of Legal Information|access-date=7 February 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180207124434/http://adilet.zan.kz/eng/docs/Z930004200_|archive-date=7 February 2018}}

{{anchor|special status cities}}

The cities of Almaty, Astana and Shymkent have status "state importance" and do not belong to any region. The city of Baikonur has a special status because it is being leased until 2050 to Russia for the Baikonur cosmodrome.[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/kazakhstan/ Kazakhstan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109132304/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/kazakhstan |date=9 January 2021 }} . CIA World Factbook. In June 2018 the city of Şymkent became a "city of republican significance".{{cite web |url=http://www.akorda.kz/ru/events/akorda_news/akorda_other_events/publichnoe-podpisanie-ukaza-o-nekotoryh-voprosah-administrativno-territorialnogo-ustroistva-respubliki-kazahstan |script-title=ru:Публичное подписание Указа "О некоторых вопросах административно-территориального устройства Республики Казахстан" |trans-title=Public signing of the Decree "On some issues of the administrative and territorial structure of the Republic of Kazakhstan" |date=19 June 2018 |publisher=President of Kazakhstan |language=ru |access-date=21 June 2018 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20180620020328/http://www.akorda.kz/ru/events/akorda_news/akorda_other_events/publichnoe-podpisanie-ukaza-o-nekotoryh-voprosah-administrativno-territorialnogo-ustroistva-respubliki-kazahstan |archive-date=20 June 2018 |url-status=live }}

Each region is headed by an äkim (regional governor) appointed by the president. District äkimi are appointed by regional akims. Kazakhstan's government relocated its capital from Almaty, established under the Soviet Union, to Astana on 10 December 1997.{{Cite web|title=Kazakhstan renames capital to honour ex-leader|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/3/23/kazakhstan-renames-capital-to-honour-ex-leader|access-date=2021-01-05|website=aljazeera.com|language=en|archive-date=8 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210108232741/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/3/23/kazakhstan-renames-capital-to-honour-ex-leader|url-status=live}}

Municipalities exist at each level of administrative division in Kazakhstan. Cities of republican, regional, and district significance are designated as urban inhabited localities; all others are designated rural. At the highest level are the cities of Almaty and Astana, which are classified as cities of republican significance on the administrative level equal to that of a region. At the intermediate level are cities of regional significance on the administrative level equal to that of a district. Cities of these two levels may be divided into city districts. At the lowest level are cities of district significance, and over two-thousand villages and rural settlements ({{lang|ru-latn|aul}}) on the administrative level equal to that of rural districts.

{{Largest cities

| country = Kazakhstan

| stat_ref = {{Cite web|url=http://stat.gov.kz/api/getFile/?docId=ESTAT305821|title=Обложка|website=stat.gov.kz|access-date=7 December 2021|archive-date=13 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200613081608/http://stat.gov.kz/api/getFile/?docId=ESTAT305821|url-status=dead}}

| list_by_pop =

| div_name = Region

| div_link =

|city_1 = Almaty

|div_1 = Almaty

|pop_1 = 1,854,656

|img_1 = View of Almaty from the hills.png

|city_2 = Astana

|div_2 = Astana

|pop_2 = 1,078,384

|img_2 = Astana 020000, Kazakhstan - panoramio (15).jpg

|city_3 = Şymkent

|div_3 = Shymkent{{!}}Shymkent

|pop_3 = 1,009,086

|img_3 = Unnamed Road, Kazakhstan - panoramio (44).jpg

|city_4 = Qarağandy

|div_4 = Qarağandy Region{{!}}Qarağandy

|pop_4 = 497,712

|img_4 = Qaraghandy, Kazakhstan.jpg

|city_5 = Aqtobe

|div_5 = Aqtobe Region{{!}}Aqtobe

|pop_5 = 487,994

|city_6 = Taraz

|div_6 = Jambyl Region{{!}}Jambyl

|pop_6 = 357,791

|city_7 = Pavlodar

|div_7 = Pavlodar Region{{!}}Pavlodar

|pop_7 = 333,989

|city_8 = Öskemen

|div_8 = East Kazakhstan Region{{!}}East Kazakhstan

|pop_8 = 331,614

|city_9 = Semey

|div_9 = Abai Region{{!}}Abai

|pop_9 = 323,138

|city_10 = Atyrau

|div_10 = Atyrau Region{{!}}Atyrau

|pop_10 = 269,720

}}

{{Main|Foreign relations of Kazakhstan}}

File:Dmitry Medvedev in South Korea, March 2012-15.jpeg with U.S. President Barack Obama and Russian President Dmitry Medvedev in 2012]]

Kazakhstan is a member of the Commonwealth of Independent States, the Economic Cooperation Organization and the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. The nations of Kazakhstan, Russia, Belarus, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan established the Eurasian Economic Community in 2000, to revive earlier efforts to harmonise trade tariffs and to create a free trade zone under a customs union. On 1 December 2007, it was announced that Kazakhstan had been chosen to chair the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe for the year 2010. Kazakhstan was elected a member of the UN Human Rights Council for the first time on 12 November 2012.{{cite news |url=http://en.tengrinews.kz/politics_sub/Kazakhstan-became-member-of-UN-Human-Rights-Council--14431/ |title=Kazakhstan became member of UN Human Rights Council |work=Tengrinews.kz English |date=13 November 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101051159/http://en.tengrinews.kz/politics_sub/Kazakhstan-became-member-of-UN-Human-Rights-Council--14431/ |archive-date=1 January 2016}}

Kazakhstan is also a member of the United Nations, Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council, Turkic Council, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC). It is an active participant in the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation Partnership for Peace program.{{cite web|author=North Atlantic Treaty Organization|title=Signatures of Partnership for Peace Framework Document|date=5 October 2006|url=http://www.nato.int/pfp/sig-cntr.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061129213256/http://www.nato.int/pfp/sig-cntr.htm|archive-date=29 November 2006}}

In 1999, Kazakhstan had applied for observer status at the Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly. The official response of the Assembly was that because Kazakhstan is partially located in Europe,{{cite web|url=http://assembly.coe.int/nw/xml/XRef/X2H-Xref-ViewHTML.asp?FileID=9998|title=Situation in Kazakhstan and its relations with the Council of Europe|last=Iwiński|first=Tadeusz|date=7 July 2006|website=Council of Europe – Parliamentary Assembly|access-date=14 February 2020|quote=For its part, the Assembly might decide, already at this stage, to interpret Rule 59 of its Rules of procedure, concerning special guests, in such a way as to include the Eurasian States. Two Council of Europe member States, Turkey and Russia, belong geographically to both Europe and Asia and are therefore Eurasian. Strictly speaking, the three South Caucasus States, Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia are located in Asia, yet their membership of political Europe is no longer in doubt. [...] This being the case, Kazakhstan, as a Eurasian State participating in the OSCE and a signatory to the International covenant on civil and political rights and the International covenant on economic, social and cultural rights, would meet the criteria laid down in Rule 59, making it eligible to apply for special guest status with the Assembly.|archive-date=9 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170909233442/http://assembly.coe.int/nw/xml/XRef/X2H-Xref-ViewHTML.asp?FileID=9998|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=https://isdp.eu/content/uploads/2017/10/2017-cornell-engvall-kazakhstan-in-europe-why-not.pdf|title=Kazakhstan in Europe: Why Not?|last1=Cornell|first1=Svante|last2=Engvall|first2=Johan|date=2017|website=Institute for Security & Development Policy|access-date=15 February 2020|quote=However, by 2006, a Rapporteur for the Political Affairs Committee concluded that because of Kazakhstan's nature as a European country, the country should be considered 'eligible to apply for a special guest status.'|archive-date=24 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201024154030/https://isdp.eu/content/uploads/2017/10/2017-cornell-engvall-kazakhstan-in-europe-why-not.pdf|url-status=live}} it could apply for full membership, but that it would not be granted any status whatsoever at the council until its democracy and human rights records improved.

Since independence in 1991, Kazakhstan has pursued what is known as the "multi-vector foreign policy" ({{langx|kk|көпвекторлы сыртқы саясат|köpvektorly syrtqy saiasat }}), seeking equally good relations with its two large neighbours, Russia and China, as well as with the United States and the rest of the Western world.{{cite news |last=Blank |first=Stephen |title=Kazakhstan's Foreign Policy in a Time of Turmoil |publisher=EurasiaNet |date=27 April 2005 |url=http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav042705.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304045839/http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav042705.shtml |archive-date=4 March 2016 |access-date=9 April 2009 }}{{cite news |last=Cohen |first=Ariel |title=Kazakh foreign minister insists balanced foreign policy remains intact |publisher=Business News Europe |date=7 October 2008 |url=http://www.businessneweurope.eu/story1291 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090817020006/http://www.businessneweurope.eu/story1291 |archive-date=17 August 2009}} Russia leases approximately {{convert|6000|km2|0|abbr=out}} of territory enclosing the Baikonur Cosmodrome space launch site in south central Kazakhstan, where the first man was launched into space as well as Soviet space shuttle Buran and the well-known space station Mir.

On 11 April 2010, presidents Nazarbayev and Obama met at the Nuclear Security Summit in Washington, D.C., and discussed strengthening the strategic partnership between the United States and Kazakhstan. They pledged to intensify bilateral co-operation to promote nuclear safety and non-proliferation, regional stability in Central Asia, economic prosperity, and universal values.[https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/joint-statement-meeting-between-president-obama-and-kazakhstan-president-nazarbayev Joint Statement on the meeting between President Obama and Kazakhstan president Nazarbayev | The White House] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170216172644/https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/joint-statement-meeting-between-president-obama-and-kazakhstan-president-nazarbayev |date=16 February 2017 }}. Whitehouse.gov (11 April 2010). Retrieved 14 January 2013.

Since 2014, the Kazakhstani government has been bidding for a non-permanent member seat on the UN Security Council for 2017–2018.{{cite web|title=Kazakhstan, UN Continue Building on Two-Decades of Cooperation|url=http://astanatimes.com/2014/10/kazakhstan-un-continue-building-two-decades-cooperation/|website=Astanatimes.com|date=27 October 2014 |access-date=14 February 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160219170610/http://astanatimes.com/2014/10/kazakhstan-un-continue-building-two-decades-cooperation/|archive-date=19 February 2016}} On 28 June 2016 Kazakhstan was elected as a non-permanent member to serve on the UN Security Council for a two-year term.{{cite web|title=Sweden, Bolivia, Ethiopia and Kazakhstan elected to Security Council|url=https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=54350#.WDczqbXXfYU|website=un.org| date=28 June 2016 |access-date=23 November 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161125045313/http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=54350#.WDczqbXXfYU|archive-date=25 November 2016}}

File:Shanghai Cooperation Organization member states Summit gets underway in Samarkand 02.jpg, Xi Jinping and other leaders at the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation summit in Samarkand, 16 September 2022]]

Kazakhstan has supported UN peacekeeping missions in Haiti, Western Sahara, and Côte d'Ivoire.{{cite news|title=Kazakh peacekeepers in Western Sahara|url=http://en.tengrinews.kz/military/Kazakh-peacekeepers-in-Western-Sahara-257039/|publisher=Tengrinews|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141108204101/http://en.tengrinews.kz/military/Kazakh-peacekeepers-in-Western-Sahara-257039/|archive-date=8 November 2014}} In March 2014, the Ministry of Defense chose 20 Kazakhstani military men as observers for the UN peacekeeping missions. The military personnel, ranking from captain to colonel, had to go through specialised UN training; they had to be fluent in English and skilled in using specialised military vehicles.

In 2014, Kazakhstan gave Ukraine humanitarian aid during the conflict with Russian-backed rebels. In October 2014, Kazakhstan donated $30,000 to the International Committee of the Red Cross's humanitarian effort in Ukraine. In January 2015, to help the humanitarian crisis, Kazakhstan sent $400,000 of aid to Ukraine's southeastern regions.{{cite news|title=Kazakhstan delivers humanitarian aid to Ukraine |url=http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/agencia-efe/150111/kazakhstan-delivers-humanitarian-aid-ukraine |work=Global Post |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150205230451/https://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/agencia-efe/150111/kazakhstan-delivers-humanitarian-aid-ukraine |archive-date=5 February 2015}} President Nazarbayev said of the war in Ukraine, "The fratricidal war has brought true devastation to eastern Ukraine, and it is a common task to stop the war there, strengthen Ukraine's independence and secure territorial integrity of Ukraine."{{cite news|title=Nazarbayev Offers to Mediate in Ukraine, Stresses Kazakhstan's Economic Resilience|url=http://astanatimes.com/2014/12/nazarbayev-offers-mediate-ukraine-stresses-kazakhstans-economic-resilience/|work=The Astana Times|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208182750/http://astanatimes.com/2014/12/nazarbayev-offers-mediate-ukraine-stresses-kazakhstans-economic-resilience/|archive-date=8 December 2015}} Experts believe that no matter how the Ukraine crisis develops, Kazakhstan's relations with the European Union will remain normal.{{cite web|title=Nazarbayev as Mediator| work=Carnegie Moscow Center |url=http://carnegie.ru/commentary/?fa=57771|publisher=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace Moscow Center|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208144059/http://carnegie.ru/commentary/?fa=57771|archive-date=8 December 2015 | last1=Malashenko | first1=Alexey }} It is believed that Nazarbayev's mediation is positively received by both Russia and Ukraine.

Kazakhstan's Ministry of Foreign Affairs released a statement on 26 January 2015: "We are firmly convinced that there is no alternative to peace negotiations as a way to resolve the crisis in south-eastern Ukraine."{{cite news|title=Kazakhstan Urges Peaceful Resolution to Ukraine Conflict, Reiterates Minsk Agreements|url=http://astanatimes.com/2015/01/kazakhstan-urges-peaceful-resolution-ukraine-conflict-reiterates-minsk-agreements/|work=The Astana Times|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208154047/http://astanatimes.com/2015/01/kazakhstan-urges-peaceful-resolution-ukraine-conflict-reiterates-minsk-agreements/|archive-date=8 December 2015}} In 2018, Kazakhstan signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.{{cite web |url=https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVI-9&chapter=26&clang=_en |title=Chapter XXVI: Disarmament – No. 9 Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons |publisher=United Nations Treaty Collection |date=7 July 2017 |access-date=16 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190806220546/https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVI-9&chapter=26&clang=_en |archive-date=6 August 2019 |url-status=live }}

File:Putin-Tokayev meeting (2022-11-28) 01.jpg with Russian President Vladimir Putin, 28 November 2022]]

On 6 March 2020, the Concept of the Foreign Policy of Kazakhstan for 2020–2030 was announced. The document outlines the following main points:

• An open, predictable and consistent foreign policy of the country, which is progressive in nature and maintains its endurance by continuing the course of the First President – the country at a new stage of development;
• Protection of human rights, development of humanitarian diplomacy and environmental protection;
• Promotion of the country's economic interests in the international arena, including the implementation of state policy to attract investment;
• Maintaining international peace and security;
• Development of regional and multilateral diplomacy, which primarily involves strengthening mutually beneficial ties with key partners – Russia, China, the United States, Central Asian states and the EU countries, as well as through multilateral structures – the United Nations, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, the Commonwealth of Independent States, and others.{{cite web|url=https://www.inform.kz/en/article/3622809|title=President approves new concept of Kazakhstan's foreign policy for 2020–2030|last=INFORM.KZ|date=9 March 2020|website=inform.kz|language=ru|access-date=7 April 2020|archive-date=7 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200407103930/https://www.inform.kz/en/article/3622809|url-status=live}}

File:CSTO Map.svg (CSTO)]]

Kazakhstan's memberships of international organisations include:

• Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)
• Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO)
• Shanghai Cooperation Organisation
• Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council
• Individual Partnership Action Plan, with NATO, Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Moldova, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro
• Turkic Council and the TÜRKSOY community. (The national language, Kazakh, is related to the other Turkic languages, with which it shares cultural and historical ties)
• United Nations
• Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)
• UNESCO, where Kazakhstan is a member of its World Heritage Committee{{cite web |title=Twelve new members elected to World Heritage Committee |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1082/ |publisher=UNESCO |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160218004512/https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1082 |archive-date=18 February 2016}}
• Nuclear Suppliers Group as a participating government
• World Trade Organization{{cite web|title=Kazakhstan and the WTO|url=https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/kazakhstan_e.htm|website=World Trade Organization|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701122807/https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/kazakhstan_e.htm|archive-date=1 July 2017}}
• Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC){{cite web|title=Member States|url=http://www.oic-oci.org/states/?lan=en|website=OIC|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170609063319/http://www.oic-oci.org/states/?lan=en|archive-date=9 June 2017}}

Based on these principles, following Russia's invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, Kazakhstan has increasingly pursued an independent foreign policy, defined by its own foreign policy objectives and ambitions{{Cite web |last=Sanchez |first=Wilder Alejandro |date=May 2020 |title=A Rising Global Player: Kazakhstan's Foreign Policy in the 2020s |url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/media/uploads/documents/KI_200514_cable%2051_v1.pdf |website=Wilson Center |access-date=21 December 2022 |archive-date=21 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221221082204/https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/media/uploads/documents/KI_200514_cable%2051_v1.pdf |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |last=Umarov |first=Temur |title=Kazakhstan Is Breaking Out of Russia's Grip |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/09/16/kazakhstan-russia-ukraine-war/ |access-date=2022-12-21 |website=Foreign Policy |date=16 September 2022 |language=en-US |archive-date=23 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221223102832/https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/09/16/kazakhstan-russia-ukraine-war/ |url-status=live }} through which the country attempts to balance its relations with "all the major powers and an equally principled aversion towards excessive dependence in any field upon any one of them, while also opening the country up economically to all who are willing to invest there."{{Cite web |title=Kazakhstan asserts its independent foreign policy |url=https://trendsresearch.org/insight/kazakhstan-asserts-its-independent-foreign-policy/ |access-date=2022-12-21 |website=trendsresearch.org |language=en |archive-date=21 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221221082345/https://trendsresearch.org/insight/kazakhstan-asserts-its-independent-foreign-policy/ |url-status=dead }}

Kazakhstan is the 59th most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024 Global Peace Index.{{Cite web|url=https://www.economicsandpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/GPI-2024-web.pdf|title=2024 Global Peace Index}}

{{Main|Armed Forces of the Republic of Kazakhstan}}

File:Kazakhstan Republican Guard.JPEG]]

File:A Kazakh Sukhoi Su-27P(modified).jpg]]

Most of Kazakhstan's military was inherited from the Soviet Armed Forces' Turkestan Military District. These units became the core of Kazakhstan's new military. It acquired all the units of the 40th Army (the former 32nd Army) and part of the 17th Army Corps, including six land-force divisions, storage bases, the 14th and 35th air-landing brigades, two rocket brigades, two artillery regiments, and a large amount of equipment that had been withdrawn from over the Urals after the signing of the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe. Since the late 20th century, the Kazakhstan Army has focused on expanding the number of its armoured units. Since 1990, armoured units have expanded from 500 to 1,613 in 2005.

The Kazakh air force is composed mostly of Soviet-era planes, including 41 MiG-29s, 44 MiG-31s, 37 Su-24s and 60 Su-27s. A small naval force is maintained on the Caspian Sea.{{Cite web|last=Putz|first=Catherine|title=Yes, Kazakhstan Has a Navy|url=https://thediplomat.com/2015/04/yes-kazakhstan-has-a-navy/|access-date=2021-01-05|website=thediplomat.com|language=en-US|archive-date=7 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107065311/https://thediplomat.com/2015/04/yes-kazakhstan-has-a-navy/|url-status=live}}

Kazakhstan sent 29 military engineers to Iraq to assist the US post-invasion mission in Iraq.{{Cite news |date=2008-10-21|title=Kazakhstan withdraws soldiers from Iraq|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-iraq-kazakhstan-idUSTRE49K4UL20081021|access-date=2021-01-05|archive-date=22 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222181157/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-iraq-kazakhstan-idUSTRE49K4UL20081021|url-status=live}} During the second Iraq War, Kazakhstani troops dismantled 4 million mines and other explosives, helped provide medical care to more than 5,000 coalition members and civilians, and purified {{convert|718|m3|abbr=out}} of water.{{cite web |title=Steppe Eagle military exercises cover broad spectrum of scenarios |url=http://www.kazakhembus.com/content/steppe-eagle-military-exercises-cover-broad-spectrum-scenarios |publisher=Central Asia Newswire |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208141550/http://www.kazakhembus.com/content/steppe-eagle-military-exercises-cover-broad-spectrum-scenarios |archive-date=8 December 2015}}

Kazakhstan's National Security Committee (UQK) was established on 13 June 1992. It includes the Service of Internal Security, Military Counterintelligence, Border Guard, several Commando units, and Foreign Intelligence (Barlau). The latter is considered the most important part of KNB. Its director is Nurtai Abykayev.

Since 2002, the joint tactical peacekeeping exercise "Steppe Eagle" has been hosted by the Kazakhstan government. "Steppe Eagle" focuses on building coalitions and gives participating nations the opportunity to work together. During the Steppe Eagle exercises, the KAZBAT peacekeeping battalion operates within a multinational force under a unified command within peacekeeping operations, with NATO and the U.S. Military.{{cite news|title=Steppe Eagle – 2015 Multinational Peacekeeping Exercises to be Held in April and June|url=http://astanatimes.com/2015/02/steppe-eagle-2015-multinational-peacekeeping-exercises-held-april-june/|work=The Astana Times|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208095229/http://astanatimes.com/2015/02/steppe-eagle-2015-multinational-peacekeeping-exercises-held-april-june/|archive-date=8 December 2015}}

In December 2013, Kazakhstan announced it will send officers to support United Nations Peacekeeping forces in Haiti, Western Sahara, Ivory Coast and Liberia.{{cite news |title=Kazakhstan to Join U.N. Peacekeeping for First Time |url=https://www.nytimes.com/reuters/2013/12/20/world/20reuters-kazakhstan-un.html?partner=rss&emc=rss&_r=0 |work=The New York Times}}

{{Main|Human rights in Kazakhstan}}

The Economist Intelligence Unit has consistently ranked Kazakhstan as an "authoritarian regime" in its Democracy Index, ranking it 128th out of 167 countries for 2020.{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/graphic-detail/2021/02/02/global-democracy-has-a-very-bad-year|title=Global democracy has a very bad year|newspaper=The Economist|date=2 February 2021|access-date=22 March 2021|archive-date=26 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210726221509/https://www.economist.com/graphic-detail/2021/02/02/global-democracy-has-a-very-bad-year|url-status=live}}{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/graphic-detail/2020/01/22/global-democracy-has-another-bad-year|title=Global democracy has another bad year|newspaper=The Economist|date=22 January 2020|access-date=22 March 2021|archive-date=23 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210323135217/https://www.economist.com/graphic-detail/2020/01/22/global-democracy-has-another-bad-year|url-status=live}}

Kazakhstan was ranked 142nd out of 180 countries in Reporters Without Borders' Press Freedom Index for 2024; previously it ranked 134th for 2023.{{cite web|url=https://rsf.org/en/kazakhstan|title=Kazakhstan|work=Reporters Without Borders|access-date=8 June 2022|archive-date=3 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303184703/https://rsf.org/en/kazakhstan|url-status=live}}

Kazakhstan's human rights situation has been described as poor by independent observers. In its 2015 report of human rights in the country, Human Rights Watch said that "Kazakhstan heavily restricts freedom of assembly, speech, and religion."Human Rights Watch, [https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2015/country-chapters/kazakhstan World Report 2015: Kazakhstan] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161028020227/https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2015/country-chapters/kazakhstan |date=28 October 2016 }}, accessed October 2015. It has also described the government as authoritarian.{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/06/05/kazakhstan-elections-and-transition-wasnt|title=The Kazakhstan elections and the transition that wasn't|website=hrw.org|date=5 June 2019|access-date=22 March 2021|archive-date=1 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301011034/https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/06/05/kazakhstan-elections-and-transition-wasnt|url-status=live}} In 2014, authorities closed newspapers, jailed or fined dozens of people after peaceful but unsanctioned protests, and fined or detained worshipers for practising religion outside state controls. Government critics, including opposition leader Vladimir Kozlov, remained in detention after unfair trials. In mid-2014, Kazakhstan adopted new criminal, criminal executive, criminal procedural, and administrative codes, and a new law on trade unions, which contain articles restricting fundamental freedoms and are incompatible with international standards. Torture remains common in places of detention."Human Rights Watch, [https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2015/country-chapters/kazakhstan World Report 2015: Kazakhstan] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161028020227/https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2015/country-chapters/kazakhstan |date=28 October 2016 }}, accessed September 2016. However, Kazakhstan has achieved significant progress in reducing the prison population.{{Citation|last1=Trochev|first1=Alexei|title=Trials and Tribulations: Kazakhstan's Criminal Justice Reforms|date=2019|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-981-13-6693-2_5|work=Kazakhstan and the Soviet Legacy|pages=75–99|editor-last=Caron|editor-first=Jean-François|place=Singapore|publisher=Springer Singapore|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-981-13-6693-2_5|isbn=978-981-13-6692-5|access-date=2020-12-04|last2=Slade|first2=Gavin|s2cid=159320888}} The 2016 Human Rights Watch report commented that Kazakhstan "took few meaningful steps to tackle a worsening human rights record in 2015, maintaining a focus on economic development over political reform."Human Rights Watch, [https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2016/country-chapters/kazakhstan World Report 2016: Kazakhstan] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160914160847/https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2016/country-chapters/kazakhstan |date=14 September 2016 }}, accessed September 2016. Some critics of the government have been arrested for allegedly spreading false information about the COVID-19 pandemic in Kazakhstan.{{cite news |title=Kazakh Opposition Activist Detained For 'Spreading False Information' |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakhstan-suraev-opposition-activist-detained-false-information-toqaev/30563253.html |work=Human Rights Watch |date=18 April 2020 |access-date=2 May 2020 |archive-date=28 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728232222/https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakhstan-suraev-opposition-activist-detained-false-information-toqaev/30563253.html |url-status=live }} Various police reforms, like creation of local police service and zero-tolerance policing, aimed at bringing police closer to local communities have not improved cooperation between policemen and ordinary citizens.{{Cite journal|last1=Slade|first1=Gavin|last2=Trochev|first2=Alexei|last3=Talgatova|first3=Malika|date=2020-12-02|title=The Limits of Authoritarian Modernisation: Zero Tolerance Policing in Kazakhstan|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09668136.2020.1844867|journal=Europe-Asia Studies|volume=73|language=en|pages=178–199|doi=10.1080/09668136.2020.1844867|s2cid=229420067|issn=0966-8136|access-date=4 December 2020|archive-date=19 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210119120806/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09668136.2020.1844867|url-status=live}}

According to a U.S. government report released in 2014, in Kazakhstan:

The law does not require police to inform detainees that they have the right to an attorney, and police did not do so. Human rights observers alleged that law enforcement officials dissuaded detainees from seeing an attorney, gathered evidence through preliminary questioning before a detainee's attorney arrived, and in some cases used corrupt defense attorneys to gather evidence. [...]

The law does not adequately provide for an independent judiciary. The executive branch sharply limited judicial independence. Prosecutors enjoyed a quasi-judicial role and had the authority to suspend court decisions. Corruption was evident at every stage of the judicial process. Although judges were among the most highly paid government employees, lawyers and human rights monitors alleged that judges, prosecutors, and other officials solicited bribes in exchange for favorable rulings in the majority of criminal cases.[https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/humanrightsreport/index.htm?year=2013&dlid=220395#wrapper "Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2013: Kazakhstan"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200618054438/https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/humanrightsreport/index.htm?year=2013&dlid=220395#wrapper |date=18 June 2020 }}, released by the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor. Retrieved 1 November 2015.

Kazakhstan's global rank in the World Justice Project's 2015 Rule of Law Index was 65 out of 102; the country scored well on "Order and Security" (global rank 32/102), and poorly on "Constraints on Government Powers" (global rank 93/102), "Open Government" (85/102) and "Fundamental Rights" (84/102, with a downward trend marking a deterioration in conditions).{{cite web|title=Rule of Law Index 2015|url=http://data.worldjusticeproject.org/#groups/KAZ|website=World Justice Project|access-date=14 February 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150429071718/http://data.worldjusticeproject.org/#groups/KAZ|archive-date=29 April 2015}}

The ABA Rule of Law Initiative of the American Bar Association has programs to train justice sector professionals in Kazakhstan.{{cite web |title=Rule of Law in Kazakhstan |url=http://www.americanbar.org/advocacy/rule_of_law/where_we_work/europe_eurasia/kazakhstan.html |publisher=American Bar Association |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303225822/http://www.americanbar.org/advocacy/rule_of_law/where_we_work/europe_eurasia/kazakhstan.html |archive-date=3 March 2016}}{{cite web |title=Kazakhstan Background |url=http://www.americanbar.org/advocacy/rule_of_law/where_we_work/europe_eurasia/kazakhstan/background.html |publisher=American Bar Association |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303231239/http://www.americanbar.org/advocacy/rule_of_law/where_we_work/europe_eurasia/kazakhstan/background.html |archive-date=3 March 2016}}

Kazakhstan's Supreme Court has taken steps to modernise and to increase transparency and oversight over the country's legal system. With funding from the US Agency for International Development, the ABA Rule of Law Initiative began a new program in April 2012 to strengthen the independence and accountability of Kazakhstan's judiciary.{{cite web|title=Judicial Reform|url=http://www.americanbar.org/advocacy/rule_of_law/where_we_work/europe_eurasia/kazakhstan/news.html|publisher=American Bar Association|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303230348/http://www.americanbar.org/advocacy/rule_of_law/where_we_work/europe_eurasia/kazakhstan/news.html|archive-date=3 March 2016}}

In an effort to increase transparency in the criminal justice and court system, and improve human rights, Kazakhstan intended to digitise all investigative, prosecutorial and court records by 2018.{{cite news|title=Kazakh criminal justice system to be digitised by 2018|url=https://astanatimes.com/2017/11/kazakh-criminal-justice-system-to-be-digitised-by-2018/|agency=The Astana Times|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201034931/https://astanatimes.com/2017/11/kazakh-criminal-justice-system-to-be-digitised-by-2018/|archive-date=1 December 2017}} Many criminal cases are closed before trial on the basis of reconciliation between the defendant and the victim because they simplify the work of the law-enforcement officers, release the defendant from punishment, and pay little regard to the victim's rights.{{Cite journal|last=Trochev|first=Alexei|date=2017|title=Between Convictions and Reconciliations: Processing Criminal Cases in Kazakhstani Courts|url=https://www.lawschool.cornell.edu/research/ILJ/upload/Trochev-final.pdf|journal=Cornell Journal of International Law|volume=50|pages=107–145|access-date=4 December 2020|archive-date=20 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200720082506/https://www.lawschool.cornell.edu/research/ILJ/upload/Trochev-final.pdf|url-status=live}}

Homosexuality has been legal in Kazakhstan since 1997, although it is still socially unacceptable in most areas.{{cite book|title=Kazakhstan |date=7 September 2018 |publisher=Bradt Travel Guides; Third edition |isbn=978-1-78477-092-1|page= 40 |author1=Paul Brummell }} Discrimination against LGBT people in Kazakhstan is widespread.{{cite news |title=Kazakhstan: LGBT Community Living in Fear |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2015/07/23/kazakhstan-lgbt-community-living-fear |work=Human Rights Watch |date=23 July 2015 |access-date=16 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190727005543/https://www.hrw.org/news/2015/07/23/kazakhstan-lgbt-community-living-fear |archive-date=27 July 2019 |url-status=live }}{{cite news |title=Life in the Closet: The LGBT Community in Central Asia |url=https://thediplomat.com/2019/01/life-in-the-closet-the-lgbt-community-in-central-asia/ |work=The Diplomat |date=29 January 2019 |access-date=16 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190802051901/https://thediplomat.com/2019/01/life-in-the-closet-the-lgbt-community-in-central-asia/ |archive-date=2 August 2019 |url-status=live }}

{{Main|Economy of Kazakhstan}}

File:Kazakstan GDP per capita 1973–2022.png

In 2018, Kazakhstan had a GDP of $179.332 billion and an annual growth rate of 4.5 percent. Per capita, Kazakhstan's GDP stood at $9,686.{{Cite web|url=https://stat.gov.kz/official/dynamic|title=stat.gov.kz|website=stat.gov.kz|access-date=7 April 2020|archive-date=17 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191017035705/https://stat.gov.kz/official/dynamic|url-status=live}} Buoyed by high world crude oil prices, GDP growth figures were between 8.9% and 13.5% from 2000 to 2007 before decreasing to 1 to 3 percent during the 2008 financial crisis, and then rising again from 2010.{{cite web|url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110531180249/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG |archive-date=31 May 2011 |title=GDP growth (annual %) |work=The World Bank. World Bank.org |access-date=1 June 2010 |url-status=live}} Other major exports of Kazakhstan include wheat, textiles, and livestock. Kazakhstan is a leading exporter of uranium.{{cite web|url=http://www.kazatomprom.kz/en/news/2/%E2%84%96_1_in_the_world |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722142342/http://www.kazatomprom.kz/en/news/2/%E2%84%96_1_in_the_world |archive-date=22 July 2011 |title=№ 1 in the world |work=The Atomic Company Kazatomprom, Kazatomprom.kz |date=30 December 2009 |access-date=1 June 2010 |url-status=dead}}{{cite web |url=https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/others/uranium-in-central-asia.aspx#:~:text=Uranium%20and%20Nuclear%20Power%20in%20Kazakhstan%20%28Updated%20June,2019%2C%20Kazakhstan%20produced%2043%25%20of%20the%20world%27s%20uranium. |title=Uranium and Nuclear Power in Kazakhstan |publisher=world-nuclear.org |date=June 2022 |access-date=13 Jan 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130326045234/http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Country-Profiles/Countries-G-N/Kazakhstan/ |archive-date=26 March 2013}}

Kazakhstan's economy grew by 4.6 percent in 2014.{{cite news|title=Kazakhstan: The Latest Emerging Opportunity|url=http://www.bricplusnews.com/business/kazakhstan-the-latest-emerging-opportunity/|publisher=BRIC Plus|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150620181513/http://www.bricplusnews.com/business/kazakhstan-the-latest-emerging-opportunity/|archive-date=20 June 2015}} The country experienced a slowdown in economic growth from 2014 sparked by falling oil prices and the effects of the Ukrainian crisis.[http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/c4a55aa6-dd04-11e3-b73c-00144feabdc0.html#axzz3mCiNSOzr Kazakhs battle to stave off chill blowing in from Russian steppe] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200519084837/http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/c4a55aa6-dd04-11e3-b73c-00144feabdc0.html#axzz3mCiNSOzr |date=19 May 2020 }}, Financial Times, 21 May 2014 The country devalued its currency by 19 percent in February 2014."Tenge Fever", The Economist, 22 February 2014 Another 22 percent devaluation occurred in August 2015.[https://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/21/business/international/kazakhstans-currency-plunges.html Kazakhstan's currency plunges] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205174742/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/21/business/international/kazakhstans-currency-plunges.html |date=5 February 2017 }}, The New York Times, 21 August 2015 Kazakhstan was the first former Soviet Republic to repay all of its debt to the International Monetary Fund, 7 years ahead of schedule.{{cite web|title=Kazakhstan profile|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/kazakhstan/47484.htm|website=State.gov|publisher=US State Department|access-date=14 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190804164708/https://2009-2017.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/kazakhstan/47484.htm|archive-date=4 August 2019|url-status=live}}

Kazakhstan weathered the 2008 financial crisis by combining fiscal relaxation with monetary stabilisation. In 2009, the government introduced large-scale support measures such as the recapitalisation of banks and support for the real estate and agricultural sectors, as well as for small and medium enterprises (SMEs). The total value of the stimulus programs amounted to $21 billion, or 20 per cent of the country's GDP, with $4 billion going to stabilise the financial sector.{{cite news|title=Kazakhstan unveils $21bn rescue package|url=http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/209897de-ba5a-11dd-aecd-0000779fd18c,Authorised=false.html?_i_location=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcms%2Fs%2F0%2F209897de-ba5a-11dd-aecd-0000779fd18c.html%3Fsiteedition%3Duk&siteedition=uk&_i_referer=#axzz3tPa3koLN|work=Financial Times|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016002103/http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/209897de-ba5a-11dd-aecd-0000779fd18c,Authorised=false.html?_i_location=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcms%2Fs%2F0%2F209897de-ba5a-11dd-aecd-0000779fd18c.html%3Fsiteedition%3Duk&siteedition=uk&_i_referer=#axzz3tPa3koLN|archive-date=16 October 2015}} During the global economic crisis, Kazakhstan's economy contracted by 1.2 percent in 2009, while the annual growth rate subsequently increased to 7.5 percent and 5 percent in 2011 and 2012, respectively.{{cite web|title=IMF Executive Board Article IV consultation1 with Kazakhstan|url=https://www.imf.org/external/np/sec/pr/2013/pr13308.htm|website=Imf.org|publisher=International Monetary Fund|access-date=14 February 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303183248/https://www.imf.org/external/np/sec/pr/2013/pr13308.htm|archive-date=3 March 2016}} Kazakhstan's government continued to follow a conservative fiscal policy by controlling budget spending and accumulating oil revenue savings in its Oil Fund – Samruk-Kazyna. The 2008 financial crisis forced Kazakhstan to increase its public borrowing to support the economy. Public debt increased to 13.4 per cent in 2013 from 8.7 per cent in 2008. Between 2012 and 2013, the government achieved an overall fiscal surplus of 4.5 per cent.{{cite web|title=Kazakhstan Profile|url=http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/kazakhstan|publisher=The World Bank|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140911201346/http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/kazakhstan|archive-date=11 September 2014}}

In March 2002, the U.S. Department of Commerce granted Kazakhstan market economy status under US trade law. This change in status recognised substantive market economy reforms in the areas of currency convertibility, wage rate determination, openness to foreign investment, and government control over the means of production and allocation of resources. In September 2002, Kazakhstan became the first country in the CIS to receive an investment grade credit rating from a major international credit rating agency.{{Cite book |title=Kazakhstan Investment and Business Guide Volume 1 Strategic and Practical Information |publisher=IBP, Inc. |year=2015 |isbn=9781514528488 |pages=51}} By late December 2003, Kazakhstan's gross foreign debt was about $22.9 billion. Total governmental debt was $4.2 billion, 14 percent of GDP. There has been a reduction in the ratio of debt to GDP. The ratio of total governmental debt to GDP was 21.7 percent in 2000, 17.5 percent in 2001, and 15.4 percent in 2002. In 2019, it rose to 19.2 percent.{{Cite web|title=Fitch Affirms Kazakhstan at "BBB"; Outlook Stable|url=https://www.fitchratings.com/research/sovereigns/fitch-affirms-kazakhstan-at-bbb-outlook-stable-21-08-2020|access-date=2021-01-05|website=fitchratings.com|archive-date=8 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210108071514/https://www.fitchratings.com/research/sovereigns/fitch-affirms-kazakhstan-at-bbb-outlook-stable-21-08-2020|url-status=live}}

File:Yacht club in Aktau.jpg is Kazakhstan's only seaport on the Caspian Sea.]]

On 29 November 2003, the Law on Changes to Tax Code which reduced tax rates was adopted. The value added tax fell from 16% to 15%, the social tax, payable by all employers, from 21 percent to 20 percent, and the personal income tax from 30 percent to 20 percent. On 7 July 2006, the personal income tax was reduced even further to a flat rate of 5 percent for personal income in the form of dividends and 10 percent for other personal income. Kazakhstan furthered its reforms by adopting a new land code on 20 June 2003, and a new customs code on 5 April 2003.

Kazakhstan instituted a pension reform program in 1998. By January 2012, the pension assets were about $17 billion (KZT 2.5 trillion). There are 11 saving pension funds in the country. The State Accumulating Pension Fund, the only state-owned fund, was privatised in 2006. The country's unified financial regulatory agency oversees and regulates pension funds. The growing demand of pension funds for investment outlets triggered the development of the debt securities market. Pension fund capital is being invested almost exclusively in corporate and government bonds, including the government of Kazakhstan Eurobonds. The government of Kazakhstan was studying a project to create a unified national pension fund and transfer all the accounts from the private pension funds into it.{{cite news |title=Unified Pension Fund Recommended in Kazakhstan |url=http://gca.satrapia.com/+unified-pension-fund-recommended-in-kazakhstan+ |newspaper=The Gazette of Central Asia |date=23 January 2013 |publisher=Satrapia |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208121242/http://gca.satrapia.com/+unified-pension-fund-recommended-in-kazakhstan+ |archive-date=8 December 2015}}

Kazakhstan climbed to 41st on the 2018 Economic Freedom Index published by The Wall Street Journal and The Heritage Foundation.{{cite web|title=Economic Freedom Index|url=https://www.heritage.org/index/ranking |publisher=The Heritage Foundation |url-status=unfit|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171026110910/http://www.heritage.org/index/ranking|archive-date=26 October 2017}}

File:2013Kazakhstani imports.PNG

Kazakhstan's increased role in global trade and central positioning on the new Silk Road gave the country the potential to open its markets to billions of people.{{cite web|url=https://www.pri.org/stories/2020-09-14/chinas-new-silk-road-traverses-kazakhstan-some-kazakhs-are-skeptical-chinese|publisher=pri.org|title=China's new Silk Road traverses Kazakhstan. But some Kazakhs are skeptical of Chinese influence|date=14 September 2020 |access-date=2021-05-27|archive-date=8 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508141306/https://www.pri.org/stories/2020-09-14/chinas-new-silk-road-traverses-kazakhstan-some-kazakhs-are-skeptical-chinese|url-status=live}} Kazakhstan joined the World Trade Organization in 2015.{{cite web|url=https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/kazakhstan_e.htm|publisher=WTO.org|title=WTO: Kazakhstan|access-date=2021-05-28|archive-date=1 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701122807/https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/kazakhstan_e.htm|url-status=live}}

Kazakhstan's foreign trade turnover in 2018 was $93.5 billion, which is 19.7 percent more than in 2017. Export in 2018 reached $67 billion (up 25.7 percent in comparison to 2017) and import was $32.5 billion (up 9.9 percent in comparison to 2017).{{cite web |title=Kazakhstan's foreign trade turnover rises by 19.7% in 2018 |url=https://www.inform.kz/en/kazakhstan-s-foreign-trade-turnover-rises-by-19-7-in-2018_a3497852 |website=Kazinform |date=13 February 2019 |access-date=29 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191029200840/https://www.inform.kz/en/kazakhstan-s-foreign-trade-turnover-rises-by-19-7-in-2018_a3497852 |archive-date=29 October 2019 |url-status=live }} Exports accounted for 40.1 percent of Kazakhstan's gross domestic product (GDP) in 2018. Kazakhstan exports 800 products to 120 countries.{{cite web |title=Kazakhstan increased exports nearly 25 percent in 2018 |url=https://astanatimes.com/2019/04/kazakhstan-increased-exports-nearly-25-percent-in-2018/ |website=astanatimes.com |date=18 April 2019 |access-date=27 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190806005648/https://astanatimes.com/2019/04/kazakhstan-increased-exports-nearly-25-percent-in-2018/ |archive-date=6 August 2019 |url-status=live }}

{{Main|Agriculture in Kazakhstan}}

File:Песня жаворонка(3264-2448).jpg]]

Agriculture accounts for approximately 5 percent of Kazakhstan's GDP. Grain, potatoes, grapes, vegetables, melons and livestock are the most important agricultural commodities. Agricultural land occupies more than {{convert|846000|km2|sqmi}}. The available agricultural land consists of {{convert|205000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} of arable land and {{convert|611000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} of pasture and hay land. Over 80 percent of the country's total area is classified as agricultural land, including almost 70 percent occupied by pasture. Its arable land has the second highest availability per inhabitant (1.5 hectares).{{cite web|title=Arable Land per inhabitant World Bank database.|url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.ARBL.HA.PC|publisher=The World Bank|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150210004356/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.ARBL.HA.PC|archive-date=10 February 2015}}

Chief livestock products are dairy products, leather, meat, and wool. The country's major crops include wheat, barley, cotton, and rice. Wheat exports, a major source of hard currency, rank among the leading commodities in Kazakhstan's export trade. In 2003 Kazakhstan harvested 17.6 million tons of grain in gross, 2.8% higher compared to 2002. Kazakhstani agriculture still has many environmental problems from mismanagement during its years in the Soviet Union. Some Kazakh wine is produced in the mountains to the east of Almaty.{{Cite web|last=Shepard|first=Wade|title=How Kazakhstan Is Becoming The Next Frontier For World-Class Wine|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/wadeshepard/2016/02/29/could-kazakhstan-become-the-next-frontier-for-world-class-wine/|access-date=2021-01-05|website=Forbes |language=en|archive-date=7 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107122830/https://www.forbes.com/sites/wadeshepard/2016/02/29/could-kazakhstan-become-the-next-frontier-for-world-class-wine/|url-status=live}}

File:Caspian region oil and natural gas infrastructure.png in the Caspian Sea region.]]

Energy has been the leading economic sector. Production of crude oil and natural gas condensate from the oil and gas basins of Kazakhstan amounted to {{convert|79.2|e6t|e6LT e6ST|lk=out|abbr=off}} in 2012 up from {{convert|51.2|e6t|e6LT e6ST|abbr=off}} in 2003. Kazakhstan raised oil and gas condensate exports to 44.3 million tons in 2003, 13 percent higher than in 2002. Gas production in Kazakhstan in 2003, amounted to {{convert|13.9|e9m3|e9cuft|lk=out|abbr=off}}, up 22.7 percent compared to 2002, including natural gas production of {{convert|7.3|e9m3|e9cuft|abbr=off}}. Kazakhstan holds about {{convert|4|e9t|e9LT e9ST|abbr=off}} of proven recoverable oil reserves and {{convert|2000|km3|cumi|abbr=off}} of gas. Kazakhstan is the 19th largest oil-producing nation in the world.{{Cite web|title=Kazakhstan energy profile – Analysis|url=https://www.iea.org/reports/kazakhstan-energy-profile|access-date=2021-01-05|website=IEA|date=15 April 2020 |language=en-GB|archive-date=8 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210108085609/https://www.iea.org/reports/kazakhstan-energy-profile|url-status=live}} Kazakhstan's oil exports in 2003, were valued at more than $7 billion, representing 65 percent of overall exports and 24 percent of the GDP.

Major oil and gas fields and recoverable oil reserves are Tengiz with {{convert|7|Goilbbl|e9m3|abbr=off}}; Karachaganak with {{convert|8|Goilbbl|e9m3|abbr=off}} and {{convert|1350|km3|cumi|abbr=off}} of natural gas; and Kashagan with 7 to {{convert|9|Goilbbl|e9m3|abbr=off}}.

KazMunayGas (KMG), the national oil and gas company, was created in 2002 to represent the interests of the state in the oil and gas industry. The Tengiz Field was jointly developed in 1993 as a 40-year Tengizchevroil venture between Chevron Texaco (50 percent), US ExxonMobil (25 percent), KazMunayGas (20 percent), and LukArco (5 percent).{{Citation |title=Chevron-led Kazakh oil firm hits record output in 2013 |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/oil-kazakhstan-tengizchevroil-idUSL5N0L11CD20140127 |year=2014 |publication-place=International |publisher=Reuters |access-date=7 January 2022 |archive-date=7 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220107181047/https://www.reuters.com/article/oil-kazakhstan-tengizchevroil-idUSL5N0L11CD20140127 |url-status=live }} The Karachaganak natural gas and gas condensate field is being developed by BG, Agip, ChevronTexaco, and Lukoil.{{cite news

|url= http://www.ogj.com/articles/2012/06/karachaganak-field-agreement-takes-effect.html

|title= Karachaganak field agreement takes effect

|publisher= PennWell Corporation

|newspaper= Oil & Gas Journal

|date= 2012-06-28

|access-date= 7 January 2022

|archive-date= 7 January 2022

|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220107183535/https://www.ogj.com/articles/2012/06/karachaganak-field-agreement-takes-effect.html

|url-status= live

}} Also Chinese oil companies are involved in Kazakhstan's oil industry.{{cite news |title=Tracing the Chinese Footprints in Kazakhstan's Oil and Gas Industry |url=https://thediplomat.com/2020/12/tracing-the-chinese-footprints-in-kazakhstans-oil-and-gas-industry/ |work=The Diplomat |date=12 December 2020 |access-date=7 January 2022 |archive-date=7 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220107181048/https://thediplomat.com/2020/12/tracing-the-chinese-footprints-in-kazakhstans-oil-and-gas-industry/ |url-status=live }}

Kazakhstan launched the Green Economy Plan in 2013. It committed Kazakhstan to meet 50 percent of its energy needs from alternative and renewable sources by 2050.{{cite web |title=Kazakhstan: Green economy reforms gain momentum |url=https://www.eurasia.undp.org/content/rbec/en/home/presscenter/pressreleases/2018/kazakhstan--green-economy-reforms-gain-momentum.html |website=UNDP |access-date=27 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191127212947/https://www.eurasia.undp.org/content/rbec/en/home/presscenter/pressreleases/2018/kazakhstan--green-economy-reforms-gain-momentum.html |archive-date=27 November 2019 |url-status=live }} The green economy was projected to increase GDP by 3 percent and create some 500,000 jobs.{{Cite journal|last=Uyzbayeva|first=Aigerim|date=February 2015|title=Towards Achieving Energy Efficiency in Kazakhstan|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281963073|journal=International Conference on Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Technology (ICEERET2015)|volume=9|via=ResearchGate|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012043609/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281963073_Towards_Achieving_Energy_Efficicency_in_Kazakhstan|archive-date=12 October 2017}} The government set prices for energy produced from renewable sources. The price of 1 kilowatt-hour for energy produced by wind power plants was set at 22.68 tenge ($0.12), for 1 kilowatt-hour produced by small hydro-power plants 16.71 tenges ($0.09), and from biogas plants 32.23 tenges ($0.18).{{cite news|title=Kazakhstan Sets Prices for Energy From Renewable Sources|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2014-06-13/kazakhstan-sets-prices-for-energy-from-renewable-sources|publisher=Bloomberg News|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170309165647/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2014-06-13/kazakhstan-sets-prices-for-energy-from-renewable-sources|archive-date=9 March 2017}}

{{Main|Transport in Kazakhstan|Telecommunications in Kazakhstan}}

File:Railway Map of Kazakhstan (kk).png

File:KTZ 2TE10U Aynabulak.jpg

Railways provide 68 percent of all cargo and passenger traffic to over 57 percent of the country. There are {{convert|15333|km|mi|abbr=on}} in common carrier service, excluding industrial lines.{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/kazakhstan/|title=The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency|website=cia.gov|access-date=25 September 2017|archive-date=9 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109132304/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/kazakhstan|url-status=live}}{{convert|15333|km|mi|abbr=on}} of {{Track gauge|1520mm|lk=on}} gauge, {{convert|4000|km|mi|abbr=on}} electrified, in 2012. Most cities are connected by railroad; high-speed trains go from Almaty (the southernmost city) to Petropavl (the northernmost city) in about 18 hours.

Kazakhstan Temir Zholy (KTZ) is the national railway company. KTZ cooperates with French locomotive manufacturer Alstom in developing Kazakhstan's railway infrastructure. As of 2018, Alstom has more than 600 staff and two joint ventures with KTZ and its subsidiary in Kazakhstan.{{cite web|title=Loco manufacturer obtains first IRIS certification in Kazakhstan|url=http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/business/single-view/view/loco-manufacturer-obtains-first-iris-certification-in-kazakhstan.html|website=railwaygazette.com|access-date=12 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180513011411/http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/business/single-view/view/loco-manufacturer-obtains-first-iris-certification-in-kazakhstan.html|archive-date=13 May 2018|url-status=live}} In July 2017, Alstom opened its first locomotive repairing centre in Kazakhstan. It is the only repairing centre in Central Asia and the Caucasus.{{cite web|title=Alstom inaugurated first locomotive repairing centre in Kazakhstan|url=http://www.raillynews.com/2017/alstom-inaugurated-first-locomotive-repairing-centre-kazakhstan/|website=raillynews.com|date=24 July 2017 |access-date=12 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180513011359/http://www.raillynews.com/2017/alstom-inaugurated-first-locomotive-repairing-centre-kazakhstan/|archive-date=13 May 2018|url-status=live}} Astana Nurly Zhol railway station, the most modern railway station in Kazakhstan, was opened in Astana on 31 May 2017. According to Kazakhstan Railways (KTZ), the 120,000m² station was expected to be used by 54 trains and would have the capacity to handle 35,000 passengers a day.{{cite web|title=Astana Nurly Zhol station inaugurated|url=http://www.railjournal.com/index.php/asia/astana-nurly-zhol-station-opens.html|website=railjournal.com|date=2 June 2017|access-date=12 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180513012912/http://www.railjournal.com/index.php/asia/astana-nurly-zhol-station-opens.html|archive-date=13 May 2018|url-status=live}}

There is a small {{convert| 8.56|km|mi|abbr=on}} metro system in Almaty. Second and third metro lines were planned for the future. The second line would intersect with the first line at Alatau and Zhibek Zholy stations.{{cite web|url=http://www.urbanrail.net/as/alma/almaty.htm|title=urbanrail.net|access-date=25 September 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150425050228/http://www.urbanrail.net/as/alma/almaty.htm|archive-date=25 April 2015}} The Astana Metro system has been under construction, but was abandoned at one point in 2013.{{cite web|url=http://en.tengrinews.kz/industry_infrastructure/No-Light-Rail-Transport-for-Astana-24346/|title=No Light Rail Transport for Astana|website=Tengrinews.kz|date=28 November 2013 |access-date=25 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170926042415/https://en.tengrinews.kz/industry_infrastructure/No-Light-Rail-Transport-for-Astana-24346/|archive-date=26 September 2017|url-status=live}} In May 2015, an agreement was signed for the project to be resumed.{{cite web|url=http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/news/asia/single-view/view/astana-light-rail-framework-agreement-signed.html|title=Astana light rail framework agreement signed|first=DVV Media|last=UK|work=Railway Gazette |access-date=25 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170702011816/http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/news/asia/single-view/view/astana-light-rail-framework-agreement-signed.html|archive-date=2 July 2017|url-status=live}} There is an {{convert|86|km|mi|abbr=on}} tram network, which began service in 1965 with, as of 2012, 20 regular and three special routes.Pavlodar

The Khorgos Gateway dry port is one of Kazakhstan's primary dry ports for handling trans-Eurasian trains, which travel more than {{convert|9000|km|abbr=on}} between China and Europe. The Khorgos Gateway dry port is surrounded by Khorgos Eastern Gate SEZ which officially commenced operations in December 2016.{{cite web|title=Khorgos: The New Silk Road's Central Station Comes To Life|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/wadeshepard/2017/02/20/khorgos-the-new-silk-roads-central-station-comes-to-life/2/#4770e6ab5322|website=forbes.com|access-date=12 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180513012524/https://www.forbes.com/sites/wadeshepard/2017/02/20/khorgos-the-new-silk-roads-central-station-comes-to-life/2/#4770e6ab5322|archive-date=13 May 2018|url-status=live |last1=Shepard |first1=Wade }}

In 2009, the European Commission blacklisted all Kazakh air carriers with a sole exception of Air Astana.{{Cite web|last=Anonymous|date=2016-09-22|title=Aviation Safety: Commission updates EU air safety list – Iran and Africa make progress|url=https://ec.europa.eu/transport/modes/air/news/2016-06-16-air-ban_en|access-date=2021-01-05|website=Mobility and Transport – European Commission|language=en|archive-date=7 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107073308/https://ec.europa.eu/transport/modes/air/news/2016-06-16-air-ban_en|url-status=live}} Thereafter, Kazakhstan took measures to modernise and revamp its air safety oversight. In 2016 the European air safety authorities removed all Kazakh airlines from the blacklist, saying there was "sufficient evidence of compliance" with international standards by Kazakh Airlines and the Civil Aviation Committee.{{cite web|title=Sustained safety effort pulled Kazakhstan off EU blacklist|url=https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/sustained-safety-effort-pulled-kazakhstan-off-eu-bla-432336/|website=flightglobal.com|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107014911/https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/sustained-safety-effort-pulled-kazakhstan-off-eu-bla-432336/|archive-date=7 November 2017}}

{{Main|Tourism in Kazakhstan}}

File:Казахстан. Боровое, вид с Болектау, осень, вечер.jpg, view from Mount Bolectau]]

File:Верхняя точка горнолыжной трассы курорта Чимбулак..JPG ski resort in Almaty]]

Kazakhstan is the ninth-largest country by area and the largest landlocked country in the world. As of 2014, tourism accounted for 0.3 percent of Kazakhstan's GDP, but the government had plans to increase it to 3 percent by 2020.{{cite web |author=Joanna Lillis for EurasiaNet, part of the New East |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jul/17/kazakhstan-eases-visa-restrictions-attract-tourists |title=Summer holiday in Kazakhstan? Astana eases visa restrictions to attract tourists | World news |work=The Guardian |date=17 July 2014 |access-date=18 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190503182321/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jul/17/kazakhstan-eases-visa-restrictions-attract-tourists |archive-date=3 May 2019 |url-status=live }}{{cite web |url=http://www.eurasianet.org/node/68601 |title=Kazakhstan: Astana Announces Visa-Free Travel for 10 High-Investing States |publisher=EurasiaNet.org |date=16 June 2014 |access-date=18 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117123606/http://www.eurasianet.org/node/68601 |archive-date=17 November 2015 |url-status=live }} According to the World Economic Forum's Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report of 2017, travel and tourism industry GDP in Kazakhstan was $3.08 billion or only 1.6 percent of total GDP. The WEF ranked Kazakhstan 80th in its 2019 report.{{Cite web|url=https://wef.ch/3129pen|title=Rankings|access-date=19 November 2020|archive-date=25 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190925161646/https://wef.ch/3129pen|url-status=live}}

In 2017, Kazakhstan ranked 43rd in the number of tourist arrivals. In 2014, The Guardian described tourism in Kazakhstan as "hugely underdeveloped," despite the country's mountain, lake, and desert landscapes. Factors hampering an increase in tourism were said to include high prices, "shabby infrastructure," "poor service," and the difficulties of travel in a large underdeveloped country. Even for Kazakhs, going for a holiday abroad may cost only half the price of taking a holiday in Kazakhstan.{{cite news|last1=Lillis|first1=Joanna|title=Summer holiday in Kazakhstan? Astana eases visa restrictions to attract tourists|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jul/17/kazakhstan-eases-visa-restrictions-attract-tourists|access-date=11 December 2015|newspaper=The Guardian|date=17 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190503182321/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jul/17/kazakhstan-eases-visa-restrictions-attract-tourists|archive-date=3 May 2019|url-status=live}}

The Kazakh government, long characterised as authoritarian with a history of human rights abuses and suppression of political opposition, in 2015 issued a "Tourism Industry Development Plan 2020." It aimed to establish five tourism clusters in Kazakhstan: Astana city, Almaty city, East Kazakhstan, South Kazakhstan, and West Kazakhstan Oblasts. It also sought investment of $4 billion and the creation of 300,000 new jobs in the tourism industry by 2020.{{cite web |url=http://en.tengrinews.kz/environment/Kazakhstan-to-develop-its-tourism-industry-254241/ |title=Kazakhstan to develop its tourism industry. Environment. Tengrinews.kz |publisher=En.tengrinews.kz |date=18 June 2014 |access-date=18 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119065420/http://en.tengrinews.kz/environment/Kazakhstan-to-develop-its-tourism-industry-254241/ |archive-date=19 November 2015 |url-status=live }}

Kazakhstan has offered a permanent visa-free regime for up to 90 days to citizens of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Moldova, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Russia and Ukraine, and for up to 30 days to citizens of Argentina, Brazil, Ecuador, Serbia, South Korea, Tajikistan, Turkey, UAE and Uzbekistan. It also established a visa-free regime for citizens of 54 countries, including the European Union and OECD member states, the U.S., Japan, Mexico, Australia and New Zealand.{{Timatic Visa Policy|country=KZ|accessdate=1 April 2017}}{{cite web |url=http://www.mfa.kz/ru/content-view/vizovyj-rezhim-rk-s-drugimi-gosudarstvami |title=Visa Regime of Kazakhstan with other countries |publisher=The Ministry of foreign Affairs of the Republic of Kazakhstan |date=3 June 2017 |access-date=22 June 2017 |language=ru |archive-date=9 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170609052952/http://www.mfa.kz/ru/content-view/vizovyj-rezhim-rk-s-drugimi-gosudarstvami |url-status=dead }}

Kazakhstan has attracted $330 billion in foreign direct investment (FDI) from more than 120 countries since its independence (1991).{{Cite web |last=Zhussupova |first=Dilshat |date=11 September 2019 |title=Kazakhstan attracts $330 billion FDI since 1991 |url=https://astanatimes.com/2019/09/kazakhstan-attracts-330-billion-fdi-since-1991/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190911192654/https://astanatimes.com/2019/09/kazakhstan-attracts-330-billion-fdi-since-1991/ |archive-date=11 September 2019 |access-date=7 April 2020 |website=The Astana Times}} In 2015, the U.S. State Department said Kazakhstan was widely considered to have the best investment climate in the region.{{cite web|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/241825.pdf|title=2015 Investment Climate Statement – Kazakhstan|publisher=US State Department|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190730094555/https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/241825.pdf|archive-date=30 July 2019|access-date=21 May 2019}} In 2014, President Nazarbayev signed into law tax concessions to promote foreign direct investment which included a 10-year exemption from corporation tax, an eight-year exemption from property tax, and a 10-year freeze on most other taxes.{{cite news|title=Kazakhstan Enacts Investor Tax Breaks|url=http://www.tax-news.com/news/Kazakhstan_Enacts_Investor_Tax_Breaks____65000.html|publisher=Tax News|access-date=18 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140701081052/http://www.tax-news.com/news/Kazakhstan_Enacts_Investor_Tax_Breaks____65000.html|archive-date=1 July 2014|url-status=live}} Other incentives include a refund on capital investments of up to 30 percent once a production facility is in operation.

In 2012, Kazakhstan attracted $14 billion of foreign direct investment inflows into the country at a 7 percent growth rate.[http://www.ey.com/KZ/en/Issues/Business-environment/Kazakhstan-attractiveness-survey-2013 Kazakhstan attractiveness survey 2013]. EY.com {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140308092531/http://www.ey.com/KZ/en/Issues/Business-environment/Kazakhstan-attractiveness-survey-2013 |date=8 March 2014 }} In 2018, $24 billion of FDI was directed into Kazakhstan, a significant increase since 2012.{{cite web |title=Kazakhstan targets to invite USD 34 bln of investments by 2025 |url=https://www.inform.kz/en/kazakhstan-targets-to-invite-usd-34-bln-of-investments-by-2025_a3569720 |website=Kazinform |date=26 September 2019 |access-date=24 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191024190130/https://www.inform.kz/en/kazakhstan-targets-to-invite-usd-34-bln-of-investments-by-2025_a3569720 |archive-date=24 October 2019 |url-status=live }}

In 2014, the European Bank of Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) and Kazakhstan created the partnership for Re-Energizing the Reform Process in Kazakhstan to work with international financial institutions to channel US$2.7 billion provided by the Kazakh government into important sectors of Kazakhstan's economy.{{cite web|title=EBRD and Kazakhstan agree historic partnership to boost reform and investment|url=http://www.ebrd.com/pages/news/press/2014/140523.shtml|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140525223329/http://www.ebrd.com/pages/news/press/2014/140523.shtml|archive-date=25 May 2014|publisher=EBRD}}

As of May 2014, Kazakhstan had attracted $190 billion in gross foreign investments since its independence in 1991 and it led the CIS countries in terms of FDI attracted per capita.{{cite web|title=Nazarbayev Announces Plans for New Major Incentives for Foreign Investors|url=http://astanatimes.com/2014/05/nazarbayev-announces-plans-new-major-incentives-foreign-investors/|website=Astanatimes.com|date=5 May 2014|access-date=14 February 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160219170550/http://astanatimes.com/2014/05/nazarbayev-announces-plans-new-major-incentives-foreign-investors/|archive-date=19 February 2016}} The OECD 2017 Investment Policy Review noted that "great strides" had been made to open up opportunities to foreign investors and improve policy to attract FDI.{{cite web|title=OECD Investment Policy Reviews: Kazakhstan 2017|url=http://www.oecd.org/investment/oecd-investment-policy-reviews-kazakhstan-2017-9789264269606-en.htm|website=OECD.org|date=15 June 2017 |publisher=OECD|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171117001653/http://www.oecd.org/investment/oecd-investment-policy-reviews-kazakhstan-2017-9789264269606-en.htm|archive-date=17 November 2017}}

China is one of the main economic and trade partners of Kazakhstan. In 2013, China launched the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) in which Kazakhstan functions as a transit hub.Vakulchuk, Roman and Indra Overland (2019) "[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329310641 China's Belt and Road Initiative through the Lens of Central Asia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211024180554/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329310641_China%27s_Belt_and_Road_Initiative_through_the_lens_of_Central_Asia |date=24 October 2021 }}", in Fanny M. Cheung and Ying-yi Hong (eds) Regional Connection under the Belt and Road Initiative. The Prospects for Economic and Financial Cooperation. London: Routledge, pp. 115–133.

The banking industry of Kazakhstan went through a boom-and-bust cycle in the early 21st century. After several years of rapid expansion in the mid-2000s, the banking industry collapsed in 2008. Several large banking groups, including BTA Bank J.S.C. and Alliance Bank, defaulted soon thereafter. The industry shrank and was restructured, with system-wide loans dropping from 59 percent of GDP in 2007 to 39 percent in 2011. The Kazakh National Bank introduced deposit insurance in a campaign to strengthen the banking sector. Several major foreign banks had branches in Kazakhstan, including RBS, Citibank, and HSBC. Kookmin and UniCredit both entered Kazakhstan's financial services market through acquisitions and stake-building.{{citation needed|date=April 2022}}

According to the 2010–11 World Economic Forum in Global Competitiveness Report, Kazakhstan was ranked 72nd in the world in economic competitiveness.{{cite web |url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GlobalCompetitivenessReport_2010-11.pdf |title=The Global Competitiveness Report 2010–2011 |access-date=24 July 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101206104835/http://www3.weforum.org//docs//WEF_GlobalCompetitivenessReport_2010-11.pdf |archive-date=6 December 2010}} One year later, the Global Competitiveness Report ranked Kazakhstan 50th in most competitive markets.{{cite web |url=http://www.kazakh-tv.kz/en/view/news_kazakhstan/page_27706_kazakhstan-enters-top-50-most-competitive-countries |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140220035746/http://www.kazakh-tv.kz/en/view/news_kazakhstan/page_27706_kazakhstan-enters-top-50-most-competitive-countries |archive-date=20 February 2014 |title=Kazakh TV – Kazakhstan enters top 50 most competitive countries |publisher=Kazakh-tv.kz |date=6 September 2013 |access-date=9 September 2013}}

In the 2020 Doing Business Report by the World Bank, Kazakhstan ranked 25th globally and as the number one best country globally for protecting minority investors' rights.{{cite web |url=https://www.doingbusiness.org/content/dam/doingBusiness/country/k/kazakhstan/KAZ.pdf |title=Doing Business 2020 |website=Doing Business |access-date=7 April 2020 |archive-date=5 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200105075707/https://www.doingbusiness.org/content/dam/doingBusiness/country/k/kazakhstan/KAZ.pdf |url-status=live }} Kazakhstan achieved its goal of entering the top 50 most competitive countries in 2013 and has maintained its position in the 2014–2015 World Economic Forum Global Competitiveness Report that was published at the beginning of September 2014.{{cite web|title=Staying Competitive in a Toughening External Environment|url=http://astanatimes.com/2014/09/staying-competitive-toughening-external-environment/|website=Astanatimes.com|date=16 September 2014|access-date=14 February 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160219170605/http://astanatimes.com/2014/09/staying-competitive-toughening-external-environment/|archive-date=19 February 2016}} Kazakhstan is ahead of other states in the CIS in almost all of the report's pillars of competitiveness, including institutions, infrastructure, macroeconomic environment, higher education and training, goods market efficiency, labour market development, financial market development, technological readiness, market size, business sophistication and innovation, lagging behind only in the category of health and primary education. The Global Competitiveness Index gives a score from 1 to 7 in each of these pillars, and Kazakhstan earned an overall score of 4.4.

{{Main|Corruption in Kazakhstan}}

In 2005, the World Bank listed Kazakhstan as a corruption hotspot, on a par with Angola, Bolivia, Kenya, Libya and Pakistan.[https://www.nytimes.com/2006/11/05/business/yourmoney/05giffen.html?pagewanted=all Oil, Cash and Corruption] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205174501/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/11/05/business/yourmoney/05giffen.html?pagewanted=all |date=5 February 2017 }}, The New York Times, 5 November 2006 In 2012, Kazakhstan ranked low in an index of the least corrupt countries[{{GBurl|id=BU7uK583X8MC|dq=kazakhstan+corruption+ranking|p=112}} OECD Investment Policy Reviews], P112, OECD, 2012 and the World Economic Forum listed corruption as the biggest problem in doing business in the country. A 2017 OECD report on Kazakhstan indicated that Kazakhstan has reformed laws with regard to the civil service, judiciary, instruments to prevent corruption, access to information, and prosecuting corruption.{{cite web|title=Kazakhstan should build on its efforts to fight corruption and push forward with reforms|url=http://www.oecd.org/daf/anti-bribery/kazakhstan-should-build-on-efforts-to-fightcorruption-and-push-forwar-with-reforms.htm|publisher=OECD|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171026054105/http://www.oecd.org/daf/anti-bribery/kazakhstan-should-build-on-efforts-to-fightcorruption-and-push-forwar-with-reforms.htm|archive-date=26 October 2017}} Kazakhstan has implemented anticorruption reforms that have been recognised by organizations like Transparency International.{{cite web |title=Kazakhstan removed from list of most corrupt countries |work=The Astana Times |date=March 2018 |url=https://astanatimes.com/2018/03/kazakhstan-removed-from-list-of-most-corrupt-countries/ |access-date=25 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191225134558/https://astanatimes.com/2018/03/kazakhstan-removed-from-list-of-most-corrupt-countries/ |archive-date=25 December 2019 |url-status=live }}

In 2011, Switzerland confiscated US$48 million in Kazakhstani assets from Swiss bank accounts, as a result of a bribery investigation in the United States.{{cite web |url = https://www.baselgovernance.org/sites/collective.localhost/files/documents/131024_selected_case_studies.pdf |title = Returning Stolen Assets – Learning from past practice: Selected case studies |author1 = Gretta Fenner Zinkernagel |author2 = Kodjo Attisso |publisher = International Centre for Asset Recovery |page = 5 |via = Basel Institute on Governance |access-date = 19 July 2016 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160818075353/https://www.baselgovernance.org/sites/collective.localhost/files/documents/131024_selected_case_studies.pdf |archive-date = 18 August 2016 |df = dmy-all }}

US officials believed the funds represented bribes paid by American officials to Kazakhstani officials in exchange for oil or prospecting rights in Kazakhstan. Proceedings eventually involved US$84 million in the US and another US$60 million in Switzerland.

The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and the Kazakh Anti-Corruption Agency signed a Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty in February 2015.{{cite web|title=Signing of a Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty Between the United States and Kazakhstan|newspaper=U.S. Department of State |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2015/02/237732.htm|publisher=US State Department|access-date=24 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170130211231/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2015/02/237732.htm|archive-date=30 January 2017|url-status=live}}

Transparency International's 2024 Corruption Perceptions Index, which scored 180 countries on a scale from 0 ("highly corrupt") to 100 ("very clean"), gave Kazakhstan a score of 40. When ranked by score, Kazakhstan ranked 80th among the 180 countries in the Index, where the country ranked first is perceived to have the most honest public sector.{{Cite web |title=The ABCs of the CPI: How the Corruption Perceptions Index is calculated |url=https://www.transparency.org/en/news/how-cpi-scores-are-calculated |date=11 February 2025 |access-date=10 March 2025 |website=Transparency.org|language=en}} For comparison with regional scores, the highest score among Eastern European and Central Asian countries{{efn |Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kosovo, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Russia, Serbia, Tajikistan, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan |group="Note"}} was 53, the average score was 35 and the lowest score was 17.{{Cite web |title=CPI 2024 for Eastern Europe & Central Asia: Vicious cycle of weak democracy and flourishing corruption |url=https://www.transparency.org/en/news/cpi-2024-eastern-europe-central-asia--vicious-cycle-weak-democracy-flourishing-corruption |date=11 February 2025 |access-date=10 March 2025 |website=Transparency.org|language=en}} For comparison with worldwide scores, the best score was 90 (ranked 1), the average score was 43, and the worst score was 8 (ranked 180).{{Cite web |title=Corruption Perceptions Index 2024: Kazakhstan |url=https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2024/index/kaz |access-date=10 March 2025 |website=Transparency.org |date=11 February 2025 |language=en}}

{{Main|Science and technology in Kazakhstan}}

File:Trends in GERD GDP ratio in Central Asia, 2001−2013.svg

Research remains largely concentrated in Kazakhstan's largest city and former capital, Almaty, home to 52 percent of research personnel. Public research is largely confined to institutes, with universities making only a token contribution. Research institutes receive their funding from national research councils under the umbrella of the Ministry of Education and Science. Their output, however, tends to be disconnected from market needs. In the business sector, few industrial enterprises conduct research themselves.{{Cite book|title=Innovation Performance Review|publisher=United Nations Economic Commission for Europe|year=2012|location=New York and Geneva}}{{Cite book|title=Central Asia. In: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030|last=Mukhitdinova|first=Nasiba|publisher=UNESCO|year=2015|isbn=978-92-3-100129-1|location=Paris|pages=365–387}}

File:The irradiation experiments at the ion accelerator DC-60. Astana, Kazakhstan.JPG

One of the most ambitious targets of the State Programme for Accelerated Industrial and Innovative Development adopted in 2010 is to raise the country's level of expenditure on research and development to 1 percent of GDP by 2015. By 2013, this ratio stood at 0.18 percent of GDP. It will be difficult to reach the target as long as economic growth remains strong.{{Update inline|date=March 2021}} Since 2005, the economy has grown faster (by 6 percent in 2013) than gross domestic expenditure on research and development, which only progressed from PPP$598 million to PPP$714 million between 2005 and 2013.

Innovation expenditure more than doubled in Kazakhstan between 2010 and 2011, representing KZT 235 billion (circa US$1.6 billion), or around 1.1 percent of GDP. Some 11 percent of the total was spent on research and development. This compares with about 40 to 70 percent of innovation expenditure in developed countries. This augmentation was due to a sharp rise in product design and the introduction of new services and production methods over this period, to the detriment of the acquisition of machinery and equipment, which has traditionally made up the bulk of Kazakhstan's innovation expenditure. Training costs represented just 2 percent of innovation expenditure, a much lower share than in developed countries. Kazakhstan was ranked 78th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024.{{Cite book |author=World Intellectual Property Organization |year=2024 |title=Global Innovation Index 2024: Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship |url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2024/en/ |access-date=2024-10-06 |website=www.wipo.int |page=18 |publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization |language=en |doi=10.34667/tind.50062 |isbn=978-92-805-3681-2}}

In December 2012, President Nursultan Nazarbayev announced the Kazakhstan 2050 Strategy with the slogan "Strong Business, Strong State." This pragmatic strategy proposes sweeping socio-economic and political reforms to hoist Kazakhstan among the top 30 economies by 2050. In this document, Kazakhstan gives itself 15 years to evolve into a knowledge economy. New sectors are to be created during each five-year plan. The first of these, covering the years 2010–2014, focused on developing industrial capacity in car manufacturing, aircraft engineering and the production of locomotives, passenger and cargo railroad cars. During the second five-year plan to 2019, the goal is to develop export markets for these products. To enable Kazakhstan to enter the world market of geological exploration, the country intends to increase the efficiency of traditional extractive sectors such as oil and gas. It also intends to develop rare earth metals, given their importance for electronics, laser technology, communication and medical equipment. The second five-year plan coincides with the development of the Business 2020 roadmap for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), which makes provision for the allocation of grants to SMEs in the regions and for microcredit. The government and the National Chamber of Entrepreneurs also plan to develop an effective mechanism to help start-ups.

File:Soyuz expedition 19 launch pad.jpg is the world's oldest and largest operational spaceport.]]

During subsequent five-year plans to 2050, new industries will be established in fields such as mobile, multi-media, nano- and space technologies, robotics, genetic engineering and alternative energy. Food processing enterprises will be developed with an eye to turning the country into a major regional exporter of beef, dairy and other agricultural products. Low-return, water-intensive crop varieties will be replaced with vegetable, oil and fodder products. As part of the shift to a "green economy" by 2030, 15% of acreage will be cultivated with water-saving technologies. Experimental agrarian and innovational clusters will be established and drought-resistant genetically modified crops developed.

The Kazakhstan 2050 Strategy fixes a target of devoting 3 percent of GDP to research and development by 2050 to allow for the development of new high-tech sectors.

The Digital Kazakhstan program was launched in 2018 to boost the country's economic growth through the implementation of digital technologies. Kazakhstan's digitization efforts generated 800 billion tenges (US$1.97 billion) in two years. The program helped create 120,000 jobs and attracted 32.8 billion tenges (US$80.7 million) of investment into the country.

Around 82 percent of all public services became automated as part of the Digital Kazakhstan program.{{cite web |title=Kazakhstan's Digitization Program Brings Additional $2 billion Into the Economy |url=https://astanatimes.com/2020/06/kazakhstans-digitization-program-brings-additional-2-billion-into-the-economy/ |website=The Astana Times |date=18 June 2020 |access-date=20 June 2020 |archive-date=22 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200622014433/https://astanatimes.com/2020/06/kazakhstans-digitization-program-brings-additional-2-billion-into-the-economy/ |url-status=live }}

In the 2024 Global Hunger Index (GHI), Kazakhstan ranks 25th out of 127 countries with sufficient data. Kazakhstan's GHI score is 5.3, which indicates a low level of hunger.{{Cite web |title=Global Hunger Index Scores by 2024 GHI Rank |url=https://www.globalhungerindex.org/ranking.html |access-date=2024-12-20 |website=Global Hunger Index (GHI) - peer-reviewed annual publication designed to comprehensively measure and track hunger at the global, regional, and country levels |language=en}} {{Main|Demographics of Kazakhstan}}

{{See also|Kazakhs}}

File:Kazakhstan_Population_Pyramid.svg, 2023]]

File:Central Asia Ethnic en.svg

The US Census Bureau International Database lists the population of Kazakhstan as 18.9 million (May 2019),{{cite web |title=Population Clock: World |url=https://www.census.gov/popclock/world/kz |website=census.gov |access-date=30 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190530184512/https://www.census.gov/popclock/world/kz |archive-date=30 May 2019 |url-status=live }} while United Nations sources such as {{UN Population|source}} give an estimate of {{UN Population|Kazakhstan}}. Official estimates put the population of Kazakhstan at 20 million as of November 2023.{{cite web |title=Негізгі |url=http://stat.gov.kz |website=stat.gov.kz |access-date=30 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190530193655/http://stat.gov.kz/ |archive-date=30 May 2019 |url-status=live }} In 2013, Kazakhstan's population rose to 17,280,000 with a 1.7 percent growth rate over the past year according to the Kazakhstan Statistics Agency.[http://bnews.kz/en/news/obshchestvo/kazakhstans_population_increases_by_17_per_cent_over_a_year-2013_08_15-1026973 Kazakhstan's population increases by 1.7 per cent over a year] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208063807/http://bnews.kz/en/news/obshchestvo/kazakhstans_population_increases_by_17_per_cent_over_a_year-2013_08_15-1026973 |date=8 December 2015 }}. bnews.kz. 15 August 2013

The 2009 population estimate is 6.8 percent higher than the population reported in the last census from January 1999. The decline in population that began after 1989 has been arrested and possibly reversed. Men and women make up 48.3 and 51.7 percent of the population, respectively.

{{Main|Ethnic demography of Kazakhstan}}

As of 2025, ethnic Kazakhs are 71.3 percent of the population and ethnic Russians are 14.6 percent, although their numbers has declined since the breakup of the Soviet Union.{{Cite web |last=uz |first=Daryo |date=2023-06-12 |title=Kazakhstan at 20 million: populations and possibilities |url=https://daryo.uz/en/2023/12/06/kazakhstan-at-20-million-populations-and-possibilities |access-date=2024-10-06 |website=Daryo.uz |language=en}} Other groups include Tatars (1.1 percent), Ukrainians (1.8 percent), Uzbeks (3.3 percent), Germans (1.1 percent), Uyghurs (1.5 percent), Azerbaijanis, Dungans, Turks, Koreans, Poles, and Lithuanians. Some minorities such as Ukrainians, Koreans, Volga Germans, Chechens,[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3509933.stm Remembering Stalin's deportations] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606174402/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3509933.stm |date=6 June 2013 }}, BBC News, 23 February 2004 Meskhetian Turks, and Russian political opponents of the regime, had been deported to Kazakhstan in the 1930s and 1940s by Josef Stalin. Some of the largest Soviet labour camps (Gulag) existed in the country.{{cite web |last=Clarey |first=Christopher |url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/01/01/news/kazakh.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070104084902/http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/01/01/news/kazakh.php |archive-date=4 January 2007 |title=Politics, economics and time bury memories of the Kazakh gulag |work=International Herald Tribune |date=1 January 2007 |access-date=9 September 2013}}

File:Dzhasybay beach.jpg beach, Pavlodar Region ]]

Significant Russian immigration was also connected with the Virgin Lands Campaign and Soviet space program during the Khrushchev era.{{cite news |last=Greenall |first=Robert |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4420922.stm |title=Russians left behind in Central Asia |work=BBC News |date=23 November 2005 |access-date=9 September 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130911080317/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4420922.stm |archive-date=11 September 2013}} In 1989, ethnic Russians were 37.8 percent of the population and Kazakhs held a majority in only 7 of the 20 regions of the country. Before 1991 there were about one million Germans in Kazakhstan, mostly descendants of the Volga Germans deported to Kazakhstan during World War II. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, most of them emigrated to Germany.[http://www.irinnews.org/report/28051/kazakhstan-special-report-on-ethnic-germans Kazakhstan: Special report on ethnic Germans] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208125555/http://www.irinnews.org/report/28051/kazakhstan-special-report-on-ethnic-germans |date=8 December 2015 }}, IRIN Asia, 1 February 2005 Most members of the smaller Pontian Greek minority have emigrated to Greece. In the late 1930s thousands of Koreans in the Soviet Union were deported to Central Asia.{{Cite web|title=Central Asia's Koreans in Korea: There and (Mostly) Back Again|url=https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/odr/central-asias-koreans-in-korea-there-and-mostly-back-again/|access-date=2021-01-05|website=openDemocracy|language=en|archive-date=9 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109105937/https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/odr/central-asias-koreans-in-korea-there-and-mostly-back-again/|url-status=live}} These people are now known as Koryo-saram.{{Cite web|title=From Samarkand to Seoul: Central Asian migrants in South Korea {{!}} Eurasianet|url=https://eurasianet.org/from-samarkand-to-seoul-central-asian-migrants-in-south-korea|access-date=2021-01-05|website=eurasianet.org|language=en|archive-date=9 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109014339/https://eurasianet.org/from-samarkand-to-seoul-central-asian-migrants-in-south-korea|url-status=live}}

The 1990s were marked by the emigration of many of the country's Russians, Ukrainians and Volga Germans, a process that began in the 1970s. This has made indigenous Kazakhs the largest ethnic group.{{Cite web|title=Kazakhstan – People|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Kazakhstan|access-date=2021-01-05|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|language=en|archive-date=17 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617101159/https://www.britannica.com/place/Kazakhstan|url-status=live}} Additional factors in the increase in the Kazakhstani population are higher birthrates and immigration of ethnic Kazakhs from China, Mongolia, and Russia.

{{Main|Languages of Kazakhstan}}

Kazakhstan is officially a bilingual country.[https://www.akorda.kz/en/official_documents/constitution_ "Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan"]{{Dead link|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}. Official website of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Kazakh (part of the Kipchak sub-branch of the Turkic languages){{cite book|title=Kazakhstan |date=7 September 2018 |publisher=Bradt Travel Guides; Third edition |isbn=978-1-78477-092-1|page= 22 |author1=Paul Brummell }} is proficiently spoken by 80.1% of the population according to 2021 census,{{Cite web |title=National composition, religion and language proficiency in the Republic of Kazakhstan |url=https://stat.gov.kz/upload/medialibrary/cee/3rsfg8ps3xo19orb284esg4rx27ihqf7/Национальный%20состав.pdf |access-date=2024-09-07 |website=stat.gov.kz |language=en}}{{rp|323}} and has the status of "state language". Russian, on the other hand, is spoken by 83.7% as of 2021.{{cite web|url=http://www.studycountry.com/guide/KZ-language.htm|title=The Languages spoken in Kazakhstan|website=Studycountry|language=en-US|access-date=11 August 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170811144650/http://www.studycountry.com/guide/KZ-language.htm|archive-date=11 August 2017}} It has equal status to Kazakh as an "official language", and is used routinely in business, government, and inter-ethnic communication."[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-kazakhstan-language/lost-in-translation-kazakh-leader-bans-cabinet-from-speaking-russian-idUSKCN1GB1EJ Lost in translation? Kazakh leader bans cabinet from speaking Russian] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180525033358/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-kazakhstan-language/lost-in-translation-kazakh-leader-bans-cabinet-from-speaking-russian-idUSKCN1GB1EJ|date=25 May 2018}}". Reuters. 27 February 2018. However, only 63.4% of ethnic Kazakhs and 49.3% of the country's population are daily speakers of Kazakh language, according to the same census.{{rp|382}}

The government announced in January 2015 that the Latin alphabet will replace Cyrillic as the writing system for the Kazakh language by 2025.[http://www.inform.kz/eng/article/2741711 Kazakh language to be converted to Latin alphabet – MCS RK] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170219113151/http://www.inform.kz/en/kazakh-language-to-be-converted-to-latin-alphabet-mcs-rk_a2741711|date=19 February 2017}}. Inform.kz (30 January 2015). Retrieved 28 September 2015. Other minority languages spoken in Kazakhstan include Uzbek, Ukrainian, Uyghur, Kyrgyz, Tatar, and German. English, as well as Turkish, have gained popularity among younger people since the collapse of the Soviet Union. Education across Kazakhstan is conducted in either Kazakh, Russian, or both.{{cite web|url=http://www.stat.gov.kz/getImg?id=ESTAT091498|title=Kazakhstan in 2013|work=Ministry of National Economy of the Republic of Kazakhstan Committee on Statistics|date=2014|page=33|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150929031425/http://www.stat.gov.kz/getImg?id=ESTAT091498|archive-date=29 September 2015}} In Nazarbayev's resignation speech of 2019, he projected that the people of Kazakhstan in the future will speak three languages (Kazakh, Russian and English).{{cite web|title=Address of the Head of State Nursultan Nazarbayev to the people of Kazakhstan|url=http://kazakhstanun.com/address-of-the-head-of-state-nursultan-nazarbayev-to-the-people-of-kazakhstan/|publisher=Mission of Kazakhstan to the United Nations|date=19 March 2019|access-date=22 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190322165432/http://kazakhstanun.com/address-of-the-head-of-state-nursultan-nazarbayev-to-the-people-of-kazakhstan/|archive-date=22 March 2019|url-status=live}}

{{Main|Religion in Kazakhstan}}

{{Bar box

| title=Religion in Kazakhstan (2021 census)

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{{Bar percent|Islam|green|69.3}}

{{Bar percent|Christianity|blue|17.2}}

{{Bar percent|No response|red|11.01}}

{{Bar percent|Atheism|grey|2.25}}

{{Bar percent|Other religions|purple|0.2}}

}}

File:Grand Mosque in Astana, Kazakhstan.jpg in the capital Astana. Islam is the majority religion in the country.]]

File:Zenkov Cathedral Winter.jpg in Almaty]]

File:Караганда, Собор Пресвятой Девы Марии Фатимской.jpg is the biggest Catholic church in Central Asia.]]

According to the 2021 census, 69.3% of the population is Muslim, 17.2% are Christian, 0.2% follow other religions (mostly Buddhist and Jewish), 11.01% chose not to answer, and 2.25% identify as atheist.

Kazakhstan is a secular state whose constitution guarantees religious freedoms. Article 39 of the constitution states: "Human rights and freedoms shall not be restricted in any way." Article 14 prohibits "discrimination on religious basis" and Article 19 ensures that everyone has the "right to determine and indicate or not to indicate his/her ethnic, party and religious affiliation." The Constitutional Council affirmed these rights in a 2009 declaration, which stated that a proposed law limiting the rights of certain individuals to practice their religion was declared unconstitutional.{{Cite web|last=AsiaNews.it|title=Restrictive new law on religious freedom is unconstitutional|url=http://www.asianews.it/news-en/Restrictive-new-law-on-religious-freedom-is-unconstitutional-14477.html|access-date=2021-01-05|publisher=www.asianews.it|archive-date=8 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210108041316/http://www.asianews.it/news-en/Restrictive-new-law-on-religious-freedom-is-unconstitutional-14477.html|url-status=live}}

Islam is the largest religion in Kazakhstan, followed by Eastern Orthodox Christianity. After decades of religious suppression by the Soviet Union, the coming of independence witnessed a surge in the expression of ethnic identity, partly through religion. The free practice of religious beliefs and the establishment of full freedom of religion led to an increase of religious activity. Hundreds of mosques, churches, and other religious structures were built in the span of a few years, with the number of religious associations rising from 670 in 1990 to 4,170 today.

Some figures show that non-denominational Muslims{{cite web |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/08/09/the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity-1-religious-affiliation/#identity |title=Pew Forum on Religious & Public life, Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation |access-date=27 December 2016 |date=9 August 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226113158/http://www.pewforum.org/2012/08/09/the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity-1-religious-affiliation/#identity |archive-date=26 December 2016}} form the majority, while others indicate that most Muslims in the country are Sunnis following the Hanafi school.{{cite book|title=Kazakhstan |date=7 September 2018 |publisher=Bradt Travel Guides; Third edition |isbn=978-1-78477-092-1|page= 23 |author1=Paul Brummell }} These include ethnic Kazakhs, who constitute about 7% of the population, as well as ethnic Uzbeks, Uighurs, and Tatars.[https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2008/108501.htm Kazakhstan – International Religious Freedom Report 2008] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171002182320/https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2008/108501.htm |date=2 October 2017 }} U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 7 September 2009. Less than 1% are part of the Sunni Shafi`i school (primarily Chechens). There are also some Ahmadi Muslims.{{cite web | url=http://www.forum18.org/archive.php?article_id=1577 | title=KAZAKHSTAN: Ahmadi Muslim mosque closed, Protestants fined 100 times minimum monthly wage | publisher=Forum 18 | access-date=6 June 2014 | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606214920/http://www.forum18.org/archive.php?article_id=1577 | archive-date=6 June 2014 | df=dmy-all }} There are a total of 2,300 mosques,[http://www.religions-congress.org/content/view/151/35/lang,english/ Religious Situation Review in Kazakhstan] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100511052119/http://www.religions-congress.org/content/view/151/35/lang,english |date=11 May 2010 }} Congress of World Religions. Retrieved 7 September 2009. all of them are affiliated with the "Spiritual Association of Muslims of Kazakhstan", headed by a supreme mufti.[http://www.religions-congress.org/content/view/121/35/lang,english/ Islam in Kazakhstan] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090918045538/http://www.religions-congress.org/content/view/121/35/lang,english/ |date=18 September 2009 }}. Retrieved 7 September 2009. Unaffiliated mosques are forcefully closed.{{cite web | url=http://www.forum18.org/archive.php?article_id=1498 | title=KAZAKHSTAN: "Mosques cannot be independent" | publisher=Forum 18 | access-date=6 June 2014 | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606205847/http://www.forum18.org/archive.php?article_id=1498 | archive-date=6 June 2014 | df=dmy-all }} Eid al-Adha is recognised as a national holiday. One quarter of the population is Russian Orthodox, including ethnic Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians.{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2009/127366.htm |title=Kazakhstan |work=United States Commission on International Religious Freedom |publisher=United States Department of State |date=26 October 2009 |access-date=3 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190522225421/https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2009/127366.htm |archive-date=22 May 2019 |url-status=live }} Other Christian groups include Roman Catholics, Greek Catholics, and Protestants. There are a total of 258 Orthodox churches, 93 Catholic churches (9 Greek Catholic), and over 500 Protestant churches and prayer houses. The Russian Orthodox Christmas is recognised as a national holiday in Kazakhstan. Other religious groups include Judaism, the Baháʼí Faith, Hinduism, Buddhism, and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.

According to the 2009 Census data, there are few Christians outside the Slavic and Germanic ethnic groups.{{cite web|url=http://www.stat.kz/p_perepis/Documents/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%86%20%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2.rar |title=Нац состав.rar |access-date=24 July 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723084232/http://www.stat.kz/p_perepis/Documents/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%86%20%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2.rar |archive-date=23 July 2011 }}

{{Main|Education in Kazakhstan}}

File:Palace of Arts Shabyt.jpg

Education is universal and mandatory through to the secondary level and the adult literacy rate is 99.5%.{{cite web | url=http://www.collegeatlas.org/kazakhstan-colleges-universities.html | title=Kazakhstan Colleges and Universities | publisher=CollegeAtlas | access-date=3 June 2014 | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606223224/http://www.collegeatlas.org/kazakhstan-colleges-universities.html | archive-date=6 June 2014 | df=dmy-all }} On average, these statistics are equal for both women and men in Kazakhstan.{{cite book|title=Kazakhstan |date=7 September 2018 |publisher=Bradt Travel Guides; Third edition |isbn=978-1-78477-092-1|page= 24 |author1=Paul Brummell }}

Education consists of three main phases: primary education (forms 1–4), basic general education (forms 5–9) and senior level education (forms 10–11 or 12) divided into continued general education and vocational education. Vocational Education usually lasts three or four years.{{cite web | url=http://www.unevoc.unesco.org/go.php?q=World+TVET+Database&ct=KAZ | title=Vocational Education in Kazakhstan | date=August 2012 | access-date=3 June 2014 | author=UNESCO-UNEVOC | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140607000448/http://www.unevoc.unesco.org/go.php?q=World+TVET+Database&ct=KAZ | archive-date=7 June 2014 | df=dmy-all }} (Primary education is preceded by one year of pre-school education.) These levels can be followed in one institution or in different ones (e.g., primary school, then secondary school). Recently, several secondary schools, specialised schools, magnet schools, gymnasiums, lyceums and linguistic and technical gymnasiums have been founded. Secondary professional education is offered in special professional or technical schools, lyceums or colleges and vocational schools.

At present, there are universities, academies and institutes, conservatories, higher schools and higher colleges. There are three main levels: basic higher education that provides the fundamentals of the chosen field of study and leads to the award of the Bachelor's degree; specialised higher education after which students are awarded the Specialist's Diploma; and scientific-pedagogical higher education which leads to the master's degree. Postgraduate education leads to the Kandidat Nauk ("Candidate of Sciences") and the Doctor of Sciences (PhD). With the adoption of the Laws on Education and on Higher Education, a private sector has been established and several private institutions have been licensed.

Over 2,500 students in Kazakhstan have applied for student loans totalling about $9 million. The largest number of student loans come from Almaty, Astana and Kyzylorda.[http://bnews.kz/en/news/obshchestvo/more_than_25_thousand_students_get_loans_in_kazakhstan-2013_07_26-1033423 More than 2.5 thousand students get loans in Kazakhstan – News Feed – Bnews.kz: breaking news] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208051507/http://bnews.kz/en/news/obshchestvo/more_than_25_thousand_students_get_loans_in_kazakhstan-2013_07_26-1033423 |date=8 December 2015 }}. Bnews.kz. Retrieved 20 August 2013.

The training and skills development programs in Kazakhstan are also supported by international organisations. For example, on 30 March 2015, the World Banks' Group of Executive Directors approved a $100 million loan for the Skills and Job project in Kazakhstan.{{cite web|title=World Bank Supports Better Skills for Quality Jobs in Kazakhstan|url=http://finchannel.com/index.php/society/jobs/item/42191-world-bank-supports-better-skills-for-quality-jobs-in-kazakhstan|website=Finchannel.com|access-date=14 February 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309080855/http://finchannel.com/index.php/society/jobs/item/42191-world-bank-supports-better-skills-for-quality-jobs-in-kazakhstan|archive-date=9 March 2016}} The project aims to provide training to unemployed, unproductively self-employed, and employees in need of training.

{{Main|Culture of Kazakhstan|Kazakh clothing|Kazakh wedding ceremony}}

File:Equestrian heritage, Kazakhstan.JPEG

Before the Russian colonisation, the Kazakhs had a highly developed culture based on their nomadic pastoral economy. Islam was introduced into the region with the arrival of the Arabs in the 8th century. It initially took hold in the southern parts of Turkestan and spread northward.Atabaki, Touraj. Central Asia and the Caucasus: transnationalism and diaspora, pg. 24 The Samanids helped the religion take root through zealous missionary work. The Golden Horde further propagated Islam amongst the tribes in the region during the 14th century.Ibn Athir, volume 8, pg. 396

Kazakhstan is home to a large number of prominent contributors to literature, science and philosophy: Abay Qunanbayuli, Mukhtar Auezov, Gabit Musirepov, Kanysh Satpayev, Mukhtar Shakhanov, Saken Seyfullin, Jambyl Jabayev, among many others.

Tourism is a rapidly growing industry in Kazakhstan and it is joining the international tourism networking. In 2010, Kazakhstan joined The Region Initiative (TRI) which is a Tri-regional Umbrella of Tourism-related organisations. TRI is functioning as a link between three regions: South Asia, Central Asia, and Eastern Europe. Armenia, Bangladesh, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Russia, Sri Lanka, Tajikistan, Turkey, and Ukraine are now partners, and Kazakhstan is linked with other South Asian, Eastern European, and Central Asian countries in the tourism market.

{{Main|Kazakh literature}}

Kazakh literature is defined as "the body of literature, both oral and written, produced in the Kazakh language by the Kazakh people of Central Asia".{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/art/Kazakh-literature |title=Kazakh literature |author=Walter Feldman |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=31 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402083053/https://www.britannica.com/art/Kazakh-literature |archive-date=2 April 2019 |url-status=live }} Kazakh literature expands from the current territory of Kazakhstan, also including the era of Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic, Kazakh recognised territory under the Russian Empire and the Kazakh Khanate. There is some overlap with several complementary themes, including the literature of Turkic tribes that inhabited Kazakhstan over the course of its history and literature written by ethnic Kazakhs.

File:USSR stamp A.Qunanbayuli 1965 4k.jpg stamp honouring Kazakh essayist and poet Abai Qunanbaiuly]]

According to Chinese written sources from the 6th–8th centuries CE, the Turkic tribes of Kazakhstan had an oral poetry tradition. These came from earlier periods and were primarily transmitted by bards: professional storytellers and musical performers.{{Cite journal|title=La tradition historique orale des Kazakhs|author=Aitjan Nurmanova|translator=Alié Akimova|journal=Cahiers d'Asie Centrale|date=September 2000|issue=8|volume=2000|pages=93–100|url=https://asiecentrale.revues.org/597|access-date=10 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161108202604/https://asiecentrale.revues.org/597|archive-date=8 November 2016|url-status=live}} Traces of this tradition are shown on Orkhon script stone carvings dated 5th–7th centuries CE that describe rule of Kultegin and Bilge, two early Turkic rulers ("kagans").{{Citation needed|date=October 2017|reason=We need a source to reference this information.}} Amongst the Kazakhs, the bard was a primarily, though not exclusively, male profession. Since at least the 17th century, Kazakh bards could be divided into two main categories: the jıraws (jiraus, jyraus), who passed on the works of others, usually not creating and adding their own original work; and the aqyns (akyns), who improvised or created their own poems, stories or songs. There were several types of works, such as didactic termes, elegiac tolgaws, and epic jırs. Although the origins of such tales are often unknown, most of them were associated with bards of the recent or more distant past, who supposedly created them or passed them on, by the time most Kazakh poetry and prose was first written down in the second half of the 19th century. There are clear stylistic differences between works first created in the 19th century, and works dating from earlier periods but not documented before the 19th century, such as those attributed to such 16th- and 17th-century bards as Er Shoban and Dosmombet Jıraw (also known as Dospambet Jyrau; he appeared to have been literate, and reportedly visited Constantinople), and even to such 15th-century bards as Shalkiz and Asan Qayghı.

Other notable bards include Kaztugan Jyrau, Jiembet Jyrau, Axtamberdy Jyrau, and Buxar Jyrau Kalkamanuly, who was an advisor to Ablai Khan, and whose works have been preserved by Mäšhür Jüsip Köpeev. Er Targhın and Alpamıs are two of the most famous examples of Kazakh literature to be recorded in the 19th century. The Book of Dede Korkut and Oguz Name (a story of an ancient Turkic king Oghuz Khan) are the most well-known Turkic heroic legends. Initially created around the 9th century CE, they were passed on through generations in oral form. The legendary tales were recorded by Turkish authors in 14–16th centuries C.E.{{Cite journal|last=Meeker|first=Michael E.|date=August 1992|title=The Dede Korkut Ethic|journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies|volume=24|issue=3|pages=395–417|doi=10.1017/S0020743800021954|s2cid=162799102 }}{{Cite journal|last=GÖMEC|first=Saadettin|date=2009|title=The Identity of Oguz Kagan, the Oguz in the History and the Epics of Oguz Kagan|journal=Turkish Studies|volume=4|issue=8|pages=133–145}}

The preeminent role in the development of modern literary Kazakh belongs to Abai Qunanbaiuly ({{langx|kk|Абай Құнанбайұлы}}, sometimes Russified to Abay Kunanbayev, Абай Кунанбаев) (1845–1904), whose writings did much to preserve Kazakh folk culture. Abai's major work is The Book of Words ({{langx|kk|қара сөздері, Qara sözderi}}), a philosophical treatise and collection of poems where he criticises Russian colonial policies and encourages other Kazakhs to embrace education and literacy. The literary magazines Ay Qap (published between 1911 and 1915 in Arabic script) and Qazaq (published between 1913 and 1918) played an important role in the development of the intellectual and political life among early 20th-century Kazakhs.{{Cite book|url={{GBurl|id=y3Sk7GeUe5oC|p=79}}|title=Culture and Customs of the Central Asian Republics|first=Rafis|last=Abazov|date=11 October 2007|publisher=Greenwood Press|isbn=9780313056185|via=Google Books}}

{{Main|Music of Kazakhstan}}

File:Stamp of Kazakhstan 659.jpg on stamp of Kazakhstan]]

The modern state of Kazakhstan is home to the Kazakh State Kurmangazy Orchestra of Folk Instruments, the Kazakh State Philharmonic Orchestra, the Kazakh National Opera and the Kazakh State Chamber Orchestra. The folk instrument orchestra was named after Kurmangazy Sagyrbayuly, a famous composer and dombra player from the 19th century. The Musical-Dramatic Training College, founded in 1931, was the first institute of higher education for music. Two years later, the Orchestra of Kazakh Folk Musical Instruments was formed.{{Cite web|url=https://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/publictn/46/touda/touda-eng.html|title=From Folklore to Soviet National Culture: The Process of Formation of "Kazak National Music" (1920–1942)|website=src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp|access-date=18 September 2021|archive-date=18 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210918141923/https://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/publictn/46/touda/touda-eng.html|url-status=live}}

The Foundation Asyl Mura is archiving and publishing historical recordings of great samples of Kazakh music both traditional and classical. The leading conservatoire is in Almaty, the Qurmanghazy Conservatoire. It competes with the national conservatoire in Astana, Kazakhstan's capital.

When referring to traditional Kazakh music, authentic folklore must be separated from "folklorism". The latter denotes music executed by academically trained performers who aim at preserving the traditional music for coming generations. As far as can be reconstructed, the music of Kazakhstan from the period before a strong Russian influence consists of instrumental music and vocal music. Instrumental music, with the pieces ("Küy") being performed by soloists. Text is often seen in the background (or "program") for the music, as many Küy titles refer to stories. Vocal music, either as part of a ceremony such as a wedding (mainly performed by women), or as part of a feast. Here we might divide into subgenres: epic singing, containing not only historical facts, but as well the tribe's genealogy, love songs, and didactic verses; and as a special form the composition of two or more singers in public (Aitys), of dialogue character and usually unexpectedly frankly in content.

File:Astudio.jpg was created in 1982 in Almaty, then called Alma-Ata, hence called "Alma-Ata Studio".]]

The Russian influence on the music life in Kazakhstan can be seen in two spheres: first, the introduction of musical academic institutions such as concert houses with opera stages, and conservatories, where European music was performed and taught, and second, by trying to incorporate Kazakh traditional music into these academic structures. Controlled first by the Russian Empire and then the Soviet Union, Kazakhstan's folk and classical traditions became connected with ethnic Russian music and Western European music. Prior to the 20th century, Kazakh folk music was collected and studied by ethnographic research teams including composers, music critics and musicologists. In the first part of the 19th century, Kazakh music was transcribed in linear notation. Some composers of this era set Kazakh folk songs to Russian-style European classical music.

The Kazakhs themselves, however, did not write their own music in notation until 1931. Later, as part of the Soviet Union, Kazakh folk culture was encouraged in a sanitised manner designed to avoid political and social unrest. The result was a bland derivative of real Kazakh folk music. In 1920, Aleksandr Zatayevich, a Russian official, created major works of art music with melodies and other elements of Kazakh folk music. Beginning in 1928 and accelerating in the 1930s, he also adapted traditional Kazakh instruments for use in Russian-style ensembles, such as by increasing the number of frets and strings. Soon, these styles of modern orchestral playing became the only way for musicians to officially play; Kazakh folk was turned into patriotic, professional and socialist endeavours.{{Cite web|title=From Folklore to Soviet National Culture- The Process of Formation of "Kazak National Music"(1920–1942)-|url=https://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/publictn/46/touda/touda-eng.html|access-date=2021-09-18|website=src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp|archive-date=18 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210918141923/https://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/publictn/46/touda/touda-eng.html|url-status=live}}

{{Main|Kazakh art}}

In Kazakhstan, the fine arts, in the classical sense, have their origins in the second half of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. It was largely influenced by Russian artists, such as Vasily Vereshchagin and Nikolai Khludov, who intensively travelled in Central Asia. Khludov had a particular influence on the development of the local school of painting, becoming the teacher of many local artists. The most famous of these is Abilkhan Kasteyev, after whom the State Museum of Art of Kazakhstan was renamed in 1984.{{Cite web|title=A. KASTEYEV STATE MUSEUM OF ARTS OF THE REPUBLIC OF KAZAKHSTAN|url=https://www.gmirk.kz/en/home|access-date=5 January 2021|archive-date=10 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110041209/https://www.gmirk.kz/en/home|url-status=live}}

The Kazakh school of fine arts was fully formed by the 1940s and flourished in the 1950s. Local painters, graphic artists and sculptors, trained under the unified Soviet system of artist education, began active work, often using national motifs in their art. The painters O. Tansykbaev, J. Shardenov, K. Telzhanov, and S. Aitbaev, graphic artists E. Sidorkina and A. Duzelkhanov, and sculptors H. Nauryzbaeva and E. Sergebaeva are today counted among the key figures of Kazakhstani art.

{{Main|Kazakh cuisine}}

In the national cuisine, livestock meat, like horse meat{{Cite web|title=10 Most Popular Kazakhstani Dishes|url=https://www.tasteatlas.com/most-popular-dishes-in-kazakhstan|access-date=2021-03-25|website=tasteatlas.com|archive-date=17 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417192354/https://www.tasteatlas.com/most-popular-dishes-in-kazakhstan|url-status=live}} and beef can be cooked in a variety of ways and is usually served with a wide assortment of traditional bread products. Refreshments include black tea, often served with milk and dried fruits (such as dried apricots) and nuts. In southern provinces, people often prefer green tea. Traditional milk-derived drinks such as ayran, shubat and kymyz. A traditional Kazakh dinner involves a variety of appetisers on the table, followed by a soup and one or two main courses such as pilaf and beshbarmak. They also drink their national beverage, kumys, which consists of fermented mare's milk.{{cite web|title=Cuisine of Kazakhstan|url=https://kazakhstan.orexca.com/kazakhstan_cuisine.shtml|website=Oriental Express Central Asia|access-date=17 January 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118053709/https://kazakhstan.orexca.com/kazakhstan_cuisine.shtml|archive-date=18 January 2017}}

{{Main|Sport in Kazakhstan}}

File:Astana Arena 2014-03-15.JPG opened in 2009.]]

Kazakhstan consistently performs in Olympic competitions. It is especially successful in boxing. This has brought some attention to the Central Asian nation and increased world awareness of its athletes. Dmitry Karpov and Olga Rypakova are among the most notable Kazakhstani athletes. Dmitry Karpov is a distinguished decathlete, taking bronze in both the 2004 Summer Olympics, and the 2003 and 2007 World Athletics Championships. Olga Rypakova is an athlete, specialising in triple jump (women's), taking silver in the 2011 World Championships in Athletics and Gold in the 2012 Summer Olympics. Kazakhstan's city of Almaty submitted bids twice for the Winter Olympics: in 2014 and again for the 2022 Winter Olympics. Astana and Almaty hosted the 2011 Asian Winter Games.{{cite news|title=2011 Asian Winter Games|url=http://www.iihf.com/home-of-hockey/championships/asia/2011-asian-games/|access-date=5 November 2017|publisher=International Ice Hockey Federation|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107012714/http://www.iihf.com/home-of-hockey/championships/asia/2011-asian-games/|archive-date=7 November 2017}}

Popular sports in Kazakhstan include football, basketball, ice hockey, bandy, and boxing.

Football is the most popular sport in Kazakhstan. The Football Federation of Kazakhstan is the sport's national governing body. The FFK organises the men's, women's, and futsal national teams.

Kazakhstan's most famous basketball player was Alzhan Zharmukhamedov, who played for CSKA Moscow and the Soviet Union's national basketball team in the 1960s and 1970s. Kazakhstan's national basketball team was established in 1992, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Since its foundation, it has been competitive at the continental level. Its greatest accomplishment was at the 2002 Asian Games, where it defeated the Philippines in its last game to win the bronze medal. At the official Asian Basketball Championship, now called FIBA Asia Cup, the Kazakhs' best finish was 4th place in 2007.

The Kazakhstan national bandy team is among the best in the world, and has many times won the bronze medal at the Bandy World Championship, including the 2012 edition when Kazakhstan hosted the tournament on home ice.{{Cite web|url=https://bandy2012.kz/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120124005338/http://bandy2012.kz/en/|url-status=dead |title=Ставки на Футбол – bandy2012.kz|date=13 March 2021|archivedate=24 January 2012}}{{cite web|url=http://bandyvm2015.ru/assets/images/gruppa-a/sas_2882-800x532.jpg |title=Team picture after the bronze medal had been captured in WCS 2015|access-date=10 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150409225605/http://bandyvm2015.ru/assets/images/gruppa-a/sas_2882-800x532.jpg |archive-date=9 April 2015|url-status=live}} The team won the first bandy tournament at the Asian Winter Games. During the Soviet time, Dynamo Alma-Ata won the Soviet Union national championships in 1977 and 1990 and the European Cup in 1978. Bandy is developed in ten of the country's seventeen administrative divisions (eight of the fourteen regions and two of the three cities which are situated inside of but are not part of regions).{{cite web|url=http://bandyvm2015.ru/en/news/?newsid=365|title=News – XXXV Чемпионат мира по хоккею с мячом|website=bandyvm2015.ru|access-date=10 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604031406/http://bandyvm2015.ru/en/news/?newsid=365|archive-date=4 June 2016|url-status=live}} Akzhaiyk from Oral, however, is the only professional club.

File:Nik Antropov Jets 2012-02-11.JPG]]

The Kazakh national ice hockey team have competed in ice hockey in the 1998 and 2006 Winter Olympics, as well as in the 2006 Men's World Ice Hockey Championships. The Kazakhstan Hockey Championship is held since 1992. Barys Astana is the main domestic Kazakhstani ice hockey professional team, and having played in the Kazakhstani national league until the 2008–09 season, when they were transferred to play in the Kontinental Hockey League. Meanwhile, the Kazzinc-Torpedo and play in the Supreme Hockey League since 1996 and the Saryarka Karagandy since 2012. Top Kazakhstani ice hockey players include Nik Antropov, Ivan Kulshov and Evgeni Nabokov.

Kazakh boxers are generally well known in the world. In the last three Olympic Games, their performance was assessed as one of the best and they had more medals than any country in the world, except Cuba and Russia (in all three games). In 1996 and 2004, three Kazakhstani boxers (Vassiliy Jirov in 1996, Bakhtiyar Artayev in 2004 and Serik Sapiyev in 2012) were recognised as the best boxers for their techniques with the Val Barker Trophy, awarded to the best boxer of the tournament. In boxing, Kazakhstan performed well in the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney. Two boxers, Bekzat Sattarkhanov and Yermakhan Ibraimov, earned gold medals. Another two boxers, Bulat Zhumadilov and Mukhtarkhan Dildabekov, earned silver medals. Oleg Maskaev, born in Zhambyl, representing Russia, was the WBC Heavyweight Champion after knocking out Hasim Rahman on 12 August 2006. The reigning WBA, WBC, IBF and IBO middleweight champion is Kazakh boxer Gennady Golovkin. Natascha Ragosina, representing Russia, but from Qarağandy held seven versions of the women's super middleweight title, and two heavyweight titles during her boxing career. She holds the record as the longest-reigning WBA female super middleweight champion, and the longest-reigning WBC female super middleweight champion.

{{Main|Cinema of Kazakhstan}}

File:Red Carpet at AIAFF.jpg, 2010]]

Kazakhstan's film industry is run through the state-owned Kazakhfilm studios based in Almaty. The studio has produced movies such as Myn Bala, Harmony Lessons, and Shal.{{cite web|title=Kazakhfilm Studios|url=https://www.imdb.com/search/title/?companies=co0036615/|publisher=IMDbPro.com|accessdate=2022-10-10|archive-date=10 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221010180922/https://www.imdb.com/search/title/?companies=co0036615/|url-status=live}} Kazakhstan is the host of the International Astana Action Film Festival and the Eurasia International Film Festival held annually. Hollywood director Timur Bekmambetov is from Kazakhstan and has become active in bridging Hollywood to the Kazakhstan film industry.{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YnBdDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT646 |title=Lonely Planet Central Asia |last1=Lioy |first1=Stephen |last2=Kaminski |first2=Anna |last3=Mayhew |first3=Bradley |last4=Walker |first4=Jenny |date=2018 |publisher=Lonely Planet |isbn=978-1-78701-960-7 |language=en |access-date=15 September 2023 |archive-date=3 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231003022334/https://books.google.com/books?id=YnBdDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT646 |url-status=live }}

Kazakhstan journalist Artur Platonov won Best Script for his documentary "Sold Souls" about Kazakhstan's contribution to the struggle against terrorism at the 2013 Cannes Corporate Media and TV Awards.[http://ortcom.kz/en/news/artur-platonov-wins-cannes-corporate-media--tv-award-2013.2571 CCS · Artur Platonov wins Cannes Corporate Media & TV Award 2013] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101051159/http://ortcom.kz/en/news/artur-platonov-wins-cannes-corporate-media--tv-award-2013.2571 |date=1 January 2016 }}. Ortcom.kz (5 November 2013). Retrieved 8 March 2014.[http://www.cannescorporate.com/en/winners2013.php Cannes Corporate Media & TV Awards: Winners 2013] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907030048/http://www.cannescorporate.com/en/winners2013.php |date=7 September 2015 }}. Cannescorporate.com. Retrieved 8 March 2014.

Serik Aprymov's Little Brother (Bauyr) won at the Central and Eastern Europe Film Festival goEast from the German Federal Foreign Office.{{cite web|title=Kazakhstan's Little Brother takes Federal Foreign Office award at goEast|date=20 April 2014|url=http://en.tengrinews.kz/cinema_and_music/Kazakhstans-Little-Brother-takes-Federal-Foreign-Office-award-at-goEast-253027/|publisher=TengriNews|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140712032054/http://en.tengrinews.kz/cinema_and_music/Kazakhstans-Little-Brother-takes-Federal-Foreign-Office-award-at-goEast-253027/|archive-date=12 July 2014}}

{{Main|Media of Kazakhstan}}

File:Timur Bekmambetov by Gage Skidmore.jpg, a popular Kazakh film director]]

Kazakhstan is ranked 161 out of 180 countries on the Reporters Without Borders World Press Freedom Index{{cite web|title=World Press Freedom Index 2014|url=https://rsf.org/en/ranking/2014|website=Reporters Without Borders|access-date=31 August 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140214120404/http://rsf.org/index2014/en-index2014.php|archive-date=14 February 2014}} A mid-March 2002 court order, with the government as a plaintiff, stated that Respublika were to stop printing for three months.{{cite news|author=Wines, Michael|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/07/13/world/the-saturday-profile-bruised-but-still-jabbing-kazakh-heavyweights.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm|title=Wines 2012|work=The New York Times|date=13 July 2002|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928072344/http://www.nytimes.com/2002/07/13/world/the-saturday-profile-bruised-but-still-jabbing-kazakh-heavyweights.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm|archive-date=28 September 2013}} The order was evaded by printing under other titles, such as Not That Respublika. In early 2014, a court also issued a cease publication order to the small-circulation Assandi-Times newspaper, saying it was a part of the Respublika group. Human Rights Watch said: "this absurd case displays the lengths to which Kazakh authorities are willing to go to bully critical media into silence."{{cite web|title=Kazakhstan: Newspaper Closing a Blow to Free Speech|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2014/04/22/kazakhstan-newspaper-closing-blow-free-speech|website=Human Rights Watch|date=22 April 2014|access-date=31 August 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140830121944/http://www.hrw.org/news/2014/04/22/kazakhstan-newspaper-closing-blow-free-speech|archive-date=30 August 2014}}

With support from the US Department of State's Bureau for Democracy, Human Rights and Labor (DRL), the American Bar Association Rule of Law Initiative opened a media support centre in Almaty to assist press outlets in Kazakhstan.{{cite web |title=Access to Justice and Human Rights |url=http://www.americanbar.org/advocacy/rule_of_law/where_we_work/europe_eurasia/kazakhstan/programs_past.html |publisher=American Bar Association |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304025650/http://www.americanbar.org/advocacy/rule_of_law/where_we_work/europe_eurasia/kazakhstan/programs_past.html |archive-date=4 March 2016 |access-date=27 November 2013 }}

File:Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi in Hazrat-e Turkestan, Kazakhstan.jpg]]

Kazakhstan has three cultural and two natural sites on the UNESCO World Heritage list. The cultural sites are:

• Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yassaui, added in 2003
• Petroglyphs within the Archaeological Landscape of Tamgaly, added in 2004
• Silk Roads: the Routes Network of Chang'an-Tianshan Corridor, added in 2014

The natural sites are:

• Saryarka - Steppe and Lakes of Northern Kazakhstan, added in 2008
• Western Tien Shan, added in 2016{{cite web|title=Kazakhstan|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/KZ/|publisher=UNESCO|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160530104414/https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/Kz|archive-date=30 May 2016}}

{{Main|Public holidays in Kazakhstan}}

{{Portal|Asia|Europe|Countries}}

• Outline of Kazakhstan
• Index of Kazakhstan-related articles
• Aurora Minerals Group

{{notelist

| notes =

{{efn

| name = language2

| Recognized as an official language and can be used in government institutions and organizations alongside state language.

}}

}}

{{Reflist}}

{{refbegin}}

{{Free-content attribution

| title = UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030

| author = UNESCO

| publisher = UNESCO Publishing

| page numbers = 365–387

| source =

| documentURL = http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002354/235406e.pdf

| license statement URL =

| license = CC BY-SA IGO 3.0

}}

{{refend}}

{{See also|Bibliography of the history of Central Asia}}

{{refbegin}}

• {{Cite book|title=Uneasy Alliance: Relations Between Russia and Kazakhstan in the Post-Soviet Era, 1992–1997 |first=Mikhail |last=Alexandrov |location=Westport, CT |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=1999 |isbn=0-313-30965-5 }}
• Cameron, Sarah. (2018) The Hungry Steppe: Famine, Violence, and the Making of Soviet Kazakhstan (Cornell University Press, 2018) [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=55459 online review] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210410142038/https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=55459 |date=10 April 2021 }}
• {{Cite book|title=Lonely Planet Guide: Central Asia |first1=Paul |last1=Clammer |first2=Michael |last2=Kohn |name-list-style=amp |first3=Bradley |last3=Mayhew |location=Oakland, CA |publisher=Lonely Planet |year=2004 |isbn=1-86450-296-7}}
• {{Cite book|title=Kazakhstan: Power and the Elite |first=Sally |last=Cummings |location=London |publisher=Tauris |year=2002 |isbn=1-86064-854-1}}
• {{Cite book|title=The Russian Colonization of Kazakhstan |first=George |last=Demko |location=New York |publisher=Routledge |year=1997 |isbn=0-7007-0380-2 }}
• {{Cite book|title=Kazakhstan: Coming of Age |first1=Michael |last1=Fergus |name-list-style=amp |first2=Janar |last2=Jandosova |location=London |publisher=Stacey International |year=2003 |isbn=1-900988-61-5}}
• {{Cite book|title=Journey into Kazakhstan: The True Face of the Nazarbayev Regime |first=Alexandra |last=George |location=Lanham |publisher=University Press of America |year=2001 |isbn=0-7618-1964-9}}
• {{Cite book|title=Law and Custom in the Steppe |first=Virginia |last=Martin |location=Richmond |publisher=Curzon |year=2000 |isbn=0-7007-1405-7}}
• Nahaylo, Bohdan and Victor Swoboda. Soviet Disunion: A History of the Nationalities problem in the USSR (1990) [https://www.amazon.com/Soviet-Disunion-Bohdan-Nahaylo/dp/0029224012/ excerpt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210316000833/https://www.amazon.com/Soviet-Disunion-Bohdan-Nahaylo/dp/0029224012/ |date=16 March 2021 }}
• {{Cite book|title=Epicenter of Peace |first=Nursultan |last=Nazarbayev |location=Hollis, NH |publisher=Puritan Press |year=2001 |isbn=1-884186-13-0 }}
• {{Cite book|title=Post-Soviet Chaos: Violence and Dispossession in Kazakhstan |first=Joma |last=Nazpary |location=London |publisher=Pluto Press |year=2002 |isbn=0-7453-1503-8}}
• {{Cite book |title=Kazakhstan: Unfulfilled Promise |first=Martha Brill |last=Olcott |location=Washington, DC |publisher=Brookings Institution Press |year=2002 |isbn=0-87003-189-9 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/kazakhstanunfulf00olco }}
• {{Cite book |title=Silk Road to Ruin: Is Central Asia the New Middle East? |first=Ted |last=Rall |location=New York |publisher=NBM |year=2006 |isbn=1-56163-454-9 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/silkroadtoruinis0000rall }}
• Rashid, Ahmed. The Resurgence of Central Asia: Islam or Nationalism? (2017)
• {{Cite book|title=In Search of Kazakhstan: The Land That Disappeared |first=Christopher |last=Robbins |location=London |publisher=Profile Books |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-86197-868-4}}
• {{Cite book|title=Once in Kazakhstan: The Snow Leopard Emerges |first=Keith |last=Rosten |location=New York |publisher=iUniverse |year=2005 |isbn=0-595-32782-6}}
• Smith, Graham, ed. The Nationalities Question in the Soviet Union (2nd ed. 1995)
• {{Cite book |title=The Lost Heart of Asia |first=Colin |last=Thubron |location=New York |publisher=HarperCollins |year=1994 |isbn=0-06-018226-1 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/lostheartofasia00thub }}

{{refend}}

{{Sister project links|Kazakhstan|voy=Kazakhstan}}

General

• [https://web.archive.org/web/20160101051159/https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552643 Caspian Pipeline Controversy] from the [https://web.archive.org/web/20160115205405/https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552494 Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives]
• [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/country_profiles/1298071.stm Country Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170601223919/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/country_profiles/1298071.stm |date=1 June 2017 }} from BBC News.
• [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/kazakhstan/ Kazakhstan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109132304/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/kazakhstan |date=9 January 2021 }}. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
• [https://2009-2017.state.gov/p/sca/ci/kz/ Kazakhstan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190604153204/https://2009-2017.state.gov/p/sca/ci/kz/ |date=4 June 2019 }} information from the United States Department of State
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20100309085822/http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/amed/kazakhstan/kazakhstan.html Portals to the World] from the United States Library of Congress.
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20160304053245/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/kazakhstan.htm Kazakhstan] at UCB Libraries GovPubs.
• [http://mfa.kz/ Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Kazakhstan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929145154/http://mfa.kz/ |date=29 September 2011 }}
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20110929170237/http://www.worldbank.org.kz/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/ECAEXT/KAZAKHSTANEXTN/0,,contentMDK:20212143~menuPK:361895~pagePK:1497618~piPK:217854~theSitePK:361869,00.html World Bank Data & Statistics for Kazakhstan]
• [http://en.encyclopedia.kz/ Kazakhstan Internet Encyclopedia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210222042315/http://en.toikazan.kz/index.php/Main_Page |date=22 February 2021 }}
• [http://www.economist.com/node/21541853 Kazakhstan at 20 years of independence, The Economist, 17 December 2011] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111222105248/http://www.economist.com/node/21541853 |date=22 December 2011 }}
• [https://www.economist.com/blogs/banyan/2011/12/unrest-kazakhstan "Blowing the lid off" – Unrest in Kazakhstan, The Economist, 20 December 2011] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701131444/http://www.economist.com/blogs/banyan/2011/12/unrest-kazakhstan |date=1 July 2017 }}
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20181104065103/http://theregionaltourism.org/ The Region Initiative (TRI)]
• {{Wikiatlas|Kazakhstan}}
• {{osmrelation-inline|214665}}
• [http://www.kazakhstandiscovery.com/kazakhstan-facts.html Country Facts] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110101112856/http://www.kazakhstandiscovery.com/kazakhstan-facts.html |date=1 January 2011 }} from [http://www.kazakhstandiscovery.com/ Kazakhstan Discovery] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110208205735/http://www.kazakhstandiscovery.com/ |date=8 February 2011 }}
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20090226175009/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2008/sca/119135.htm 2008 Human Rights Report: Kazakhstan. Department of State; Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor]
• [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=KZ Key Development Forecasts for Kazakhstan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120630165914/http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=KZ |date=30 June 2012 }} from International Futures.

Government

• [http://www.mfa.kz/ Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Kazakhstan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929145154/http://www.mfa.kz/ |date=29 September 2011 }}
• [http://e.gov.kz/wps/portal?lang=en E-Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130126100131/http://e.gov.kz/wps/portal?lang=en |date=26 January 2013 }}
• [https://www.gov.kz/ Government of Kazakhstan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220921123445/https://www.gov.kz/ |date=21 September 2022 }}
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20130917225116/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/world-leaders-k/kazakhstan.html Chief of State and Cabinet Members]

Trade

• [http://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/Country/KAZ/Year/2012/Summary World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Kazakhstan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151023152736/http://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/Country/KAZ/Year/2012/Summary |date=23 October 2015 }}

{{Kazakhstan topics}}

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