Arab Spring#United Arab Emirates (2011)

The denomination "Arab Spring" is contested by some scholars and observers claiming that the term is problematic for several reasons. First, it was coined by Western commentators, not those involved in the events. The first specific use of the term Arab Spring as used to denote these events may have started with the US political journal Foreign Policy. Political scientist Marc Lynch described Arab Spring as "a term I may have unintentionally coined in a 6 January 2011 article" for Foreign Policy magazine. Protestors involved in the events however described their own political actions as "uprising" (intifada), Arab "awakening" (sahwa) and Arab "renaissance" (nahda), using expressions like al-marar al-Arabi (the Arab bitterness), karama (dignity) and thawra (revolution).

Some authors argue that western governments, scholars and media used the term to minimize people’s revolutionary aims and discourse. Joseph Massad on Al Jazeera said the term was "part of a US strategy of controlling the movement's aims and goals" and directing it towards Western-style liberal democracy. When Arab Spring protests in some countries were followed by electoral success for Islamist parties, some American pundits coined the terms Islamist SpringThe Atlantic: [https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2012/09/muslim-protests-has-obama-helped-bring-on-an-anti-us-islamist-spring/262731/ Muslim Protests: Has Obama Helped Bring On an Anti-U.S. 'Islamist Spring'?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161010222144/http://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2012/09/muslim-protests-has-obama-helped-bring-on-an-anti-us-islamist-spring/262731/|date=10 October 2016}}, 23 September 2012, retrieved 30 November 2012 and Islamist Winter.Foreign Policy: [https://foreignpolicy.com/articles/2012/07/19/learning_to_live_with_the_islamist_winter Learning to Live With the Islamist Winter] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141019165821/http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2012/07/19/learning_to_live_with_the_islamist_winter|date=19 October 2014}}, 19 July 2012, retrieved 30 November 2012

The term "Spring" further illustrates the problematic nature of projecting Western expectations onto non-Western actors and practices. The terminology follows the Western example of the Revolutions of 1848 referred to as "Spring of Nations" and the Prague Spring in 1968, in which a Czech student, Jan Palach, set himself on fire as Mohamed Bouazizi did. In the aftermath of the Iraq War, it was used by various commentators and bloggers who anticipated a major Arab movement towards democratization.Krauthammer, Charles (21 March 2005): [http://seattletimes.com/html/opinion/2002214060_krauthammer21.html "The Arab Spring of 2005"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130910040039/http://seattletimes.com/html/opinion/2002214060_krauthammer21.html|date=10 September 2013}}. The Seattle Times. Retrieved 7 July 2013. The term "Arab Spring" is thus contested as it signifies an expectation that the events would replicate the example of democratic revolutions set by the West.

The world watched the events of the Arab Spring unfold, "gripped by the narrative of a young generation peacefully rising up against oppressive authoritarianism to secure a more democratic political system and a brighter economic future". The Arab Spring is widely believed to have been instigated by dissatisfaction, particularly of youth and unions, with the rule of local governments, though some have speculated that wide gaps in income levels and pressures caused by the Great Recession may have had a hand as well.*[https://www.scribd.com/doc/90470593/The-CenSEI-Report-Vol-2-No-6-February-13-19-2012#outer_page_23 The Arab Spring—One Year Later: The CenSEI Report analyzes how 2011's clamor for democratic reform met 2012's need to sustain its momentum.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130426035130/http://www.scribd.com/doc/90470593/The-CenSEI-Report-Vol-2-No-6-February-13-19-2012|date=26 April 2013}} The CenSEI Report, 13 February 2012 Some activists had taken part in programs sponsored by the US-funded National Endowment for Democracy, but the US government claimed that they did not initiate the uprisings.*{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/15/world/15aid.html |title=U.S. Groups Helped Nurture Arab Uprisings|newspaper=The New York Times|date=14 April 2011|access-date=2017-02-24|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170123045240/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/15/world/15aid.html |archive-date=23 January 2017|last1=Nixon|first1=Ron}} The New York Times, 14 April 2011

Numerous factors led to the protests, including issues such as reform,{{cite journal|title=Alexander Kazamias, 'The "Anger Revolutions" in the Middle East: an answer to decades of failed reform', Journal of Balkan and Near Eastern Studies, 13:2, June 2011, pp.143–156.|url=https://www.academia.edu/919845|journal=Journal of Balkan and Near Eastern Studies|volume=13|issue=2|pages=143–156|access-date=20 February 2016|last1=Kazamias|first1=Alexander|doi=10.1080/19448953.2011.578857|s2cid=143734061|archive-date=18 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220318030550/https://www.academia.edu/919845|url-status=live}} human rights violations, political corruption, economic decline, unemployment, extreme poverty, and a number of demographic structural factors, such as a large percentage of educated but dissatisfied youth within the entire population. Catalysts for the revolts in all Northern African and Persian Gulf countries included the concentration of wealth in the hands of monarchs in power for decades, insufficient transparency of its redistribution, corruption, and especially the refusal of the youth to accept the status quo.{{cite news |last1=Reverchon|first1=Antoine|last2=de Tricornot|first2=Adrien|date=13 April 2011|title=La rente pétrolière ne garantit plus la paix sociale|url=http://lemonde-emploi.blog.lemonde.fr/2011/03/15/%C2%AB-la-rente-petroliere-ne-garantit-plus-la-paix-sociale-%C2%BB-dans-%C2%AB-le-monde-economie-%C2%BB/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110317085246/http://lemonde-emploi.blog.lemonde.fr/2011/03/15/%C2%AB-la-rente-petroliere-ne-garantit-plus-la-paix-sociale-%C2%BB-dans-%C2%AB-le-monde-economie-%C2%BB/|archive-date=17 March 2011}}

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Some protesters looked to the Turkish model as an ideal (contested but peaceful elections, fast-growing but liberal economy, secular constitution but Islamist government).Perez, Ines (4 March 2013).[http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/climate-change-and-rising-food-prices-heightened-arab-spring/ "Climate Change and Rising Food Prices Heightened Arab Spring"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017084429/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/climate-change-and-rising-food-prices-heightened-arab-spring/ |date=17 October 2014 }}. Scientific American.Friedman, Thomas (7 April 2012).[https://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/08/opinion/sunday/friedman-the-other-arab-spring.html "The Other Arab Spring"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129012246/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/08/opinion/sunday/friedman-the-other-arab-spring.html |date=29 November 2016 }}. The New York Times.Natalini, Jones & Bravo (14 April 2015).[http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/7/4/4360 "Quantitative Assessment of Political Fragility Indices and Food Prices as Indicators of Food Riots in Countries"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150501200023/http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/7/4/4360 |date=1 May 2015 }}. Sustainability. Other analysts blamed the rise in food prices on commodity traders and the conversion of crops to ethanol.{{cite web|url=http://motherboard.vice.com/read/commodities-traders-helped-spark-the-war-in-syria-complex-systems-theorists-say|title=Climate Change and Rising Food Prices Heightened Arab Spring|last=Merchant|first=Brian|date=26 October 2015|website=Motherboard|publisher=Vice Media|access-date=7 February 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308075730/http://motherboard.vice.com/read/commodities-traders-helped-spark-the-war-in-syria-complex-systems-theorists-say|archive-date=8 March 2016}} Yet others have claimed that the context of high rates of unemployment and corrupt political regimes led to dissent movements within the region.{{cite web|last=Ross|first=Alec|title=Social Media: Cause, Effect and Response|url=http://www.nato.int/docu/review/2011/social_medias/21st-century-statecraft/EN/index.htm|work=NATO Review |author2=Ben Scott|year=2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111103083700/http://www.nato.int/docu/review/2011/Social_Medias/21st-century-statecraft/EN/index.htm|archive-date=3 November 2011}}

{{Main|Social media's role in the Arab Spring}}

In the wake of the Arab Spring protests, a considerable amount of attention focused on the role of social media and digital technologies in allowing citizens within areas affected by "the Arab Uprisings" as a means for collective activism to circumvent state-operated media channels.{{cite web|title=CNN at SXSW: Social media in Arab Spring|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1bSj4f9f8Eg&desktop_uri=%2Fwatch%3Fv%3D1bSj4f9f8Eg|via=YouTube|format=Online video clip|date=12 March 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150113000730/http://m.youtube.com/watch?v=1bSj4f9f8Eg&desktop_uri=%2Fwatch%3Fv%3D1bSj4f9f8Eg|archive-date=13 January 2015}} The influence of social media on political activism during the Arab Spring has, however, been much debated. Protests took place both in states with a very high level of Internet usage (such as Bahrain with 88% of its population online in 2011) and in states with some of the lowest Internet penetration (Yemen and Libya).{{cite web|last1=Stepanova|first1=Ekaterina|title=The Role of Information Communication Technologies in the "Arab Spring"|url=http://pircenter.org/kosdata/page_doc/p2594_2.pdf|website=Pircenter.org/|access-date=17 May 2015|date=May 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518101038/http://pircenter.org/kosdata/page_doc/p2594_2.pdf|archive-date=18 May 2015}}

The use of social media platforms more than doubled in Arab countries during the protests, with the exception of Libya. Some researchers have shown how collective intelligence, dynamics of the crowd in participatory systems such as social media, has immense power to support a collective action—such as foment a political change. {{As of|2011|04|05}}, the number of Facebook users in the Arab world surpassed 27.7 million people. Some critics have argued that digital technologies and other forms of communication—videos, cellular phones, blogs, photos, emails, and text messages—have brought about the concept of a "digital democracy" in parts of North Africa affected by the uprisings.{{cite book|last1=Wellman|first1=Barry|last2=Rainie|first2=Lee|title=Networked|date=2014|publisher=The MIT Press|location=Boston, MA|page=207}}{{cite web|url=http://www.nato.int/docu/review/2011/social_medias/EN/index.htm|title=NATO Review - Social media: Power to the people?|access-date=2 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610184900/http://www.nato.int/docu/review/2011/social_medias/EN/index.htm|archive-date=10 June 2016}}

Facebook, Twitter, and other major social media played a key role in the movement of Egyptian and Tunisian activists in particular.{{Cite news|title=Egyptians and Tunisians Collaborated to Shake Arab History|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/14/world/middleeast/14egypt-tunisia-protests.html|newspaper=The New York Times|date=13 February 2011|access-date=4 February 2016|issn=0362-4331|first1=David D.|last1=Kirkpatrick|first2=David E.|last2=Sanger|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201122145/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/14/world/middleeast/14egypt-tunisia-protests.html|archive-date=1 February 2016}} Nine out of ten Egyptians and Tunisians responded to a poll that they used Facebook to organize protests and spread awareness. This large population of young Egyptian men referred to themselves as "the Facebook generation", exemplifying their escape from their non-modernized past.{{cite book|last1=Rainie|first1=Lee|last2=Wellman|first2=Barry|title=Networked|date=2014|publisher=The MIT Press|location=Boston, MA|page=207}} Furthermore, 28% of Egyptians and 29% of Tunisians from the same poll said that blocking Facebook greatly hindered and/or disrupted communication. Social media sites were a platform for different movements formed by many frustrated citizens, including the 2008 "April 6 Youth Movement" organized by Ahmed Mahed, which set out to organize and promote a nationwide labor strike and which inspired the later creation of the "Progressive Youth of Tunisia".{{cite book|last1=Wellman|first1=Barry|last2=Rainie|first2=Lee|title=Networked|date=2014|publisher=The MIT Press|location=Boston, MA|page=208}}

During the Arab Spring, people created pages on Facebook to raise awareness about alleged crimes against humanity, such as police brutality in the Egyptian Revolution (see Wael Ghonim and Death of Khaled Mohamed Saeed).{{Cite journal|last=Mellen|first=Roger|date=2013|title=Modern Arab Uprisings and Social Media: An Historical Perspective on Media and Revolution|journal=Explorations in Media Ecology}} Whether the project of raising awareness was primarily pursued by Arabs themselves or simply advertised by Western social media users is a matter of debate. Jared Keller, a journalist for The Atlantic, claims that most activists and protesters used Facebook (among other social media) to organize; however, what influenced Iran was "good old-fashioned word of mouth". Jared Keller argued that the sudden and anomalous social media output was caused from Westerners witnessing the situation(s), and then broadcasting them. The Middle East and North Africa used texting, emailing, and blogging only to organize and communicate information about internal local protests.{{cite news |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2010/06/evaluating-irans-twitter-revolution/58337/|title=Evaluating Iran's Twitter Revolution|last=Keller|first=Jared|date=18 June 2010|website=The Atlantic|access-date=4 February 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160117195744/http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2010/06/evaluating-irans-twitter-revolution/58337/|archive-date=17 January 2016}}

A study by Zeynep Tufekci of the University of North Carolina and Christopher Wilson of the United Nations Development Program concluded that "social media in general, and Facebook in particular, provided new sources of information the regime could not easily control and were crucial in shaping how citizens made individual decisions about participating in protests, the logistics of protest, and the likelihood of success.""Debate flares on 'Twitter revolutions,' Arab Spring." Agence France-Presse 10 March 2013. NewsBank. Web. 26 October 2016. Marc Lynch of George Washington University said, "while social media boosters envisioned the creation of a new public sphere based on dialogue and mutual respect, the reality is that Islamists and their adversaries retreat to their respective camps, reinforcing each other's prejudices while throwing the occasional rhetorical bomb across the no-man's land that the center has become." Lynch also stated in a Foreign Policy article, "There is something very different about scrolling through pictures and videos of unified, chanting Yemeni or Egyptian crowds demanding democratic change and waking up to a gory image of a headless 6-year-old girl on your Facebook news feed."{{cite web|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2013/02/07/twitter-devolutions/|title=Twitter Devolutions|website=Foreign Policy|date=7 February 2013 |access-date=2016-10-27|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161007024431/http://foreignpolicy.com/2013/02/07/twitter-devolutions/|archive-date=7 October 2016}}

In the months leading up to events in Tunisia, Department of Homeland Security, Customs and Border Protection, Communications Program Manager Jonathan Stevens predicted the use of "collaborative Internet utilities" to effect governmental change. In his thesis, [http://sdsu-dspace.calstate.edu/bitstream/handle/10211.10/608/Stevens_Jonathan.pdf Webeaucracy: The Collaborative Revolution] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190228130402/http://sdsu-dspace.calstate.edu/bitstream/handle/10211.10/608/Stevens_Jonathan.pdf |date=28 February 2019 }}, Stevens put forth that unlike writing, printing, and telecommunications, "collaborative Internet utilities" denote a sea-change in the ability of crowds to effect social change. People and collaborative Internet utilities can be described as actor-networks; the subitizing limit (and history) suggests people left to their own devices cannot fully harness the mental power of crowds. Metcalfe's law suggests that as the number of nodes increases, the value of collaborative actor-networks increases quadratically; collaborative Internet utilities effectively increase the subitizing limit, and, at some macro scale, these interactive collaborative actor-networks can be described by the same rules that govern Parallel Distributed Processing, resulting in crowd sourcing that acts as a type of distributed collective consciousness. The Internet assumes the role of earlier totemic religious figureheads, uniting the members of society through mechanical solidarity forming a collective consciousness. Through many-to-many collaborative Internet utilities, the Webeaucracy is empowered as never before.{{cite thesis |url=http://sdsu-dspace.calstate.edu/bitstream/handle/10211.10/608/Stevens_Jonathan.pdf |publisher=San Diego State University |last=Stevens |first=Jonathan |date=20 October 2010 |title=Webeaucracy: The Collaborative Revolution |access-date=28 February 2019 |archive-date=28 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190228130402/http://sdsu-dspace.calstate.edu/bitstream/handle/10211.10/608/Stevens_Jonathan.pdf |url-status=dead }}

Social networks were not the only instrument for rebels to coordinate their efforts and communicate. In the countries with the lowest Internet penetration and the limited role of social networks, such as Yemen and Libya, the role of mainstream electronic media devices—cellular phones, emails, and video clips (e.g., YouTube)—was very important to cast the light on the situation in the country and spread the word about the protests in the outside world. In Egypt, in Cairo particularly, mosques were one of the main platforms to coordinate the protest actions and raise awareness to the masses.{{cite journal|last1=Demidov|first1=Oleg|title=Social Networks in International and National Security|journal=Security Index|date=2012|volume=18|issue=1|pages=22–36|doi=10.1080/19934270.2012.634122|issn=1993-4270}}

Conversely, scholarship literature on the Middle East, political scientist Gregory Gause has found, had failed to predict the events of the Arab uprisings. Commenting on an early article by Gause whose review of a decade of Middle Eastern studies led him to conclude that almost no scholar foresaw what was coming, Chair of Ottoman and Turkish Studies at Tel Aviv University Ehud R. Toledano writes that Gause's finding is "a strong and sincere mea culpa" and that his criticism of Middle East experts for "underestimating the hidden forces driving change ... while they worked instead to explain the unshakable stability of repressive authoritarian regimes" is well-placed. Toledano then quotes Gause saying, "As they wipe the egg off their faces," those experts "need to reconsider long-held assumptions about the Arab world."{{cite web|url=https://dayan.org/file-download/download/public/11620|title=Middle East Historians and the Arab Spring: Early-Days Assessment|year=2011|publisher=Moshe Dayan Center for Middle Eastern and African Studies (MDC)|access-date=2 April 2019|archive-date=2 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402173543/https://dayan.org/file-download/download/public/11620|url-status=live}}

{{Main|Timeline of the Arab Spring}}

Tunisia experienced a series of conflicts during the three years leading up to the Arab Spring, the most notable occurring in the mining area of Gafsa in 2008, where protests continued for many months. These protests included rallies, sit-ins, and strikes, during which there were two fatalities, an unspecified number of wounded, and dozens of arrests.

In Egypt, the labor movement had been strong for years, with more than 3000 labor actions since 2004, and provided an important venue for organizing protests and collective action. One important demonstration was an attempted workers' strike on 6 April 2008 at the state-run textile factories of al-Mahalla al-Kubra, just outside Cairo. The idea for this type of demonstration spread throughout the country, promoted by computer-literate working-class youths and their supporters among middle-class college students. A Facebook page, set up to promote the strike, attracted tens of thousands of followers and provided the platform for sustained political action in pursuit of the "long revolution". The government mobilized to break the strike through infiltration and riot police, and while the regime was somewhat successful in forestalling a strike, dissidents formed the "6 April Committee" of youths and labor activists, which became one of the major forces calling for the anti-Mubarak demonstration on 25 January in Tahrir Square.

In Algeria, discontent had been building for years over a number of issues. In February 2008, US Ambassador Robert Ford wrote in a leaked diplomatic cable that Algeria is "unhappy" with long-standing political alienation; that social discontent persisted throughout the country, with food strikes occurring almost every week; that there were demonstrations every day somewhere in the country; and that the Algerian government was corrupt and fragile.{{citation needed|date=November 2023}} Some claimed that during 2010 there were as many as "9,700 riots and unrests" throughout the country. Many protests focused on issues such as education and health care, while others cited rampant corruption.

In Western Sahara, the Gdeim Izik protest camp was erected {{convert|12|km|mi}} southeast of El Aaiún by a group of young Sahrawis on 9 October 2010. Their intention was to demonstrate against labor discrimination, unemployment, looting of resources, and human rights abuses. The camp contained between {{gaps|12|000}} and {{gaps|20|000}} inhabitants, but on 8 November 2010 it was destroyed and its inhabitants evicted by Moroccan security forces. The security forces faced strong opposition from some young Sahrawi civilians, and rioting soon spread to El Aaiún and other towns within the territory, resulting in an unknown number of injuries and deaths. Violence against Sahrawis in the aftermath of the protests was cited as a reason for renewed protests months later, after the start of the Arab Spring.

The catalyst for the escalation of protests was the self-immolation of Tunisian Mohamed Bouazizi. Unable to find work and selling fruit at a roadside stand, Bouazizi had his wares confiscated by a municipal inspector on 17 December 2010. An hour later he doused himself with gasoline and set himself afire. His death on 4 January 2011 brought together various groups dissatisfied with the existing system, including many unemployed persons, political and human rights activists, labor and trade unionists, students, professors, lawyers, and others to begin the Tunisian Revolution.

The series of protests and demonstrations across the Middle East and North Africa that commenced in 2010 became known as the "Arab Spring", and sometimes as the "Arab Spring and Winter", "Arab Awakening", or "Arab Uprisings", even though not all the participants in the protests were Arab. It was sparked by the first protests that occurred in Tunisia on 18 December 2010 in Sidi Bouzid, following Mohamed Bouazizi's self-immolation in protest of police corruption and ill treatment. With the success of the protests in Tunisia, a wave of unrest sparked by the Tunisian "Burning Man" struck Algeria, Jordan, Egypt, and Yemen, then spread to other countries. The largest, most organized demonstrations often occurred on a "day of rage", usually Friday afternoon prayers. The protests also triggered similar unrest outside the region. Contrary to expectations the revolutions were not led by Islamists:

{{blockquote|Even though the Islamists were certainly present during the uprisings, they never determined the directions of these movements—after all, there was hardly any central leadership in any of the uprisings. Some Islamist groups initially were even reluctant to join in the protests, and the major religious groups in Egypt—Salafis, al-Azhar, and the Coptic Church—initially opposed the revolution. The mufti of Egypt, Ali Gomaa, proclaimed that rising against a lawful ruler—President Mubarak—was haram, not permissible. And the Muslim Brotherhood's old guard joined in the protests reluctantly only after being pushed by the group's young people.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_QQmDwAAQBAJ&q=rachid%20al-ghannouchi%20rebellion%20against%20the%20ruler&pg=PT189|title=Revolution without Revolutionaries: Making Sense of the Arab Spring|last=Bayat|first=Asef|date=2017|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=978-1-5036-0258-8|language=en-US}}}}

The Arab Spring caused the "biggest transformation of the Middle East since decolonization".A. Murat Agdemir. "The Arab Spring and Israel's Relations with Egypt. Israel Council of Foreign Affairs, 2016. Vol.10, No.2, pp. 223–235 By the end of February 2012, rulers had been forced from power in Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, and Yemen; civil uprisings had erupted in Bahrain and Syria; major protests had broken out in Algeria, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Morocco, Oman, and Sudan;{{Cite news|title=Sudan police clash with protesters|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/01/2011130131451294670.html|publisher=Al Jazeera|date=30 January 2011|access-date=25 September 2013|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201035536/http://english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2011/01/2011130131451294670.html |archive-date=1 February 2011}} and minor protests had occurred in Mauritania, Saudi Arabia, Djibouti, Western Sahara, and Palestine. Tunisian President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali fled to Saudi Arabia on 14 January 2011 following the Tunisian Revolution protests. Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak resigned on 11 February 2011 after 18 days of massive protests, ending his 30-year presidency. The Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi was overthrown on 23 August 2011, after the National Transitional Council (NTC) took control of Bab al-Azizia. He was killed on 20 October 2011 in his hometown of Sirte after the NTC took control of the city. Yemeni President Ali Abdullah Saleh signed the GCC power-transfer deal in which a presidential election was held, resulting in his successor Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi formally replacing him as president on 27 February 2012 in exchange for immunity from prosecution. Weapons and Tuareg fighters returning from the Libyan Civil War stoked a simmering conflict in Mali that has been described as 'fallout' from the Arab Spring in North Africa.{{cite news|url=http://www.upi.com/Top_News/Special/2012/03/26/Mali-coup-Arab-Spring-spreads-to-Africa/UPI-33131332791728/?spt=hs&or=tn |publisher=United Press International|title=Mali coup: Arab Spring spreads to Africa|date=26 March 2012|access-date=31 March 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202221420/http://www.upi.com/Top_News/Special/2012/03/26/Mali-coup-Arab-Spring-spreads-to-Africa/UPI-33131332791728/?spt=hs&or=tn|archive-date=2 December 2013}}

During this period, several leaders announced their intentions to step down at the end of their current terms. Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir announced that he would not seek reelection in 2015 (he ultimately retracted his announcement and ran anyway), as did Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki, whose term was to end in 2014, although there were violent demonstrations demanding his immediate resignation in 2011. Protests in Jordan also caused the sacking of four successive governments by King Abdullah. The popular unrest in Kuwait also resulted in the resignation of Prime Minister Nasser Al-Sabah's cabinet.

The geopolitical implications of the protests drew global attention. Some protesters were nominated for the 2011 Nobel Peace Prize. Tawakkol Karman of Yemen was co-recipient of the 2011 Nobel Peace Prize due to her role organizing peaceful protests. In December 2011 Time magazine named "The Protester" its "Person of the Year". Spanish photographer Samuel Aranda won the 2011 World Press Photo award for his image of a Yemeni woman holding an injured family member, taken during the civil uprising in Yemen on 15 October 2011.

File:Arab_Spring_and_Regional_Conflict_Map.svg}}]]

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|Popular uprising and revolution, which escalated into a full-scale civil war by June 2012, ultimately leading to the overthrow of the government in December 2024.{{Cite news |date=12 June 2012 |title=Syria in civil war |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-18417952 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160123035718/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-18417952 |archive-date=23 January 2016}}

||Syrian revolution begins, followed by civil war

• Release of some political prisoners
• Dismissal of provincial governors
• Resignation of the Muhammad Naji al-Otari government
• Lifting of the 48-year-old state of emergency{{Cite news |last=Marsh |first=Katherine |last2=Black |first2=Ian |date=2011-04-19 |title=Syria to lift emergency rule after 48 years – but violence continues |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/apr/19/syria-lift-emergency-rule-violence |access-date=2025-02-18 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}
• Resignations of members of parliament
• Large defections from the Syrian army and clashes between soldiers and defectors
• Beginning of the Syrian insurgency and formation of the Free Syrian Army
• Escalation of the conflict after the Houla massacre perpetrated by Ba'athist military forces and deterioration into full-scale civil war by June 2012{{cite news|url=http://www.news.com.au/world/syria-in-full-scale-civil-war/story-e6frfkyi-1226393699877 |title=Syria in full scale civil war |work=news.com.au |date=13 June 2012 |access-date=6 March 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316040144/http://www.news.com.au/world/syria-in-full-scale-civil-war/story-e6frfkyi-1226393699877 |archive-date=16 March 2016 }}{{Cite news |date=12 June 2012 |title=Syria in civil war |last1=Charbonneau |first1=Louis |last2=Evans |first2=Dominic |publisher=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-idUSBRE85B0DZ20120612 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231106122443/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-idUSBRE85B0DZ20120612 |archive-date=6 November 2023}}

Overthrow of Bashar al-Assad; Assad flees into exile in Russia

|{{ntsh|2206}} 3,500+ protestors killed (by 31 December 2011){{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2012/country-chapters/syria |title=World Report 2012: Syria Events of 2011|date=2012|website=Human Rights Watch |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220809172416/https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2012/country-chapters/syria |archive-date=9 August 2022}}

!style="color:#fff; background:#00112b;"|ECivil war, Egovernment overthrown

|-

|{{flag|Yemen}}

|{{dts|format=dmy|2011|1|27}}

|Two governments overthrown (On 27 February 2012 and 22 January 2015). Yemeni crisis and civil war follows.

|Overthrow of Ali Abdullah Saleh; Saleh granted immunity from prosecution; is killed in 2017 by the Houthis

• Resignation of Prime Minister Ali Muhammad Mujawar
• Resignation of MPs from the ruling party
• Occupation of several areas of Yemeni territory by al-Qaeda and Houthi rebels
• Restructure of the military forces by sacking several of its leaders
• Approval of Saleh's immunity from prosecution by Yemeni legislators
• Presidential election held to replace Saleh; Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi elected and inaugurated

Yemeni crisis begins, followed by a civil war

|{{ntsh|2000}} 2000[https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/yemen-says-more-than-2000-killed-in-uprising/2012/03/18/gIQAGOtcLS_story.html Yemen says more than 2000 killed in uprising] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120325152038/http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/yemen-says-more-than-2000-killed-in-uprising/2012/03/18/gIQAGOtcLS_story.html |date=25 March 2012 }}. The Washington Post. (19 March 2012).

!style="color:#fff; background:#800080;"|ECivil war and Etwo governments overthrown
(ESaleh government • EHadi government)

|-

|{{flag|Djibouti}}

|{{dts|format=dmy|2011|1|28}}

|Ended on 11 March 2011

|

|{{nts|2}}{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/02/201121816513686216.html|title=Djiboutians rally to oust president|publisher=Al Jazeera|date=18 February 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141213222339/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/02/201121816513686216.html|archive-date=13 December 2014}}

!style="color:#fff; background:#eac27c;"|A Minor protests

|-

|{{flag|Sudan}}

|{{dts|format=dmy|2011|1|30}}

|Ended on 26 October 2013

|

• President Omar al-Bashir announces he will not seek another term in 2015
• Bashir nevertheless chosen as Ruling Party candidate for 2015 electionAbdelaziz, Khalid. [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-sudan-election-bashir-idUSKCN0IA1DF20141021 "Sudan's Bashir chosen by ruling party as candidate for 2015 elections"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141021181503/https://www.reuters.com/article/2014/10/21/us-sudan-election-bashir-idUSKCN0IA1DF20141021|date=21 October 2014}}, Reuters, 21 October 2014. Retrieved on 21 October 2014.

|{{nts|200}}+{{cite news|url=http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2013/10/04/un-rights-monitor-condemns-deadly-sudan-crackdown/|title=UN rights monitor condemns deadly Sudan crackdown|date=4 October 2013|newspaper=Daily News Egypt|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016071820/http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2013/10/04/un-rights-monitor-condemns-deadly-sudan-crackdown/|archive-date=16 October 2014}}

!style="color:#fff; background:#d64400;"|A Major protests

|-

|{{flag|Palestinian Authority}}

|{{dts|format=dmy|2011|2|10}}

|Ended on 5 October 2012

|

• Then Palestinian prime minister Salam Fayyad states that he is "'willing to resign"
• Fayyad resigns on 13 April 2013 because of political differences between him and the Palestinian president Mahmoud Abbas over the finance portfolio

|{{nts|None}}

!style="color:#fff; background:#eac27c;"|C Minor protests

|-

|{{flag|Iraq}}

|{{dts|format=dmy|2011|2|12}}

|Ended 23 December 2011, instability and eventually war against terrorism follows

|

• Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki announces he will not run for a 3rd term;
• Resignation of provincial governors and local authorities
• Two-thirds wage increase for Sahwa militia members
• Elections held and Haider al-Abadi elected
• ISIL terrorists take broad swathes of Iraq

Start of War in Iraq (2013–2017)

|{{nts|35}} 35{{Clarify|reason=35 deaths or 3,535 deaths?|date=April 2020}}

!style="color:#fff; background:#d64400;"|B Protests and beginning of civil war

|-

|{{flag|Bahrain}}

|{{dts|format=dmy|2011|2|14}}

|Ended on 18 March 2011

|

• Economic concessions by King Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa
• Release of political prisoners
• Negotiations with Shia representatives{{citation needed|date=June 2021}}
• GCC intervention at the request of the Government of Bahrain
• Head of the National Security Apparatus removed from post
• Formation of a committee to implement BICI report recommendations

|{{nts|120}}

!style="color:#fff; background:#004a80;"|D Sustained civil disorder and government changes

|-

||{{flag|Libya|1977}}

|{{dts|format=dmy|2011|2|15}} (Major protests began on 17 February 2011).

|Government overthrown on 23 August 2011, crisis follows

|Overthrow of Muammar Gaddafi; Gaddafi killed by rebel forces

• Government defeated by armed revolt with UN-mandated military intervention
• Assumption of interim control by the National Transitional Council
• Beginning of sporadic low-level fighting and clashes

|{{ntsh|9400}} {{gaps|9400|–|20|000}}{{cite news |author=Ian Black |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jan/08/libyan-revolution-casualties-lower-expected-government |title=Libyan revolution casualties lower than expected, says new government |work=The Guardian |date=8 January 2013 |access-date=2 October 2013 |location=London |archive-date=20 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190520141917/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jan/08/libyan-revolution-casualties-lower-expected-government |url-status=live }}

!style="color:#fff; background:#950000;"|EGovernment overthrown and Ecivil war

|-

|{{flag|Kuwait}}

|{{dts|format=dmy|2011|2|19}}

|Ended in December 2012

|

• Resignation of Prime Minister Nasser Al-Sabah
• Dissolution of the Parliament

|{{nts|None}}

!style="color:#fff; background:#008080;"|C Protests and governmental changes

|-

|{{flag|Morocco}}

|{{dts|format=dmy|2011|2|20}}

|Ended in March–April 2012

|

• Political concessions by King Mohammed VI;
• New constitution adopted following a referendum;
• Respect to civil rights and an end to corruption

|{{nts|6}}

!style="color:#fff; background:#008080;"|C Protests and governmental changes

|-

|{{flag|Mauritania|1959}}

|{{dts|format=dmy|2011|2|25}}

|Ended in 2013

|

|{{nts|3}}

!style="color:#fff; background:#eac27c;"|A Minor protests

|-

|{{flag|Lebanon}}

|{{dts|format=dmy|2011|2|27}}

|Ended on 15 December 2011

|

|{{nts|None}}

!style="color:#fff; background:#008080;"|D Protests and governmental changes

|-

|Borders of Israel

|{{dts|format=dmy|2011|5|15}}

|Ended on 5 June 2011

|

|{{ntsh|35}} 35

!style="color:#fff; background:#d64400;"|B Major protests

|-

|colspan=4; style="text-align:right;"|Total death toll and other consequences:

|61,080+

(combined estimate of events)

|

• 4 governments overthrown as part of the events
• Six protests leading to governmental changes
• Five major protests
• Four minor protests
• 3 governments overthrown in the aftermath
• Four civil wars in the aftermath (Syria, Iraq, Libya and Yemen)

|}

{{Main|2011 Bahraini uprising}}

File:Hundreds of thousands of Bahrainis taking part in march of loyalty to martyrs.jpg" in Manama honoring political dissidents killed by security forces]]

The protests in Bahrain started on 14 February, and were initially aimed at achieving greater political freedom and respect for human rights; they were not intended to directly threaten the monarchy.{{rp|pages=162–3|date=November 2012}} Lingering frustration among the Shiite majority with being ruled by the Sunni government was a major root cause, but the protests in Tunisia and Egypt are cited as the inspiration for the demonstrations.{{rp|page=65|date=November 2012}} The protests were largely peaceful until a pre-dawn raid by police on 17 February to clear protestors from Pearl Roundabout in Manama, in which police killed four protesters.{{rp|pages=73–4|date=November 2012}} Following the raid, some protesters began to expand their aims to a call for the end of the monarchy. On 18 February, army forces opened fire on protesters when they tried to reenter the roundabout, fatally wounding one.{{rp|pages=77–8|date=November 2012}} The following day protesters reoccupied Pearl Roundabout after the government ordered troops and police to withdraw.{{rp|page=81|date=November 2012}} Subsequent days saw large demonstrations; on 21 February a pro-government Gathering of National Unity drew tens of thousands,{{rp|page=86|date=November 2012}} whilst on 22 February the number of protestors at the Pearl Roundabout peaked at over {{gaps|150|000}} after more than {{gaps|100|000}} protesters marched there and were coming under fire from the Bahraini Military which killed around 20 and injured over 100 protestors.{{rp|page=88|date=November 2012}} On 14 March, GCC forces (composed mainly of Saudi and UAE troops) were requested by the government and occupied the country.{{rp|page=132|date=November 2012}}

King Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa declared a three-month state of emergency on 15 March and asked the military to reassert its control as clashes spread across the country.{{rp|page=139|date=November 2012}} On 16 March, armed soldiers and riot police cleared the protesters' camp in the Pearl Roundabout, in which 3 policemen and 3 protesters were reportedly killed.{{rp|pages=133–4|date=November 2012}} Later, on 18 March, the government tore down Pearl Roundabout monument.{{rp|pages=150|date=November 2012}} After the lifting of emergency law on 1 June, several large rallies were staged by the opposition parties. Smaller-scale protests and clashes outside of the capital have continued to occur almost daily. On 9 March 2012, over {{gaps|100|000}} protested in what the opposition called "the biggest march in our history".

The police response has been described as a "brutal" crackdown on peaceful and unarmed protestors, including doctors and bloggers. The police carried out midnight house raids in Shia neighbourhoods, beatings at checkpoints, and denial of medical care in a "campaign of intimidation". More than 2,929 people have been arrested, and at least five people died due to torture while in police custody.{{rp|page=287,288|date=November 2012}} On 23 November 2011, the Bahrain Independent Commission of Inquiry released its report on its investigation of the events, finding that the government had systematically tortured prisoners and committed other human rights violations.{{rp|pages=415–422|date=November 2012}} It also rejected the government's claims that the protests were instigated by Iran. Although the report found that systematic torture had stopped,{{rp|pages=417|date=November 2012}} the Bahraini government has refused entry to several international human rights groups and news organizations, and delayed a visit by a UN inspector. More than 80 people had died since the start of the uprising.

Even a decade after the 2011 uprisings, the situation in Bahrain remained unchanged. The regime continued suppression against all forms of dissent. Years after the demonstrations, the Bahraini authorities are known to have accelerated their crackdown. They have been targeting human rights defenders, journalists, Shiite political groups and social media critics.{{cite news|url=https://apnews.com/article/bahrain-dubai-saudi-arabia-united-arab-emirates-persian-gulf-tensions-89f7d61bc6ec332de35675eb31265d29|title=A decade after 2011 protests, Bahrain suppresses all dissent|access-date=11 February 2021|publisher=The Associated Press|archive-date=11 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210211143714/https://apnews.com/article/bahrain-dubai-saudi-arabia-united-arab-emirates-persian-gulf-tensions-89f7d61bc6ec332de35675eb31265d29|url-status=live}}

Saudi government forces quashed protests in the country and assisted Bahraini authorities in suppressing demonstrations there.

Jamal Khashoggi, a Saudi critic, covered the Arab spring and spoke out against the Saudi government during this time. He was murdered by the government a few years later.{{cite news |url=https://au.news.yahoo.com/from-royal-insider-to-target-how-the-arab-spring-propelled-jamal-khashoggi-into-the-saudi-leaderships-crosshairs-090005409.html |title=From royal insider to target: How the Arab Spring propelled Jamal Khashoggi into the Saudi leadership's crosshairs |date=24 June 2021 |access-date=29 December 2022 |archive-date=29 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221229115901/https://au.news.yahoo.com/from-royal-insider-to-target-how-the-arab-spring-propelled-jamal-khashoggi-into-the-saudi-leaderships-crosshairs-090005409.html |url-status=live }}

{{Main|2011 Egyptian revolution|Egyptian Crisis (2011–2014)}}

File:Tahrir Square on February11.png after Omar Suleiman's statement concerning Hosni Mubarak's resignation]]

Inspired by the uprising in Tunisia and prior to his entry as a central figure in Egyptian politics, potential presidential candidate Mohamed ElBaradei warned of a "Tunisia-style explosion" in Egypt.

Protests in Egypt began on 25 January 2011 and ran for 18 days. Beginning around midnight on 28 January, the Egyptian government attempted, somewhat successfully, to eliminate the nation's Internet access, in order to inhibit the protesters' ability to use media activism to organize through social media. Later that day, as tens of thousands protested on the streets of Egypt's major cities, President Hosni Mubarak dismissed his government, later appointing a new cabinet. Mubarak also appointed the first Vice President in almost 30 years.

The U.S. embassy and international students began a voluntary evacuation near the end of January, as violence and rumors of violence escalated.{{cite news|title=Egypt: US Embassy to begin voluntary evacuation flights Monday|url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/babylonbeyond/2011/01/egypt-us-embassy-to-begin-evacuating-.html|access-date=13 September 2013|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|date=30 January 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130725011852/http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/babylonbeyond/2011/01/egypt-us-embassy-to-begin-evacuating-.html|archive-date=25 July 2013}}{{cite news|title=Egypt Program Evacuation Timeline|url=http://www.ifsa-butler.org/about-us/health-and-safety-news/1234-egypt-program-evacuation-timeline.pdf|access-date=13 September 2013|newspaper=News & Updates: IFSA-Butler|date=31 January 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203013058/http://www.ifsa-butler.org/about-us/health-and-safety-news/1234-egypt-program-evacuation-timeline.pdf|archive-date=3 December 2013}}

On 10 February, Mubarak ceded all presidential power to Vice President Omar Suleiman, but soon thereafter announced that he would remain as president until the end of his term. However, protests continued the next day, and Suleiman quickly announced that Mubarak had resigned from the presidency and transferred power to the Armed Forces of Egypt. The military immediately dissolved the Egyptian Parliament, suspended the Constitution of Egypt, and promised to lift the nation's thirty-year "emergency laws". A civilian, Essam Sharaf, was appointed as Prime Minister of Egypt on 4 March to widespread approval among Egyptians in Tahrir Square. Violent protests, however, continued through the end of 2011 as many Egyptians expressed concern about the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces' perceived sluggishness in instituting reforms and their grip on power.

File:"The_Friday_of_One_Demand"_-_Flickr_-_Al_Jazeera_English_(2).jpg in solidarity with protestors in Syria, 4 February 2012]]

Hosni Mubarak and his former interior minister Habib el-Adly were sentenced to life in prison on the basis of their failure to stop the killings during the first six days of the 2011 Egyptian Revolution. His successor, the Muslim Brotherhood-affiliated Islamist Mohamed Morsi, won a presidential election in 2012 regarded as free and fair by election observers, and was subsequently sworn in before judges at the Supreme Constitutional Court. Fresh protests against Morsi erupted in Egypt on 22 November 2012. More protests against Morsi's rule occurred one year into Morsi's presidency in June 2013, and on 3 July 2013, the military overthrew Morsi's government, thus removing him from office.{{cite news|title=Mohamed Morsi ousted in Egypt's second revolution in two years|author1=Kingsley, P.|author2=Chulov, M.|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/03/mohamed-morsi-egypt-second-revolution|newspaper=The Guardian|date=3 July 2013|access-date=3 July 2013|location=London|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130730110206/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/03/mohamed-morsi-egypt-second-revolution|archive-date=30 July 2013}}

The Arab Spring was generally considered to have been a success in Egypt, much like in Tunisia. However, a December 2020 report published by PRI's The World, a US-based public radio news magazine, suggests otherwise. The report says that the Egyptian government increased the amount of executions that it carried out by more than twofold, with the report saying that the government put to death approximately 60 people. This number, according to the report, included human rights activists of the Egyptian Initiative for Personal Rights (EIPR), who were arrested in November 2020. The executive director of the Project on Middle East Democracy, Stephen McInerney, said that a majority of pro-democracy activists had escaped Egypt, while those who could not had gone into hiding. The Project on Middle East Democracy mentioned using encrypted communication channels to talk to the activists regarding the protection of their whereabouts. Western countries are perceived to have generally overlooked these issues, including the United States, France, and several other European countries. The founder of the Tahrir Institute for Middle East Policy in Washington, DC believed that even ten years after the Arab Spring, Egypt was at its lowest for human rights.{{cite news|url=https://www.pri.org/stories/2020-12-17/10-years-after-arab-uprisings-egypt-lowest-point-human-rights|title=10 years after the Arab uprisings, Egypt at 'lowest point' for human rights|access-date=17 December 2020|website=PRI The World|archive-date=17 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201217213759/https://www.pri.org/stories/2020-12-17/10-years-after-arab-uprisings-egypt-lowest-point-human-rights|url-status=live}}

{{Main|Libyan civil war (2011)|Libyan Crisis (2011–present)}}

File:Demonstration in Al Bayda (Libya, 2011-07-22).jpg.]]

Anti-government protests began in Libya on 15 February 2011. By 18 February, the opposition controlled most of Benghazi, the country's second-largest city. The government dispatched elite troops and militia in an attempt to recapture it, but they were repelled. By 20 February, protests had spread to the capital Tripoli, leading to a television address by Saif al-Islam Gaddafi, who warned the protestors that their country could descend into civil war. The rising death toll, numbering in the thousands, drew international condemnation and resulted in the resignation of several Libyan diplomats, along with calls for the government's dismantlement.

Amidst ongoing efforts by demonstrators and rebel forces to wrest control of Tripoli from the Jamahiriya, the opposition set up an interim government in Benghazi to oppose Colonel Muammar Gaddafi's rule. However, despite initial opposition success, government forces subsequently took back much of the Mediterranean coast.

On 17 March, United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973 was adopted, authorising a no-fly zone over Libya, and "all necessary measures" to protect civilians. Two days later, France, the United States and the United Kingdom intervened in Libya with a bombing campaign against pro-Gaddafi forces. A coalition of 27 states from Europe and the Middle East soon joined the intervention. The forces were driven back from the outskirts of Benghazi, and the rebels mounted an offensive, capturing scores of towns across the coast of Libya. The offensive stalled however, and a counter-offensive by the government retook most of the towns, until a stalemate was formed between Brega and Ajdabiya, the former being held by the government and the latter in the hands of the rebels. Focus then shifted to the west of the country, where bitter fighting continued. After a three-month-long battle, a loyalist siege of rebel-held Misrata, the third largest city in Libya, was broken in large part due to coalition air strikes. The four major fronts of combat were generally considered to be the Nafusa Mountains, the Tripolitanian coast, the Gulf of Sidra, and the southern Libyan Desert.

In late August, anti-Gaddafi fighters captured Tripoli, scattering Gaddafi's government and marking the end of his 42 years of power. Many institutions of the government, including Gaddafi and several top government officials, regrouped in Sirte, which Gaddafi declared to be Libya's new capital. Others fled to Sabha, Bani Walid, and remote reaches of the Libyan Desert, or to surrounding countries. However, Sabha fell in late September, Bani Walid was captured after a grueling siege weeks later, and on 20 October, fighters under the aegis of the National Transitional Council seized Sirte, killing Gaddafi in the process. However, after Gaddafi was killed, the Civil War continued.

{{Main|Syrian revolution}}

{{Main|Syrian civil war}}

File:(Banyas demonstration) مظاهرات بانياس جمعة الغضب - 29 نيسان 2011.jpg]]

Protests in Syria started on 26 January 2011, when a police officer assaulted a man in public at "Al-Hareeka Street" in old Damascus. The man was arrested right after the assault. As a result, protesters called for the freedom of the arrested man. Soon a "day of rage" was set for 4–5 February, but it was uneventful.{{cite web|url=http://www.aysor.am/en/news/2011/02/03/syrian-facebook-twitter/|title="Day of Rage" planned for Syria; protests scheduled for Feb 4–5|publisher=aysor.am|access-date=3 February 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110505015333/http://www.aysor.am/en/news/2011/02/03/syrian-facebook-twitter/|archive-date=5 May 2011}} On 6 March, the Syrian security forces arrested about 15 children in Daraa, in southern Syria, for writing slogans against the government. Soon protests erupted over the arrest and abuse of the children. Daraa was to be the first city to protest against the Ba'athist government, which has been ruling Syria since 1963.

Thousands of protesters gathered in Damascus, Aleppo, al-Hasakah, Daraa, Deir ez-Zor, and Hama on 15 March, with recently released politician Suhair Atassi becoming an unofficial spokesperson for the "Syrian revolution". The next day there were reports of approximately 3000 arrests and a few casualties, but there are no official figures on the number of deaths. On 18 April 2011, approximately 100,000 protesters sat in the central Square of Homs calling for the resignation of president Bashar al-Assad. Protests continued through July 2011, the government responding with harsh security clampdowns and military operations in several districts, especially in the north. On 31 July, Syrian army tanks stormed several cities, including Hama, Deir Ez-Zour, Abu Kamal, and Herak near Daraa. At least 136 people were killed, the highest death toll in any day since the start of the uprising. On 5 August 2011, an anti-government demonstration took place in Syria called "God is with us", during which the Syrian security forces shot the protesters from inside the ambulances, killing 11 people. The Arab Spring events in Syria subsequently escalated into the Syrian civil war. The war caused massive political instability and economic hardship in Syria, with the Syrian pound plunging to new lows.{{cite news |date=2020-06-12 |title=US 'Caesar Act' sanctions could devastate Syria's flatlining economy |url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jun/12/us-caesar-act-sanctions-and-could-devastate-syrias-flatlining-economy |access-date=2022-11-08 |website=The Guardian |language=en |archive-date=15 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815082832/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jun/12/us-caesar-act-sanctions-and-could-devastate-syrias-flatlining-economy |url-status=live }}

On 8 December 2024, the Assad regime collapsed during a major offensive by opposition forces. The offensive was spearheaded by Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham (HTS) and supported mainly by the Turkish-backed Syrian National Army. As another rebel coalition advanced towards Damascus, reports emerged that Bashar al-Assad fled the capital aboard a plane to Russia, where he joined his family, already in exile, and was granted asylum.{{Cite web |last1=Gebeily |first1=Maya |last2=Azhari |first2=Timour |date=8 December 2024 |title=Assad gets asylum in Russia, rebels sweep through Syria |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syria-rebels-celebrate-captured-homs-set-sights-damascus-2024-12-07/ |url-access=registration |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20241218174033/https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syria-rebels-celebrate-captured-homs-set-sights-damascus-2024-12-07/ |archive-date=18 December 2024 |website=Reuters}} Following Assad's departure, opposition forces declared victory on state television. Concurrently, the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs confirmed Assad's resignation and his departure from Syria.{{Cite news |date=8 December 2024 |title=Syria Live Updates: Assad Has Resigned and Left Syria, Russia Says |url=https://www.nytimes.com/live/2024/12/08/world/syria-war-damascus |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241209000141/https://www.nytimes.com/live/2024/12/08/world/syria-war-damascus |archive-date=9 December 2024 |access-date=8 December 2024 |work=The New York Times}}{{Cite web |date=2024-12-09 |title=Bashar al-Assad Granted Asylum in Russia Amid Syria's Political Upheaval |url=https://thegulfobserver.com/bashar-al-assad-granted-asylum-in-russia-amid-syrias-political-upheaval/ |access-date=2024-12-11 |website=The Gulf Observer |language=en-US}}{{Cite news |last1=Fahim |first1=Kareem |last2=Morris |first2=Loveday |last3=Loveluck |first3=Louisa |last4=Miller |first4=Greg |last5=El Chamaa |first5=Mohamad |last6=Eski |first6=Beril |date=22 December 2024 |title=How Syria's rebels overcame years of a bloody stalemate to topple Assad |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2024/12/21/syria-rebels-assad-iran-turkey/ |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20241222072014/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2024/12/21/syria-rebels-assad-iran-turkey/ |archive-date=22 December 2024 |access-date=22 December 2024 |newspaper=The Washington Post |language=en}}

The fall of the Assad regime after 54 years of rule and 13 years of civil war was met with shock and surprise throughout Syria and the world. Syrian opposition fighters were surprised at how quickly the Syrian government collapsed in the wake of their offensive.{{Cite news |date=2024-12-10 |title=The swift fall of Syria's Assad brings moments inconceivable under his iron rule |url=https://apnews.com/article/syria-fall-of-assad-photo-gallery-f4862a7f801eae711a69482f04b88c8a |access-date=2024-12-19 |work=AP News |language=en |archive-date=17 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241217205805/https://apnews.com/article/syria-fall-of-assad-photo-gallery-f4862a7f801eae711a69482f04b88c8a |url-status=live }} Analysts viewed the event as a significant blow to Iran's Axis of Resistance due to the use of Syria as a waypoint to supply arms and supplies to their ally Hezbollah.{{Cite web |last=Gambrell |first=Jon |date=2024-12-08 |title=Analysis: Collapse of Syria's Assad is a blow to Iran's 'Axis of Resistance' |url=https://apnews.com/article/iran-mideast-proxy-forces-syria-analysis-c853bf613a6d6af7f6aa99b2e60984f8 |access-date=2024-12-30 |website=AP News |language=en}}{{Cite news |last=Burgess |first=Annika |date=2024-12-11 |title=Fall of Assad 'another nail in the coffin' for Iran's Axis of Resistance |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-12-11/assad-fall-syria-axis-of-resistance-future-iran-hezbollah-hamas/104706528 |access-date=2024-12-30 |work=ABC News |language=en-AU}}

{{Main|Tunisian Revolution}}

File:Tunisia Unrest - VOA - Tunis 14 Jan 2011 (2).jpg, downtown Tunis on 14 January 2011, a few hours before president Zine El Abidine Ben Ali fled the country]]

Following the self-immolation of Mohamed Bouazizi in Sidi Bouzid, a series of increasingly violent street demonstrations through December 2010 ultimately led to the ousting of longtime President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali on 14 January 2011. The demonstrations were preceded by high unemployment, food inflation, corruption, lack of freedom of speech and other forms of political freedom, and poor living conditions. The protests constituted the most dramatic wave of social and political unrest in Tunisia in three decades and resulted in scores of deaths and injuries, most of which were the result of action by police and security forces against demonstrators. Ben Ali fled into exile in Saudi Arabia, ending his 23 years in power.

A state of emergency was declared and a caretaker coalition government was created following Ben Ali's departure, which included members of Ben Ali's party, the Constitutional Democratic Rally (RCD), as well as opposition figures from other ministries. The five newly appointed non-RCD ministers resigned almost immediately. As a result of continued daily protests, on 27 January Prime Minister Mohamed Ghannouchi reshuffled the government, removing all former RCD members other than himself, and on 6 February the former ruling party was suspended; later, on 9 March, it was dissolved. Following further public protests, Ghannouchi himself resigned on 27 February, and Beji Caid Essebsi became prime minister.

On 23 October 2011 Tunisians voted in the first post-revolution election to elect representatives to a 217-member constituent assembly that would be responsible for the new constitution. The leading Islamist party, Ennahda, won 37% of the vote, and elected 42 women to the Constituent Assembly.

On 26 January 2014 a new constitution was adopted.{{cite news|title=New Tunisian Constitution Adopted|url=http://www.tunisia-live.net/2014/01/26/new-tunisian-constitution-adopted/|agency=Tunisia Live|date=26 January 2014|access-date=26 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140127074508/http://www.tunisia-live.net/2014/01/26/new-tunisian-constitution-adopted/|archive-date=27 January 2014}} The constitution is seen as progressive, increasing human rights, gender equality, and government duties toward people, laying the groundwork for a new parliamentary system and making Tunisia a decentralized and open government.{{cite news|title=Arab Spring beacon Tunisia signs new constitution|author=Tarek Amara p|date=27 January 2014|publisher=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-tunisia-constitution-idUSBREA0Q0OU20140127|access-date=27 January 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140128021557/https://www.reuters.com/article/2014/01/27/us-tunisia-constitution-idUSBREA0Q0OU20140127|archive-date=28 January 2014}}

On 26 October 2014 Tunisia held its first parliamentary elections since the 2011 Arab Spring{{Cite news|url=http://www.jeuneafrique.com/Article/ARTJAWEB20140625141745/|title=Tunisie: les législatives fixées au 26 octobre et la présidentielle au 23 novembre|newspaper=Jeune Afrique|date=25 June 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318105230/http://www.jeuneafrique.com/Article/ARTJAWEB20140625141745/|archive-date=18 March 2015}} and its presidential election on 23 November 2014,{{cite news|title=Tunisia holds first post-revolution presidential poll|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-30165471|publisher=BBC News|access-date=23 November 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141123033728/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-30165471|archive-date=23 November 2014}} finishing its transition to a democratic state. These elections were characterized by a decline in Ennahdha's popularity in favor of the secular Nidaa Tounes party, which became the first party of the country.{{cite web|script-title=ar:النتائج النهائية للانتخابات التشريعية|trans-title=Final results of parliamentary elections|url=http://www.isie.tn/documents/Décision-Instance-supérieure-indépendante-pour-les-élections-relatives-proclamation-des-résultats-définitifs.pdf|language=ar|date=20 November 2014|access-date=21 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141126183006/http://www.isie.tn/documents/D%C3%A9cision-Instance-sup%C3%A9rieure-ind%C3%A9pendante-pour-les-%C3%A9lections-relatives-proclamation-des-r%C3%A9sultats-d%C3%A9finitifs.pdf|archive-date=26 November 2014}}

There were large protests against the government United Arab Emirates.{{Cite web |title=الاحتجاجات الإماراتية 2011 |work=المعرفة |url=https://www.marefa.org/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AD%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%A9_2011 |access-date=2023-05-06 |language=ar |archive-date=6 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230506181146/https://www.marefa.org/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AD%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%A9_2011 |url-status=live }} In the United Arab Emirates, the Arab Spring saw a sudden and intense demand for democratic reforms. However, government repression of human rights, including unlawful detentions and torture, quelled the opposition and silenced dissenters. Even years after the Arab Spring uprisings, the Emirates remain in staunch opposition to free speech.{{cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/MDE2500182014ENGLISH.PDF|title='There is No Freedom Here': Silencing Dissent in the United Arab Emirates (UAE)|access-date=17 November 2014|publisher=Amnesty International|archive-date=28 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150228060937/https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/MDE2500182014ENGLISH.PDF|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=https://advox.globalvoices.org/2016/09/20/the-uae-has-avoided-an-arab-spring-by-systematically-repressing-critical-speech/|title=The UAE Has Avoided an 'Arab Spring' by Systematically Repressing Critical Speech|access-date=20 September 2016|website=Global Voices Advox|date=20 September 2016|archive-date=13 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240913054107/https://advox.globalvoices.org/2016/09/20/the-uae-has-avoided-an-arab-spring-by-systematically-repressing-critical-speech/|url-status=live}}

In 2011, 133 peaceful political activists—including academics and members of a social organization, Islah—signed a petition calling for democratic reforms. Submitted to the Emirati monarch rulers, the petition demanded elections, more legislative powers for the Federal National Council and an independent judiciary.{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/09/world/middleeast/emirates-balk-at-activism-in-region-hit-by-uprisings.html|title=Emirates Balk at Activism in Region Hit by Uprisings|access-date=8 June 2013|website=The New York Times|date=8 June 2013|last1=Hubbard|first1=Ben|archive-date=2 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200102225119/https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/09/world/middleeast/emirates-balk-at-activism-in-region-hit-by-uprisings.html|url-status=live}}

In 2012, the authorities arrested 94 of the 133 journalists, government officials, judges, lawyers, teachers and student activists, who were detained in secret detention facilities. For a year, until the trial began in March 2013, the 94 prisoners were subjected to enforced disappearances and torture. As the "unfair" trial ended on 2 July 2013, 69 men were convicted on the basis of evidence acquired through forced confessions, and received harsh prison sentences of up to 15 years.{{cite web|url=https://icfuae.org.uk/press-releases/anniversary-%E2%80%9Cuae-94%E2%80%9D-trial-icfuae-calls-immediate-release-all-uae-prisoners|title=On the anniversary of the "UAE 94" trial, ICFUAE calls for the immediate release of all UAE prisoners of conscience|work=ICFUAE | International Campaign For Freedom in the UAE |date=July 2021 |access-date=1 July 2021|publisher=International Campaign for Freedom in the United Arab Emirates (ICFUAE)|archive-date=1 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210701104456/http://icfuae.org.uk/press-releases/anniversary-%E2%80%9Cuae-94%E2%80%9D-trial-icfuae-calls-immediate-release-all-uae-prisoners|url-status=live}}

The case came to be known as "UAE-94", following which freedom of speech was further curbed. For years, these prisoners have been under arbitrary detention, with some "held in incommunicado, and denied their rights". In July 2021, Amnesty International called the UAE authorities to immediately release 60 prisoners of the UAE-94 case, who remained detained nine years after their arrest.{{cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2021/07/uae-nearly-a-decade-of-unjust-imprisonment-for-uae-94-dissidents/|title=UAE: Nearly a decade of unjust imprisonment for 'UAE-94' dissidents|access-date=2 July 2021|publisher=Amnesty International|date=2 July 2021|archive-date=17 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220617002249/https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2021/07/uae-nearly-a-decade-of-unjust-imprisonment-for-uae-94-dissidents/|url-status=live}}

At least 51 prisoners, who were part of the "UAE-94" mass trial, were being imprisoned despite completing their sentences. Some prisoners completed their sentences in March 2023, while others completed it as early as July 2019. HRW said that those the prisoners continued to remain in prison without a proper legal basis, even after completing the sentences between one month and nearly four years before.{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2023/04/12/uae-detainees-held-beyond-sentences|title=UAE: Detainees Held Beyond Sentences|access-date=12 April 2023|publisher=Human Rights Watch|date=12 April 2023|archive-date=2 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200102225119/https://www.hrw.org/news/2023/04/12/uae-detainees-held-beyond-sentences|url-status=live}}

Following the 2011 petition, the UAE authorities also arrested five prominent human rights defenders and government critics who did not sign the petition. All were pardoned the next day but have been facing a number of unfair acts of the government. One of the prominent Emirati activists, Ahmed Mansoor, reported being beaten twice since then. His passport was confiscated and nearly {{gaps|$|140|000}} were stolen from his personal bank account. Most of the human rights activists have been victims of the UAE government's intimidation for years.

The authorities also exiled a local man to Thailand. He spoke out about the government.{{Cite web |url=https://www.jurist.org/news/2012/07/uae-activist-deported-to-thailand/ |title=UAE activist deported to Thailand |date=16 July 2012 |access-date=20 October 2021 |archive-date=20 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020095831/https://www.jurist.org/news/2012/07/uae-activist-deported-to-thailand/ |url-status=live }}

{{Main|Yemeni revolution|Yemeni crisis}}

File:Protest Aden Arab Spring 2011.jpg calling for reinstatement of South Yemen during Arab Spring.]]

File:Yemeni Protests 4-Apr-2011 P01.JPG]]

Protests occurred in many towns in both the north and south of Yemen starting in mid-January 2011. Demonstrators in the South mainly protested against President Saleh's support of Al Qaeda in South Yemen, the marginalization of the Southern people and the exploitation of Southern natural resources.{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/mar/21/wikileaks-cables-yemeni-general-smuggling|title=WikiLeaks cable links defecting Yemeni general to smuggling rackets|last=Rice-Oxley|first=Mark|date=2011-03-21|work=The Guardian|access-date=2019-02-27|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077|archive-date=22 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190322050733/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/mar/21/wikileaks-cables-yemeni-general-smuggling|url-status=live}}{{Cite news|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/libyaNews/idAFLDE7201CI20110302|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227182008/https://af.reuters.com/article/libyaNews/idAFLDE7201CI20110302|archive-date=2019-02-27|title=Feature-South Yemen separatists find hope in spreading unrest|date=2011-03-02|publisher=Reuters|access-date=2019-02-27|language=en}}{{cite news|url=https://www.pri.org/stories/2011-07-11/yemen-tie-binds|title=Yemen: The tie that binds|publisher=Public Radio International|language=en|access-date=2019-02-27|archive-date=27 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227120919/https://www.pri.org/stories/2011-07-11/yemen-tie-binds|url-status=live}} Other parts of the country initially protested against governmental proposals to modify the constitution of Yemen, unemployment and economic conditions, and corruption, but their demands soon included a call for the resignation of President Ali Abdullah Saleh, who had been facing internal opposition from his closest advisors since 2009.

A major demonstration of over {{gaps|16|000}} protesters took place in Sanaa on 27 January 2011, and soon thereafter human rights activist and politician Tawakkol Karman called for a "Day of Rage" on 3 February. According to Xinhua News, organizers were calling for a million protesters. In response to the planned protest, Ali Abdullah Saleh stated that he would not seek another presidential term in 2013.

On 3 February, {{gaps|20|000}} protesters demonstrated against the government in Sana'a, others participated in a "Day of Rage" in Aden that was called for by Tawakel Karman, while soldiers, armed members of the General People's Congress, and many protestors held a pro-government rally in Sana'a. Concurrent with the resignation of Egyptian president Mubarak, Yemenis again took to the streets protesting President Saleh on 11 February, in what has been dubbed a "Friday of Rage". The protests continued in the days following despite clashes with government advocates. In a "Friday of Anger" held on 18 February, tens of thousands of Yemenis took part in anti-government demonstrations in the major cities of Sana'a, Taiz, and Aden. Protests continued over the following months, especially in the three major cities, and briefly intensified in late May into urban warfare between Hashid tribesmen and army defectors allied with the opposition on one side and security forces and militias loyal to Saleh on the other.

After Saleh pretended to accept a Gulf Cooperation Council-brokered plan allowing him to cede power in exchange for immunity from prosecution only to back away before signing three separate times, an assassination attempt on 3 June left him and several other high-ranking Yemeni officials injured by a blast in the presidential compound's mosque. Saleh was evacuated to Saudi Arabia for treatment and handed over power to Vice President Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi, who largely continued his policies and ordered the arrest of several Yemenis in connection with the attack on the presidential compound. While in Saudi Arabia, Saleh kept hinting that he could return any time and continued to be present in the political sphere through television appearances from Riyadh starting with an address to the Yemeni people on 7 July. On 13 August, a demonstration was announced in Yemen as "Mansouron Friday" in which hundreds of thousands of Yemenis called for Saleh to go. The protesters joining the "Mansouron Friday" were calling for establishment of "a new Yemen". On 12 September Saleh issued a presidential decree while still receiving treatment in Riyadh authorizing Hadi to negotiate a deal with the opposition and sign the GCC initiative.

On 23 September, three months since the assassination attempt, Saleh returned to Yemen abruptly, defying all earlier expectations. Pressure on Saleh to sign the GCC initiative eventually led to his doing so in Riyadh on 23 November. Saleh thereby agreed to step down and set the stage for the transfer of power to his vice president. A presidential election was then held on 21 February 2012, in which Hadi (the only candidate) won 99.8% of the vote. Hadi then took the oath of office in Yemen's parliament on 25 February. By 27 February Saleh had resigned from the presidency and transferred power to Hadi. The replacement government was overthrown by Houthi rebels on 22 January 2015, starting the Yemeni Civil War and the Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen.

{{See also|Arab Winter|Impact of the Arab Spring}}

In the aftermath of the Arab Spring in various countries, there was a wave of violence and instability commonly known as the Arab Winter{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/9753123/Middle-East-review-of-2012-the-Arab-Winter.html|title=Middle East review of 2012: the Arab Winter|date=31 December 2012|work=The Daily Telegraph|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140424065729/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/9753123/Middle-East-review-of-2012-the-Arab-Winter.html|archive-date=24 April 2014}} or Islamist Winter.{{cite web|url=http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2012/12/the-arab-spring-descends-into-islamist-winter-implications-for-us-policy|title=Arab Spring into Islamist Winter: Implications for U.S. Policy|publisher=The Heritage Foundation|url-status=unfit|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141030181832/http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2012/12/the-arab-spring-descends-into-islamist-winter-implications-for-us-policy|archive-date=30 October 2014}} The Arab Winter was characterized by extensive civil wars, general regional instability, economic and demographic decline of the Arab League and overall religious wars between Sunni and Shia Muslims.

File:Libyan Civil War.svg (2014–2020)]]

Although the long-term effects of the Arab Spring have yet to be shown, its short-term consequences varied greatly across the Middle East and North Africa. In Tunisia and Egypt, where the existing regimes were ousted and replaced through a process of free and fair election, the revolutions were considered short-term successes.{{cite journal|last1=Anderson|first1=Lisa|title=Demystifying the Arab Spring: Parsing the Differences Between Tunisia, Egypt, and Libya|journal=Foreign Affairs|date=May 2011|volume=90|issue=3|pages=2–7}}{{cite journal|last1=Haseeb|first1=Khair El-Din|title=The Arab Spring Revisited|journal=Contemporary Arab Affairs|date=13 March 2012|volume=5|issue=2|pages=185–197|doi=10.1080/17550912.2012.673384}}{{cite journal|last1=Hussain|first1=Muzammil M|last2=Howard|first2=Philip N|title=What Explains Successful Protest Cascades? ICTs and the Fuzzy Causes of the Arab Spring|journal=International Studies Review|date=2013|volume=15|pages=48–66|doi=10.1111/misr.12020|url=https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/97489/1/misr12020.pdf|hdl=2027.42/97489|hdl-access=free|access-date=29 September 2018|archive-date=13 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240913054105/https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/97489/1/misr12020.pdf|url-status=live}} This interpretation is, however, problematized by the subsequent political turmoil that emerged, particularly in Egypt. Elsewhere, most notably in the monarchies of Morocco and the Persian Gulf, existing regimes co-opted the Arab Spring movement and managed to maintain order without significant social change.{{cite journal|last1=Bellin|first1=Eva|title=Reconsidering the Robustness of Authoritarianism in the Middle East: Lessons from the Arab Spring|journal=Comparative Politics|date=January 2012|volume=44|issue=2|pages=127–149|jstor=23211807|doi=10.5129/001041512798838021}}{{cite book|last1=Kausch|first1=Kristina|editor1-last=Emerson|editor1-first=Michael|editor2-last=Youngs|editor2-first=Richard|title=Democracy's Plight in the European Neighbourhood: Struggling Transitions and Proliferating Dynasties|date=2009|publisher=Centre for European Policy Studies|location=Brussels|isbn=978-92-9079-926-9|pages=140–147|chapter=Morocco: Smart Authoritarianism Refined}} In other countries, particularly Syria and Libya, the apparent result of Arab Spring protests was a complete societal collapse.{{Failed verification|date=April 2021|talk=Societal collapse|reason=The referenced article makes no mention of Syria, or societal collapse.}}

Social scientists have endeavored to understand the circumstances that led to this variation in outcome. A variety of causal factors have been highlighted, most of which hinge on the relationship between the strength of the state and the strength of civil society. Countries with stronger civil society networks in various forms underwent more successful reforms during the Arab Spring; these findings are also consistent with more general social science theories such as those espoused by Robert D. Putnam and Joel S. Migdal.{{cite book|last1=Migdal|first1=Joel S|title=Strong Societies and Weak States: State-Society Relations and State Capabilities in the Third World|date=1988|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton, NJ|isbn=978-0-691-01073-1}}{{cite book|last1=Putnam|first1=Robert D|title=Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community|date=2001|publisher=Simon & Schuster|location=New York|isbn=978-0-7432-0304-3}}

One of the primary influences that have been highlighted in the analysis of the Arab Spring is the relative strength or weakness of a society's formal and informal institutions prior to the revolts. When the Arab Spring began, Tunisia had an established infrastructure and a lower level of petty corruption than did other states, such as Libya. This meant that, following the overthrow of the existing regime, there was less work to be done in reforming Tunisian institutions than elsewhere, and consequently it was less difficult to transition to and consolidate a democratic system of government.{{cite book|last1=North|first1=Douglass C|title=Transaction costs, institutions, and economic performance|date=1992|publisher=ICS Press|location=San Francisco|page=13}}

Also crucial was the degree of state censorship over print, broadcast, and social media in different countries. Television coverage by channels like Al Jazeera and BBC News provided worldwide exposure and prevented mass violence by the Egyptian government in Tahrir Square, contributing to the success of the Egyptian Revolution. In other countries, such as Libya, Bahrain, and Syria, such international press coverage was not present to the same degree, and the governments of these countries were able to act more freely in suppressing the protests.Hearns-Branaman, Jesse Owen (2012), 'The Egyptian Revolution did not take place: On live television coverage by Al Jazeera English', International Journal of Baudrillard Studies Vol 9, no 1 {{cite web|url=https://www.ubishops.ca/baudrillardstudies/vol-9_1/v9-1-branaman.html|title=IJBS - Volume 9-1 January 2012|access-date=17 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150321094852/http://www.ubishops.ca/baudrillardstudies/vol-9_1/v9-1-branaman.html|archive-date=21 March 2015}} Strong authoritarian regimes with high degrees of censorship in their national broadcast media were able to block communication and prevent the domestic spread of information necessary for successful protests.

Countries with greater access to social media, such as Tunisia and Egypt, proved more effective in mobilizing large groups of people, and appear to have been more successful overall than those with greater state control over media.{{cite journal|last1=Lotan|first1=Gilad|last2=Graeff|first2=Erhardt|last3=Ananny|first3=Mike|last4=Gaffney|first4=Devin|last5=Pearce|first5=Ian|last6=Boyd|first6=Danah|title=The Revolutions Were Tweeted: Information Flows During the 2011 Tunisian and Egyptian Revolutions|journal=International Journal of Communication|date=2011|volume=5|pages=1375–1405}}{{cite journal|last1=Khondker|first1=Habibul Haque|title=Role of the New Media in the Arab Spring|journal=Globalizations|date=October 2011|volume=8|issue=5|pages=675–679|doi=10.1080/14747731.2011.621287|bibcode=2011Glob....8..675K |s2cid=143933742}} Although social media played a large role in shaping the events of revolutions social activism did not occur in a vacuum. Without the use of street level organization social activists would not have been as effective.{{Citation|last1=Comunello|first1=Francesca|last2=Anzera|first2=Giuseppe|title=Will the revolution be tweeted? A conceptual framework for understanding the social median the Arab Spring|journal=Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations|date=2012|volume=23|issue=4|pages=454–470|doi=10.1080/09596410.2012.712435|hdl=11573/483810 |s2cid=145674761}} Even though a revolution did take place and the prior government has been replaced, Tunisia's government can not conclude that another uprising will not take place. There are still many grievances taking place today.Fahmy, Nabil. "Managing compromise in Middle East – Managing compromise in Middle East." Daily Star, The (Beirut, Lebanon) 25 Oct. 2016, Commentary: 7. NewsBank. Web. 24 October 2016.

In Tunisia, due to tourism coming to a halt and other factors during the revolution and Arab Spring movement, the budget deficit has grown and unemployment has risen since 2011.{{cite web|url=http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/tunisia/overview|title=Tunisia Overview|publisher=The World Bank|access-date=2016-10-27|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161009073603/http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/tunisia/overview|archive-date=9 October 2016}} According to the World Bank in 2016, "Unemployment remains at 15.3% from 16.7% in 2011, but still well above the pre-revolution level of 13%." Large scale emigration brought on by a long and treacherous civil war has permanently harmed the Syrian economy. Projections for economic contraction will remain high at almost 7% in 2017."East Med." Middle East Monitor: East Med 26.11 (2016): 1–8. Business Source Complete. Web. 18 November 2016.

File:Anti-coup protesters with R4bia sign in Nasr City-Cairo 11-Oct-2013.jpg in solidarity with the victims of the August 2013 Rabaa massacre of pro-Morsi sit-ins in Cairo]]

The support, even if tacit, of national military forces during protests has been correlated to the success of the Arab Spring movement in different countries. In Egypt and Tunisia, the military actively participated in ousting the incumbent regime and in facilitating the transition to democratic elections. Countries like Saudi Arabia, on the other hand, exhibited a strong mobilization of military force against protesters, effectively ending the revolts in their territories; others, including Libya and Syria, failed to stop the protests entirely and instead ended up in civil war. The support of the military in Arab Spring protests has also been linked to the degree of ethnic homogeneity in different societies. In Saudi Arabia and Syria, where the ruling elite was closely linked with ethnic or religious subdivisions of society, the military sided with the existing regime and took on the ostensible role of protector to minority populations.{{cite journal|last1=Gause III|first1=F. Gregory|title=Why Middle East Studies Missed the Arab Spring: The Myth of Authoritarian Stability|journal=Foreign Policy|date=July 2011|volume=90|issue=4|pages=81–90|jstor=23039608}}

The presence of a strong, educated middle class has been noted as a correlate to the success of the Arab Spring in different countries.{{cite journal|last1=Campante|first1=Filipe R|last2=Chor|first2=David|s2cid=41753996|title=Why was the Arab World Poised for Revolution? Schooling, Economic Opportunities, and the Arab Spring|journal=The Journal of Economic Perspectives|date=Spring 2012|volume=26|issue=2|pages=167–187|jstor=41495309|doi=10.1257/jep.26.2.167|url=https://ink.library.smu.edu.sg/soe_research/1429|doi-access=free|access-date=24 August 2020|archive-date=23 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200923101553/https://ink.library.smu.edu.sg/soe_research/1429/|url-status=live}} Countries with strong welfare programs and a weak middle class, such as Saudi Arabia and Jordan, as well as countries with great economic disparity and an impoverished working class—including Yemen, Libya, and Morocco—did not experience successful revolutions. The strength of the middle class is, in turn, directly connected to the existing political, economic, and educational institutions in a country, and the middle class itself may be considered an informal institution.{{cite book|last1=Acemoglu|first1=Daron|last2=Johnson|first2=Simon|last3=Robinson|first3=James|editor1-last=Aghion|editor1-first=Philippe|editor2-last=Durlauf|editor2-first=Steven N|title=Handbook of Economic Growth, Volume 1A|date=4 January 2006|publisher=North-Holland|isbn=978-0-444-52041-8|pages=385–472|chapter=Institutions as a Fundamental Cause of Long-Run Growth}} In very broad terms, this may be reframed in terms of development, as measured by various indicators such as the Human Development Index: rentier states such as the oil monarchies of the Persian Gulf exhibited less successful revolutions overall.{{Cite journal|last1=Ruach|first1=James E|last2=Kostyshak|first2=Scott|date=Summer 2009|title=The Three Arab Worlds|doi=10.1257/jep.23.3.165|journal=Journal of Economic Perspectives|volume=23|issue=3|pages=165–188|doi-access=free}}

Charting what he calls the 'new masses' of the twenty-first century, Sociologist Göran Therborn draws attention to the historical contradictory role of the middle class. The Egyptian middle class has illustrated this ambivalence and contradiction in 2011 and 2013: "The volatility of middle-class politics is vividly illustrated by the sharp turns in Egypt, from acclamation of democracy to adulation of the military and its mounting repression of dissent, effectively condoning the restoration of the ancien régime minus Mubarak.{{cite journal|url=https://newleftreview.org/II/85/goran-therborn-new-masses|author=Göran Therborn|title=New Masses|date=2014|journal=New Left Review |issue=85|pages=7–16 }}

File:Months after an airstrike on a neighborhood populated by black Yemenis or "Muhamasheen" more than a hundred buildings still remain in rubble and survivors continue to search for any valuables - Sanaa - Yemen - Oct-9-2015.png against the Shia Houthis, October 2015]]

Some trends in political Islam resulting from the Arab Spring noted by observers (Quinn Mecham and Tarek Osman) include:

• Repression of the Muslim Brotherhood, not only in Egypt by the military and courts following the forcible removal of Morsi from office in 2013; but also by Saudi Arabia and a number of Gulf countries (not Qatar).{{cite news|last1=Mecham|first1=Quinn|title=The evolution of Islamism since the Arab uprisings|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/monkey-cage/wp/2014/10/24/the-evolution-of-islamism-since-the-arab-uprisings/|access-date=28 October 2015|agency=Washington Post|date=24 October 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151012165755/https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/monkey-cage/wp/2014/10/24/the-evolution-of-islamism-since-the-arab-uprisings/|archive-date=12 October 2015}}{{cite web|title=Rethinking Political Islam |url=http://www.brookings.edu/research/reports2/2015/08/rethinking-political-islam |publisher=Brookings|access-date=29 October 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151028184139/http://www.brookings.edu/research/reports2/2015/08/rethinking-political-islam|archive-date=28 October 2015}}{{cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/12696782|title=GCC's 2014 Crisis: Causes, Issues and Solutions|journal=Gulf Cooperation Council's Challenges and Prospects|author=Islam Hassan|date=31 March 2015|publisher=Al Jazeera Research Center|access-date=4 June 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904020157/http://www.academia.edu/12696782/GCCs_2014_Crisis_Causes_Issues_and_Solutions|archive-date=4 September 2015}} The ambassadors crisis also seriously threatened the GCC's activities, adversely affected its functioning and could arguably even have led to its dissolution.
• Rise of Islamist "state-building" where "state failure" has taken place—most prominently in Syria, Iraq, Libya and Yemen. Islamists have found it easier than competing non-Islamists trying to fill the void of state failure, by securing external funding, weaponry and fighters – "many of which have come from abroad and have rallied around a pan-Islamic identity". The norms of governance in these Islamist areas are militia-based, and the governed submit to their authority out of fear, loyalty, other reasons, or some combination. The "most expansive" of these new "models" is the Islamic State.
• Increasing sectarianism (primarily Sunni-Shia) at least in part from proxy wars and the escalation of the Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict. Islamists are fighting Islamists across sectarian lines in Lebanon (Sunni militants targeting Hezbollah positions), Yemen (between mainstream Sunni Islamists of al-Islah and the Shiite Zaydi Houthi movement), in Iraq (Islamic State and Iraqi Shiite militias).
• Increased caution and political learning in countries such as Algeria and Jordan where Islamists have chosen not to lead a major challenge against their governments. In Yemen, al-Islah "has sought to frame its ideology in a way that will avoid charges of militancy".
• In countries where Islamists did choose to lead a major challenge and did not succeed in transforming society (particularly Egypt), a disinterest in "soul-searching" about what went wrong, in favor of "antagonism and fiery anger" and a thirst for revenge. Partisans of political Islam (although this does not include some prominent leaders such as Rached Ghannouchi but is particularly true in Egypt) see themselves as victims of an injustice whose perpetrators are not just "individual conspirators but entire social groups".{{cite book|last1=Osman|first1=Tarek|title=Islamism: What It Means for the Middle East and the World|date=2016|publisher=Yale University Press|page=244|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vKZ5CwAAQBAJ&q=islamism+osman|access-date=18 October 2016|isbn=978-0-300-19772-3|archive-date=13 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240913054122/https://books.google.com/books?id=vKZ5CwAAQBAJ&q=islamism+osman#v=snippet&q=islamism%20osman&f=false|url-status=live}}

"The repercussions of the 2011 uprisings have influenced Middle Eastern youth's experiences providing impetus for questioning perennial sacred beliefs and positions, and forging ahead avant-garde views and responses to the constraints they face."

Contrary to the common discourse, Hussein Agha and Robert Malley from The New Yorker argue that the divide in the post–Arab Spring in the Middle East is not sectarianism:

{{blockquote|The bloodiest, most vicious, and most pertinent struggles occur squarely inside the Sunni world. Sectarianism is a politically expedient fable, conveniently used to cover up old-fashioned power struggles, maltreatment of minorities, and cruel totalitarian practices.{{cite magazine|last1=Agha|first1=Hussein|last2=Malley|first2=Robert|title=The Middle East's Great Divide Is Not Sectarianism|url=https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/the-middle-easts-great-divide-is-not-sectarianism/amp|access-date=31 March 2019|magazine=The New Yorker|date=11 March 2019|archive-date=13 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240913054107/https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/the-middle-easts-great-divide-is-not-sectarianism|url-status=live}}}}

Agha and Malley point out that even in Syria there has been a misrepresentation of the conflict, that the Assad regime relied on an alliance that included middle class Sunnis along with other religious minorities. Prior to the uprising, the Syrian regime enjoyed some financial and political support from Sunni Gulf states. The "select rich urban bourgeoisie, the Sunni Damascene in particular", according to Tokyo University researcher Housam Darwisheh, "now has a direct interest in preserving stability and their relations with the regime as long as their businesses prosper."{{cite web|last=Darwisheh|first=Housam|url=https://ir.ide.go.jp/index.php?action=pages_view_main&active_action=repository_action_common_download&item_id=37785&item_no=1&attribute_id=22&file_no=1&page_id=39&block_id=158|title=From Authoritarianism to Upheaval: The Political Economy of the Syrian Uprising and Regime Persistence|year=2013|publisher=Institute of Developing Economics, Japan|access-date=31 March 2019|archive-date=31 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331204539/https://ir.ide.go.jp/index.php?action=pages_view_main&active_action=repository_action_common_download&item_id=37785&item_no=1&attribute_id=22&file_no=1&page_id=39&block_id=158|url-status=live}} In the view of the Arab sociologist Halim Barakat, "the persistence of communal cleavages complicates rather than nullifies social class consciousness and struggles."{{cite book|url=http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/wiki/eBooks/MidEast/BOOKS/The%20Arab%20World%20Barakat.pdf|last=Barakat|first=Halim|title=The Arab World: Society, Culture and State|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|year=1993|page=19|access-date=15 April 2019|archive-date=20 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180820132110/http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/wiki/eBooks/MidEast/BOOKS/The%20Arab%20World%20Barakat.pdf|url-status=dead}}

{{Excerpt|Arab Summer}}

Very few analysts of the Arab societies foresaw a mass movement on such a scale that might threaten the existing order. In his 1993 sociological study of the Arab societies, culture and state, Barakat stated confidently that "one should expect the first Arab popular revolution to take place in Egypt or Tunisia. This does not, however, exclude the possibility that revolutions may occur in more pluralistic societies as well."{{sfn|Barakat|1993|pages=15–17}} What was prevalent, according to the Syrian writer and political dissident Yassin al-Haj Saleh was three 'springs' that ensured the status quo. One of which was a "spring of despotic states that receive assistance and legitimacy from a world system centered around stability".{{cite web|url=http://www.yassinhs.com/2016/02/19/syria-and-the-world-reactionarism-is-back-and-progressing|last=al-Haj Saleh|first=Yassin|date=19 February 2016|access-date=15 April 2019|title=Syria and the World: Reactionarism is Back, and Progressing|archive-date=15 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190415191818/http://www.yassinhs.com/2016/02/19/syria-and-the-world-reactionarism-is-back-and-progressing/|url-status=dead}} Most democracy protests do not result in reforms.Dawn Brancati. 2016. Democracy Protests: Origins, Features, and Significance. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Two months into the Tunisian and Egyptian uprisings, The Economist magazine in a leader article spoke about a new generation of young people, idealists, "inspired by democracy", which made revolutions. Those revolutions, the article stated, "are going the right way, with a hopeful new mood prevailing and free elections in the offing".{{cite magazine|url=https://www.economist.com/leaders/2011/03/31/islam-and-the-arab-revolutions|title=Islam and the Arab revolutions|date=31 March 2011|magazine=The Economist|access-date=16 April 2019|archive-date=13 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240913054238/https://www.economist.com/leaders/2011/03/31/islam-and-the-arab-revolutions|url-status=live}} For those on the streets of Egypt the predominant slogan was "bread, freedom and social justice".{{cite web|url=http://mediterraneanaffairs.com/bread-freedom-and-social-justice|title=Bread, freedom and social justice|work=Mediterranean Affairs |date=5 February 2015|access-date=16 April 2019}}

Some observers, however, have questioned the revolutionary nature of the 'Arab Spring'. A social theorist specialising in social movements and social change in the Middle East, Asef Bayat, has provided an analysis based on his decades-long of research as "a participant-observer" (in his own words). In his appraisal of the Arab revolutions, Bayat discerns a remarkable difference between these revolutions and the revolutions of the 1960s and 1970s in countries like Yemen, Nicaragua and Iran. The Arab revolutions, argues Bayat, "lacked any associated intellectual anchor" and the predominant voices, "secular and Islamists alike, took free market, property relations, and neoliberal rationality for granted" and uncritically.{{harvnb|Bayat|2017|p=11}} New social movements' define themselves as horizontal networks with aversion to the state and central authority. Thus their "political objective is not to capture the state", a fundamental feature in the twentieth-century revolutionary movements.{{cite web|url=https://eprints.lse.ac.uk/63903/1/MahaAbdelrahman_Social%20movements-2015.pdf|last=Abdelrahman|first=Maha|title=Social Movement and the Quest for Organisation: Egypt and Everywhere|publisher=LSE Middle East Centre Paper Series, 08|date=September 2015|pages=6–7|access-date=6 April 2019|archive-date=3 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181103071141/http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/63903/1/MahaAbdelrahman_Social%20movements-2015.pdf|url-status=live}} Instead of revolution or reform, Bayat speaks of 'refolution'.{{cite journal|url=https://newleftreview.org/issues/II80/articles/asef-bayat-revolution-in-bad-times|last=Bayat|first=Asef|title=Revolution in Bad Times|journal=New Left Review|issue=80|date=March–April 2013|pages=47–60|access-date=15 April 2019|archive-date=21 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190521095912/https://newleftreview.org/issues/II80/articles/asef-bayat-revolution-in-bad-times|url-status=live}}

Wael Ghonim, an Internet activist who would later gain an international fame, acknowledged that what he had intended by founding a Facebook page was a "simple reaction to the events in Tunisia" and that "there was no master plans or strategies" a priori.{{cite book|title=Revolution 2.0: The Power of the People is Greater than People in Power|last=Ghonim|first=Wael|date=2012|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |location=New York|language=en-US|pages=204–205}} That the objective was reform to be achieved through peaceful means and not revolution was explicitly put forward by April 6 Movement, one of the leading forces of the Egyptian uprising, in their statements. It called for "coalition and co-operation between all factions and national forces to reach the reform and the peaceful change of the conditions of Egypt".{{cite web|url=https://shabab6april.wordpress.com/about/shabab-6-april-youth-movement-about-us-in-english|title=about us (see reply in comments)|year=2011|publisher=shabab6april.wordpress.com|access-date=7 April 2019|archive-date=7 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190407122329/https://shabab6april.wordpress.com/about/shabab-6-april-youth-movement-about-us-in-english/|url-status=live}} "Even in Tahrir Square with so many people and the rising level of demands," recalls an activist in the movement, "we were very surprised by the people wanting the downfall of the regime; and not a single one of us had expected this."{{cite book|title=Thawra 25 January: Qira'a Awwaliyya wa Ru'ya Mustaqbaliyya (January 25 Revolution: An Initial Interpretation and Future Prospect)|last=Hashem Rabi'|first=Amr|date=2011|publisher=Al-Ahram Center for Political and Strategic Studies, Cairo|language=ar|page=429}} In comparing the uprisings in Tunisia, Egypt, Libya and Syria, researcher Housam Darwisheh concludes: "The Egyptian uprising, in neither dismantling the ancien regime nor creating new institutional mechanisms to lead the transition, permitted the so-called 'deep state' to reassert itself while the deepening polarization led many non-Islamists to side with the military against the MB [the Muslim Brotherhood]."{{cite journal|url=https://ir.ide.go.jp/index.php?action=pages_view_main&active_action=repository_action_common_download&item_id=37719&item_no=1&attribute_id=22&file_no=1&page_id=39&block_id=158|last=Darwisheh|first=Housam|date=2014|title=Trajectories and Outcomes: Comparing Tunisia, Egypt, Libya and Syria|journal=IDE Discussion Paper|volume=456|publisher=Institute of Developing Economies, Japan External Trade Organization|access-date=8 April 2019|page=10|archive-date=26 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726083209/https://ir.ide.go.jp/index.php?action=pages_view_main&active_action=repository_action_common_download&item_id=37719&item_no=1&attribute_id=22&file_no=1&page_id=39&block_id=158|url-status=live}}

According to Cambridge sociologist Hazem Kandil, the Muslim Brotherhood did not aim at taking power during the events leading up to the toppling of Mubarak. The biggest and most organised organisation in Egypt in fact negotiated with the regime in "infamous talks between Morsi and the then vice-president Omar Suleiman", and "an informal deal was reached: withdraw your members from Tahrir Square, and we allow you to form a political party." Then the Brotherhood wavered whether to file a presidential candidate and did not push for a new constitution, choosing to work with the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces (SCAF):

{{blockquote|The Brotherhood and the Salafists went all-out to keep the existing constitution—originating under Sadat—with a few amendments. The result was irrelevant, because the military scrapped the old constitution anyway. But the Brothers managed to persuade over 70 per cent of the voters, so it became clear to the military that they had far more sway on the street than the secular revolutionaries who had brought down Mubarak, yet seemed incapable of much organization once they had done so. For SCAF, the priority was to bring the street under control, so it decided to start working with the Brotherhood to stabilize the country.{{cite journal|last=kandil|first=Hazem|url=https://newleftreview.org/issues/II102/articles/hazem-kandil-sisi-s-egypt.pdf|title=Sisi's Egypt|journal=New Left Review|date=November–December 2016|issue=102|pages=29–30|access-date=8 April 2019|archive-date=8 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190408124337/https://newleftreview.org/issues/II102/articles/hazem-kandil-sisi-s-egypt.pdf|url-status=live}}}}

George Lawson from the London School of Economics places the Arab uprisings within the post-Cold War world. He characterises the uprisings as "largely unsuccessful revolution" and that they "bare a family resemblance to the 'negotiated revolutions'... Negotiated revolutions ... seek to transform political and symbolic fields of action, but without a concomitant commitment to a program of economic transformation."{{cite journal|url=https://eprints.lse.ac.uk/63156/1/Lawson_Revolution%2C%20non-violence.pdf|last=Lawson|first=George|title=Revolution, non-violence, and the Arab Uprisings|journal=Mobilization: An International Quarterly|year=2015|issn=1086-671X|page=24|access-date=6 April 2019|archive-date=20 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180720122521/http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/63156/1/Lawson_Revolution%2C%20non-violence.pdf|url-status=live}} In this 'negotiated revolution', comments Bayat, "revolutionaries had in effect little part in the 'negotiations'."{{sfn|Bayat|2017|p=161}} What has been treated by some analysts as intellectual weakness of the revolutionary movement is partly due to the pre-2011 stifling cultural environment under repressive regimes. Although Egyptian intellectuals enjoyed a bigger margin of freedom than their counterparts in Tunisia, cultural figures sought protection from political players, and instead of leading criticism, they complied.{{cite web|url=http://www.mafhoum.com/press/53C33.htm|last=Mehrez|first=Samia|title=Take Them Out of the Ball Game|publisher=Middle East Report 219|date=Summer 2001|access-date=6 April 2019|archive-date=13 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240913054107/http://www.mafhoum.com/press/53C33.htm|url-status=live}}

The post-Cold War era saw the emergence of the idea and practice of gradual reform and liberal agenda. It saw an influx of humanitarian projects, NGOs and charity work, liberal think tanks and emphasis on civil society work. This new juncture seemed to have made the idea and prospect of revolution an outdated project. The focus instead shifted to individual freedoms and free market. The new idea of civil society was different from the kind of civil society Antonio Gramsci, for instance, envisaged: 'a revolution before the revolution'.

In her field study in Yemen, anthropologist Bogumila Hall depicts the effects of what she terms as "the marketization of civil society and its heavy reliance on donors", which "led to a largely depoliticized form of activism that by passed, rather than confronted, the state". Hall, with her focus on the muhammashīn (the marginalized) in Yemen, described how in the 1990s and 2000s international NGOs established charity projects and workshops "to teach slum dwellers new skills and behaviours". But, besides the "modest changes" brought by the NGOs, concludes Hall, "delegating the problem of the muhammashīn to the realm of development and poverty alleviation, without addressing the structural causes underlying their marginalisation, had a depoliticising effect. It led to a widely held assumption, also shared by the muhammashīn, that ending marginalisation was a matter for experts and administrative measures, not politics."{{cite journal|last=Hall|first=Bogumila|date=2017|title=This is our homeland": Yemen's marginalized and the quest for rights and recognition|journal=Arabian Humanities|volume=9|issue=9|doi=10.4000/cy.3427|doi-access=free}}

When Arab regimes viewed NGOs' leaders and other similar organisations with suspicion, accusing Western governments of providing funding and training to 'illegal organisations' and fomenting revolution, diplomatic cables reported "how American officials frequently assured skeptical governments that the training was aimed at reform, not promoting revolutions".{{cite news|last=Nixon|first=Ron|title=U.S. Groups Helped Nurture Arab Uprisings|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/15/world/15aid.html|access-date=10 April 2019|newspaper=The New York Times|date=14 April 2011|archive-date=23 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210223213023/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/15/world/15aid.html|url-status=live}} And when the Egyptian uprising was gaining its momentum, the American president Barack Obama "did not suggest that the 82-year-old leader step aside or transfer power... the argument was that he really needed to do the reforms, and do them fast. Former ambassador to Egypt (Frank G.) Wisner publicly suggested that Mr. Mubarak had to be at the center of any change, and Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton warned that any transition would take time."{{cite news|title=Tunisian-Egyptian Link That Shook the Arab History|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/14/world/middleeast/14egypt-tunisia-protests.html|access-date=10 April 2019|newspaper=The New York Times|date=14 February 2011|archive-date=1 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201122145/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/14/world/middleeast/14egypt-tunisia-protests.html|url-status=live}} Some activists, who read the American thinker and nonviolence advocate Gene Sharp, obtained training from foreign bodies, including the Serbian opposition movement Otpor!, and April 6 Movement modelled its logo after Otpor's. Otpor, writes Bayat in his discussion of the agencies of the Arab Spring activism in Tunisia and Egypt, obtained funds from well-known American organisations such as the American National Endowment for Democracy, USAID, and the International Republican Institute. Thus Otpur, in line with these organisations' advocacies, "pushed for political reform through nonradical, electoral, and market-driven language and practices".{{sfn|Bayat|2017|p=177}}

Early 2019 witnessed two uprisings: one in Algeria and another in Sudan. In Algeria under pressure of weeks of protests, the head of the army forced the ailing twenty-year-serving president, Abdelaziz Bouteflika, to abdicate. In Sudan, after four months of protests, the Sudani defense minister ousted longtime President Omar al-Bashir in a coup.{{cite news|title=Omar al-Bashir ousted: How Sudan got there|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-47892742|access-date=13 April 2019|publisher=BBC News |date=11 April 2019}} Writing about what he calls "a rebirth of Tahrir Square", the prominent Lebanese novelist and critic Elias Khoury, averred that "perhaps the secret of the Arab Spring lies not in its victories or defeats, but in its ability to liberate people from fear." Despite the "faded spirit of Tahrir Square" and an outcome that Khoury describes as a "monarchy that abrogates legal standards", a renaissance of resistance is unstoppable:

{{blockquote|The defeat of the Arab Spring has seemed likely to extinguish this glimmer of hope, to return the Arab world to the tyrannical duopoly of military and oil and to crush the will of the people in the struggle between Sunni and Shia, between Saudi Arabia and Iran. The combination has thrown the region into Israelʹs lap. But the defeat cannot and will not stop the renaissance. If the Arab world has reached rock bottom, it canʹt go any lower and it canʹt last forever.{{cite web|last=Khoury|first=Elias|url=https://en.qantara.de/content/elias-khoury-on-the-arab-spring-2019-the-re-birth-of-tahrir-square?nopaging=1|title=The Rebirth of Tahrir Square|work=Qantara.de - Dialogue with the Islamic World |year=2019|publisher=Qantara.de |access-date=12 April 2019}}}}

There was a need, suggested Khoury, to turn "the uprisings of the Arab Spring into an intellectual, political and moral project that gives meaning to the goals of freedom, democracy and social justice". From the outset the 2011 Arab uprisings raised the banner of 'social justice'. The concept, what it means and how to achieve it has been a major subject of discussion and contention since then.

{{See also|October 2019 Iraqi protests}}

In its economic and social manifesto, the Tunisian Ennahda Movement states that the movement "adopts the social and solidarised market economy within a national approach based on free economic activity, freedom of ownership, production and administration on the one hand, and social justice and equal opportunities on the other hand" and that "national capital has to be the axis in the development process."{{cite web|url=http://www.ennahdha.tn/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D9%91%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%AD%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%A9|title=اللائحة الاقتصادية الاجتمعاية|publisher=ennahda.tn|language=ar|access-date=17 April 2019|archive-date=21 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190421204203/http://www.ennahdha.tn/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D9%91%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%AD%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%A9|url-status=live}} The Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt mainly focuses on "reform of existing political systems in the Arab world. It embraces the idea of political activism and social responsibility, organising charitable works and social support programmes as part of its outreach to its core support base of lower-income populations."{{cite news|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2017/06/muslim-brotherhood-explained-170608091709865.html|title=What is the Muslim Brotherhood?|publisher=Al Jazeera|access-date=17 April 2019|archive-date=13 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240913054642/https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2017/6/18/what-is-the-muslim-brotherhood|url-status=live}}

On its part the International Centre for Transitional Justice has set nine 'concrete and tangible' goals with focus on "accountability for serious violations of human rights, access to justice, facilitating peace processes, advancing the cause of reconciliation and reforming the state and social institutions".{{cite web|url=https://www.ictj.org/about|title=About us|publisher=International Centre for Transitional Justice|access-date=20 April 2019|date=15 February 2011|archive-date=13 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240913054618/https://www.ictj.org/about|url-status=live}} One of those goals was taken up by Truth and Dignity Commission (Tunisia) that recorded and submitted to the relevant court the human rights abuses which had been committed by the Tunisian regime. A new climate of freedom of speech, freedom of organisation and elections characterised the political environment of post-Ben Ali Tunisia.

Some observers and social analysts remarked, however, that the issue of social justice remained a rhetoric or was marginalised. According to Fathi Al-Shamikhi, an expert in debt issues and founder of the Tunisian association RAID, different social forces played a crucial role in matters related to social demands and achieving social justice. "This role varies between those who advocate these demands and those who reject them, according to the social nature of each of these forces."{{cite web|url=http://www.socialjusticeportal.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Social-Justice-Concept-and-Policies-after-the-Arab-Revolutions-E.pdf|title=Social Justice in the Light of the Revolutionary Process in Tunisia in Social Justice Concept and Policies After the Arab Revolutions|publisher=Arab Forum for Alternative Studies, Rosa Luxemburg Foundation|date=2014|access-date=20 April 2019|page=93|archive-date=20 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190420173251/http://www.socialjusticeportal.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Social-Justice-Concept-and-Policies-after-the-Arab-Revolutions-E.pdf|url-status=usurped}} "Bread, freedom and social justice" were the main slogans of the Arab revolutions. But although social and economic demands were raised, argued researcher and former editor in chief of the Egyptian Al-Shorouq Newspaper, Wael Gamal, "they were pushed aside in the political arena, and more attention was given to issues such as the transfer of power arrangements, the constitution first, the elections first, democratic transformation and the religious-secular conflict."{{cite web|url=http://www.socialjusticeportal.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Social-Justice-Concept-and-Policies-after-the-Arab-Revolutions-E.pdf|title=Social Justice and the Arab Revolutions: The Complexities of the Concept and Policies in Social Justice Concept and Policies After the Arab Revolutions|publisher=Arab Forum for Alternative Studies, Rosa Luxemburg Foundation|date=2014|access-date=20 April 2019|page=15|archive-date=20 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190420173251/http://www.socialjusticeportal.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Social-Justice-Concept-and-Policies-after-the-Arab-Revolutions-E.pdf|url-status=usurped}}

With the survival of the regime in Egypt and the rolling back of what was gained in the short period after the overthrow of Mubarak, the persistence, or even the worsening, of the socio-economic conditions that led to the Tunisian uprising, a Saudi-led intervention in Bahrain assisted the defeat of the uprising in the country, and especially the descent of other uprisings into brutal civil wars in Syria, Libya and Yemen, with acute humanitarian crises, there are:

{{blockquote|many in capitals around the world who find it convenient to insist that a strongman is needed to deal with the peoples of this region. It is a racist, bigoted argument and should be called out as such, but many political leaders of the region are quite comfortable promoting it. Indeed, many of the counterrevolutionary moves in the region happened precisely because they agree with that argument.{{cite news|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/article-until-the-arab-world-enjoys-fundamental-rights-there-will-be-many|last=Hellyer|first=H. A.|title=Until the Arab world enjoys fundamental rights, there will be many more springs to come|date=25 April 2019|work=The Globe and Mail|access-date=27 April 2019|archive-date=27 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190427092822/https://www.theglobeandmail.com/amp/opinion/article-until-the-arab-world-enjoys-fundamental-rights-there-will-be-many/|url-status=live}}}}

In April 2019, amidst an offensive to take Libya's capital city. of Tripoli by military leader Khalifa Haftar, for whom U.S. President Donald Trump had voiced his support, the Syrian policy scholar Marwan Kabalan argued in an opinion piece for Al Jazeera that "counter-revolutionary forces are seeking to resurrect the military dictatorship model the Arab Spring dismantled." Kabalan contended that "regional and world powers have sponsored the return of military dictatorships to the region, with the hope that they would clean up the Arab Spring 'mess' and restore order." He also referred to Western powers' history of backing military rule in the region, and how American interests in the Middle East clashed with French and British ones. He cited the U.S.-supported coups in Syria and Egypt, but generally how, as former U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice admitted, the United States "pursued stability at the expense of democracy... and achieved neither." Kabalan concluded:

{{blockquote|There seems to be a concerted effort to establish a crescent of military-ruled countries from Sudan in northeast Africa to Algeria in the northwest through Egypt and Libya to ward off popular upheaval and keep "Islamist" forces in check.{{cite news|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/amp/indepth/opinion/middle-east-military-crescent-making-190429115639893.html|last=Kabalan|first=Marwan|title=In the Middle East, a new military crescent is in the making|date=29 April 2019|publisher=Al Jazeera|access-date=1 April 2019|archive-date=29 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190429145237/https://www.aljazeera.com/amp/indepth/opinion/middle-east-military-crescent-making-190429115639893.html|url-status=live}}}}

Analyst H. A. Hellyer attributes the persistence of autocracy and dictatorship, as well as counter-revolution, to structures that go back to colonialism - and also to the forms that states in the MENA region took in the postcolonial era and the social pacts established in the process. What we are seeing since 2011, Hellyer says, is a clash between those "inherited structures" and the new "demographic realities" of the populations in the region.{{sfn|Hellyer|2019}}

Compromise and dialogue with the entrenched regimes, followed by elections in Tunisia and Egypt, have produced either limited change or counter-revolution. In the first quarter of 2019, protests and mass mobilisation in Sudan and Algeria succeeded in toppling the heads of state, but, as scholar and Woodrow Wilson Center fellow Marina Ottaway states, there is a dilemma: The demands of the genuine grassroots movements are unlikely "to be attained through a peaceful process – one without violence and the violation of the human rights of many." Ottaway points to the experiences of Algeria and Egypt; in the former, the regime annulled the results of the elections in the early 1990s, and in the latter, the military carried out a bloody repression of the Muslim Brotherhood government after the Brotherhood's own short-lived presidency was removed from office:

{{blockquote|Attempts to bring about radical changes, by punishing and excluding a large part of the old elite, are not possible by democratic means, because such efforts elicit a strong reaction – a counterrevolution – leading to violence and repression.{{cite web |url=https://www.middleeasteye.net/opinion/algeria-and-sudan-revolutionary-dilemma |last=Ottaway |first=Marina |title=Algeria and Sudan: The revolutionary dilemma |date=1 May 2019 |publisher=Middle East Eye |access-date=3 May 2019 |archive-date=13 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240913054614/https://www.middleeasteye.net/opinion/algeria-and-sudan-revolutionary-dilemma |url-status=live }}}}

• {{Flag|Tunisia}}: Jasmine revolution
• {{Flag|Algeria}}: 2010–2012 Algerian protests
• {{Flag|Sudan}}: 2011–2013 Sudanese protests
• {{Flag|Oman}}: 2011 Omani protests
• {{Flag|Yemen}}: Yemeni Revolution
• {{Flag|Jordan}}: 2011–2012 Jordanian protests
• {{Flag|Egypt}}: Egyptian Crisis (2011–2014)
• {{Flagcountry|Ba'athist Syria}}: Syrian revolution (2011-2024)
• {{Flag|Morocco}}: 2011–2012 Moroccan protests
• {{Flag|Iraq}}: 2011 Iraqi protests and 2012–2013 Iraqi protests
• {{Flag|Bahrain}}: 2011 Bahraini uprising
• {{Flag|Kuwait}}: Kuwaiti protests (2011–2012)
• {{Flagcountry|Libyan Arab Jamahiriya}}: First Libyan Civil War

{{Portal|2010s|Africa|Modern history|Society|Middle East}}

• Arab Cold War
• Activism
• Arab nationalism
• Arab Revolt
• Arab Summer
• Arab Winter
• Arts of the Arab Spring
• Democracy in the Middle East and North Africa
• List of current monarchs of the Arabian Peninsula
• List of modern conflicts in North Africa
• List of modern conflicts in the Middle East
• Revolutions of 1830
• Revolutions of 1989
• We Want to Live movement
• April 6 Youth Movement
• Justice Call

{{notelist}}

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Check casualties of the Saudi Arabian protests for comprehensive list

Check Casualties of the Bahraini uprising (2011–present) for comprehensive list

Chick, Kristen (1 April 2011). [http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2011/0401/Bahrain-s-calculated-campaign-of-intimidation "Bahrain's Calculated Campaign of Intimidation"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110405173344/http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2011/0401/Bahrain-s-calculated-campaign-of-intimidation |date=5 April 2011 }}. The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 15 April 2011.

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{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-libya-clashes-idUSTRE7AB0HU20111112 |title=Fighters clash again near Tripoli, several dead |publisher=Reuters |date=12 November 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202235533/https://www.reuters.com/article/2011/11/12/us-libya-clashes-idUSTRE7AB0HU20111112 |archive-date=2 December 2013 }}

{{cite news|url=http://www.france24.com/en/20110606-syria-says-23-dead-israel-opens-fire-golan# |title=Syria says 23 dead as Israel opens fire on Golan |agency=Agence France-Presse |work=France 24 |date=6 June 2011 |access-date=12 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110609033742/http://www.france24.com/en/20110606-syria-says-23-dead-israel-opens-fire-golan |archive-date=9 June 2011 }}

{{cite news|title=From voice said to be Gadhafi, a defiant message to his foes |url=http://www.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/09/01/libya.war/index.html?hpt=hp_t2 |access-date=1 September 2011 |publisher=CNN |date=1 September 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121110134127/http://www.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/09/01/libya.war/index.html?hpt=hp_t2 |archive-date=10 November 2012 }}

{{cite news|url=http://www.news24.com/Africa/News/Gaddafi-loyalists-flee-Sebha-to-Niger-20110922 |agency=News24 |title=Gaddafi loyalists flee Sebha to Niger |date=22 September 2011 |access-date=24 September 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110924130719/http://www.news24.com/Africa/News/Gaddafi-loyalists-flee-Sebha-to-Niger-20110922 |archive-date=24 September 2011 }}

{{cite news|last=Surk |first=Barbara |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/canadianpress/article/ALeqM5gh9egWT30AUKwD6gzNoIxvkoqFMg?docId=6083540 |title=Police in Oman fire tear gas, rubber bullets at protesters seeking political reform; 1 killed |agency=Canadian Press |access-date=27 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110303135336/https://www.google.com/hostednews/canadianpress/article/ALeqM5gh9egWT30AUKwD6gzNoIxvkoqFMg?docId=6083540 |archive-date=3 March 2011 }}

{{cite news|url=http://gulftoday.ae/portal/0633bc9e-f175-4ccb-9aa8-5d1bd1a0e316.aspx |title=Governor of third Iraqi province quits over protests |work=The Gulf Today |date=27 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110304144057/http://gulftoday.ae/portal/0633bc9e-f175-4ccb-9aa8-5d1bd1a0e316.aspx |archive-date=4 March 2011 }}

{{cite news|title=Bahrain sees new clashes as martial law lifted |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jun/01/bahrain-protests-martial-law |work=The Guardian |date=1 June 2011 |location=London |first=Martin |last=Chulov |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118074922/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jun/01/bahrain-protests-martial-law |archive-date=18 January 2017 }}

{{cite news|title=Bahrain mourners call for end to monarchy |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/feb/18/bahrain-mourners-call-downnfall-monarchy |work=The Guardian |date=18 February 2011 |location=London |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110218093710/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/feb/18/bahrain-mourners-call-downnfall-monarchy |archive-date=18 February 2011 }}

{{cite news|url=http://in.reuters.com/article/idINIndia-55032320110221 |agency=Reuters India |date=21 February 2011 |access-date=14 January 2012 |title=HIGHLIGHTS – Libyan TV address by Saif al-Islam Gaddafi |location=Rabat |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120514082722/http://in.reuters.com/article/2011/02/21/idINIndia-55032320110221 |archive-date=14 May 2012 }}

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{{cite news|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/n.php?n=ntc-8216captured8217-sabha-as-loyalists-flee-to-niger-2011-09-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110925121331/http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/n.php?n=ntc-8216captured8217-sabha-as-loyalists-flee-to-niger-2011-09-22 |archive-date=25 September 2011 |work=Hürriyet Daily News |date=22 September 2011 |access-date=20 October 2011 |title=NTC 'captured' Sabha as loyalists flee to Niger }}

{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2011/03/04/AR2011030406364.html |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=4 March 2011 |access-date=20 July 2011 |title=In Egypt, crowd cheers newly appointed prime minister Essam Sharaf |first1=William |last1=Wan |first2=Portia |last2=Walker |location=Cairo |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110305051912/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2011/03/04/AR2011030406364.html |archive-date=5 March 2011 }}

{{cite news|last=Amos|first=Deborah|title=In Syria, Opposition Stages Massive Protests|url=https://www.npr.org/2011/07/15/138168604/in-syria-opposition-stages-massive-protests|access-date=18 July 2011|publisher=NPR|date=15 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716033902/http://www.npr.org/2011/07/15/138168604/in-syria-opposition-stages-massive-protests |archive-date=16 July 2011 |url-status=live}}

{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/thousands-in-morocco-march-for-rights-2247511.html |location=London |work=The Independent |first1=Souhail |last1=Karam |title=Thousands in Morocco march for rights |date=20 March 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110325022318/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/thousands-in-morocco-march-for-rights-2247511.html |archive-date=25 March 2011 }}

Cockburn, Patrick (18 March 2011). [https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/the-footage-that-reveals-the-brutal-truth-about-bahrains-crackdown-2245364.html "The Footage That Reveals the Brutal Truth About Bahrain's Crackdown"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110321010402/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/the-footage-that-reveals-the-brutal-truth-about-bahrains-crackdown-2245364.html |date=21 March 2011 }}. The Independent. Retrieved 15 April 2011.

{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2011/01/27/AR2011012702081.html |title=Inspired by Tunisia and Egypt, Yemenis join in anti-government protests |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=27 January 2011 |access-date=1 February 2011 |first=Sudarsan |last=Raghavan |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430151341/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2011/01/27/AR2011012702081.html |archive-date=30 April 2011 }}

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{{cite news|url=http://english.ruvr.ru/2011/02/05/43000042.html |title=Iraq PM plans no re-election |work=Voice of Russia |date=5 February 2011 |access-date=27 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111044547/http://english.ruvr.ru/2011/02/05/43000042.html |archive-date=11 January 2012 }}

{{cite news |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna41437551 |title=Iraqi prime minister won't run for third term |publisher=NBC News |date=5 February 2011 |access-date=3 August 2024 |archive-date=16 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230416121125/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna41437551 |url-status=live }}

{{cite news|url=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/breaking/2011/0127/breaking26.html |title=Yemenis in anti-president protest |newspaper=The Irish Times |date=27 January 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520132726/http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/breaking/2011/0127/breaking26.html |archive-date=20 May 2011 }}

{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/jordan-government-idUSLDE7101C620110201 |title=Jordan king appoints new PM, government quits |publisher=Reuters |date=1 February 2011 |access-date=2 February 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110204083047/https://www.reuters.com/article/2011/02/01/jordan-government-idUSLDE7101C620110201 |archive-date=4 February 2011 }}

{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2012/04/2012426135051510986.html |title=Jordan's prime minister resigns |publisher=Al Jazeera |access-date=28 September 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120616172335/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2012/04/2012426135051510986.html |archive-date=16 June 2012 }}

{{cite news|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/world/2011-01/30/c_13712927.htm |title=Jordanians stage anti-gov't sit-in in Amman |agency=Xinhua News Agency |date=30 January 2011 |access-date=13 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110202074731/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/world/2011-01/30/c_13712927.htm |archive-date=2 February 2011 }}

{{cite news|title=Heavy police presence blocks Bahrain protests |date=15 February 2012 |publisher=Al Jazeera |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2012/02/201221415146400277.html |access-date=17 February 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807144949/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2012/02/201221415146400277.html |archive-date=7 August 2012 }}

{{cite news|title=Bahrain live blog 25 Jan 2012 |date=25 January 2012 |publisher=Al Jazeera |url=http://blogs.aljazeera.com/liveblog/bahrain-jan-25-2012-1836 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121205042332/http://blogs.aljazeera.com/liveblog/bahrain-jan-25-2012-1836 |archive-date=5 December 2012 |access-date=17 February 2012 }}

{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/jordan/8296589/King-Abdullah-II-of-Jordan-sacks-government-amid-street-protests.html |title=King Abdullah II of Jordan sacks government amid street protests |work=The Telegraph |date=1 February 2011 |location=London |first=Adrian |last=Blomfield |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120702040342/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/jordan/8296589/King-Abdullah-II-of-Jordan-sacks-government-amid-street-protests.html |archive-date=2 July 2012 }}

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{{cite news|date=28 November 2011 |url=http://www.businessweek.com/news/2011-11-28/kuwait-government-resigns-amid-growing-opposition-protests.html |title=Kuwait Government resigns |work=Business Week |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120201083114/http://www.businessweek.com/news/2011-11-28/kuwait-government-resigns-amid-growing-opposition-protests.html |archive-date=1 February 2012 }}

{{cite news|date=18 December 2011 |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5j3iEoEHineaoOiXnAXfxH2KFXTHg?docId=CNG.fad80dffc69b5105a37f43fbbaedadfd.261l |title=Kuwait to hold early general election on 2 February |agency=Agence France-Presse |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120525115025/https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5j3iEoEHineaoOiXnAXfxH2KFXTHg?docId=CNG.fad80dffc69b5105a37f43fbbaedadfd.261l |archive-date=25 May 2012 }}

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{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-15330551 |publisher=BBC News |title=Libya conflict: NTC forces claim Bani Walid victory |date=17 October 2011 |access-date=20 October 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111020015114/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-15330551 |archive-date=20 October 2011 }}

{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/02/24/libya-protests-gaddafi-fo_n_827568.html |work=The Huffington Post |date=24 February 2011 |access-date=12 June 2011 |title=Libya Protests: Gaddafi Militia Opens Fire on demonstrators |first=Cara |last=Parks |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110301043128/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/02/24/libya-protests-gaddafi-fo_n_827568.html |archive-date=1 March 2011 }}

{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/libya/8344034/Libya-civil-war-breaks-out-as-Gaddafi-mounts-rearguard-fight.html |date=23 February 2011 |access-date=12 June 2011 |title=Libya: civil war breaks out as Gaddafi mounts rearguard fight |first=Richard |last=Spencer |location=London |work=The Daily Telegraph |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110330195229/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/libya/8344034/Libya-civil-war-breaks-out-as-Gaddafi-mounts-rearguard-fight.html |archive-date=30 March 2011 }}

{{cite web|url=http://mideast.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2011/01/06/obamas_arab_spring |date=6 January 2011 |title=Obama's 'Arab Spring'? |author=Marc Lynch |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120825155616/http://mideast.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2011/01/06/obamas_arab_spring |archive-date=25 August 2012 |author-link=Marc Lynch }}

{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12260465|title=Man dies after setting himself on fire in Saudi Arabia |publisher=BBC News |date=23 January 2011|access-date=29 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110125223439/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12260465 |archive-date=25 January 2011 |url-status=live}}

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{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2012/08/201282972539153865.html |date=29 August 2012 |title=The 'Arab Spring' and other American seasons |publisher=Al Jazeera |first=Joseph |last=Massad |author-link=Joseph Massad |access-date=29 August 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120830211354/http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2012/08/201282972539153865.html |archive-date=30 August 2012 }}

{{cite web|url=http://dekhnstan.wordpress.com/2011/01/23/mauritanias-bouazizi-died-today/ |title=Mauritania's Bouazizi died today |publisher=Dekhnstan.wordpress.com |date=23 January 2011 |access-date=28 October 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830065407/http://dekhnstan.wordpress.com/2011/01/23/mauritanias-bouazizi-died-today/ |archive-date=30 August 2011 }}

[http://www.middle-east-online.com/english/?id=44526 Moroccan king to make reforms with constitutional body] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110223070006/http://www.middle-east-online.com/english/?id=44526 |date=23 February 2011 }}, Middle East Online, 22 February 2011;

{{cite news|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/mohammed-morsi-sworn-in-as-egypts-president/ |title=Mohammed Morsi sworn in as Egypt's president |publisher=CBS News |date=30 June 2012 |access-date=28 September 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120713204550/http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-202_162-57464345/mohammed-morsi-sworn-in-as-egypts-president/ |archive-date=13 July 2012 }}

[http://www.monstersandcritics.com/news/middleeast/news/article_1621209.php/Bahrain-s-king-to-free-political-prisoners-as-protests-continue Bahrain's king to free political prisoners as protests continue] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110223064913/http://www.monstersandcritics.com/news/middleeast/news/article_1621209.php/Bahrain-s-king-to-free-political-prisoners-as-protests-continue |date=23 February 2011 }}, Monsters and Critics, 22 February 2011.

{{cite news|last=Bakri |first=Nada |author-link=Nada Bakri |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/28/world/middleeast/28yemen.html |title=Thousands in Yemen Protest Against the Government |newspaper=The New York Times |date=27 January 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161109131203/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/28/world/middleeast/28yemen.html |archive-date=9 November 2016 }}

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{{cite news|title=New president: Egypt turns page to new era |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2012/06/30/world/africa/egypt-morsi/index.html |publisher=CNN |access-date=30 June 2012 |date=30 June 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120630080543/http://edition.cnn.com/2012/06/30/world/africa/egypt-morsi/index.html |archive-date=30 June 2012 }}

{{cite news|last=Kirkpatrick |first=Patrick D. |title=New Turmoil in Egypt Greets Mixed Verdict for Mubarak |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/03/world/middleeast/egypt-hosni-mubarak-life-sentence-prison.html |access-date=2 June 2012 |newspaper=The New York Times |date=2 June 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120605014553/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/03/world/middleeast/egypt-hosni-mubarak-life-sentence-prison.html |archive-date=5 June 2012 }}

{{cite news|last=Krause |first=Flavia |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-01-25/egyptian-policeman-two-people-killed-in-cairo-protest-inspired-by-tunisia.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110129111442/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-01-25/egyptian-policeman-two-people-killed-in-cairo-protest-inspired-by-tunisia.html |archive-date=29 January 2011 |title=Obama Poised to Step Up Criticism of Mubarak If Crackdown Is Intensified |work=Bloomberg |date=27 January 2011 |access-date=28 October 2011 }}

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{{cite news|title=Saudis vote in municipal elections, results on Sunday |date=30 September 2011 |work=Oman Observer |agency=Agence France-Presse |url=http://main.omanobserver.om/node/66706 |access-date=14 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119050656/http://main.omanobserver.om/node/66706 |archive-date=19 January 2012 }}

{{cite news |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/omans-sultan-shifts-lawmaking-powers-amid-unrest--117895309/136407.html |title=Oman's Sultan Granting Lawmaking Powers to Councils |publisher=Voice of America |date=13 March 2011 |access-date=28 October 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110926211243/http://www.voanews.com/english/news/middle-east/Omans-Sultan-Shifts-Lawmaking-Powers-Amid-Unrest--117895309.html |archive-date=26 September 2011 }}

{{cite news|url=http://gulfnews.com/news/gulf/oman/one-dead-dozen-injured-as-oman-protest-turns-ugly-1.768789 |work=Gulf News |date=27 February 2011 |access-date=12 June 2011 |first=Sunil |last=Vaidya |title=One dead, dozen injured as Oman protest turns ugly |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110305002627/http://gulfnews.com/news/gulf/oman/one-dead-dozen-injured-as-oman-protest-turns-ugly-1.768789 |archive-date=5 March 2011 }}

{{cite web|url=http://news.oneindia.in/2011/02/03/salehpartisans-take-over-yemen-protestsite-aid0126.html|title=Saleh partisans take over Yemen protest site|work=Oneindia News|access-date=4 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110213101628/http://news.oneindia.in/2011/02/03/salehpartisans-take-over-yemen-protestsite-aid0126.html |archive-date=13 February 2011 |url-status=live|date=3 February 2011}}

{{cite news|url=http://www.gulf-times.com/site/topics/article.asp?cu_no=2&item_no=417637&version=1&template_id=37&parent_id=17 |title=Party: Bashir is not standing for re-election |work=Gulf Times |date=22 February 2011 |access-date=22 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110403205807/http://www.gulf-times.com/site/topics/article.asp?cu_no=2 |archive-date=3 April 2011 }}

{{cite news|last=Noueihed|first=Lin|url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-tunisia-protests-bouazizi-idUKTRE70I7TV20110119|title=Peddler's martyrdom launched Tunisia's revolution |agency=Reuters UK|date=19 January 2011 |access-date=1 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110209104243/http://uk.reuters.com/article/2011/01/19/uk-tunisia-protests-bouazizi-idUKTRE70I7TV20110119 |archive-date=9 February 2011 |url-status=dead}}

{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12298019 |title=Yemen protests: 'People are fed up with corruption' |work=BBC News |date=27 January 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110405190513/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12298019 |archive-date=5 April 2011 }}

{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/06/201167143318466482.html |title=UN's Pillay condemns Israeli 'Naksa' killings |publisher=Al Jazeera |access-date=12 June 2011 |date=8 June 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610115415/http://aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/06/201167143318466482.html |archive-date=10 June 2011 }}

{{cite news|title=Police in south Yemen disperse 'day of rage' protests |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gXNO9M4Mutdc9jI1glhjbs3lX5eg |access-date=13 February 2011 |agency=Agence France-Presse |date=11 February 2011 |location=Aden, Yemen |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110214145237/https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gXNO9M4Mutdc9jI1glhjbs3lX5eg |archive-date=14 February 2011 }}

{{cite news|first=Mahmoud |last=Belhimer |url=http://carnegieendowment.org/arb/?fa=show&article=40363 |title=Political Crises but Few Alternatives in Algeria |work=Arab Reform Bulletin |publisher=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace |date=17 March 2010 |access-date=13 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110213143442/http://carnegieendowment.org/arb/?fa=show&article=40363 |archive-date=13 February 2011 }}

{{cite web|last=Deeter |first=Jessie |title=Post-Revolution Tunisia attempts painful transition to democracy. |work=Pulitzer Center |url=http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/tunisia-revolution-democracy-unemployment-civil-womens-rights-parliament-enhada |publisher=Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting |access-date=16 February 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121127160949/http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/tunisia-revolution-democracy-unemployment-civil-womens-rights-parliament-enhada |archive-date=27 November 2012 |date=16 February 2012 }}

{{cite news|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/001f94f6-3d18-11e0-bbff-00144feabdc0.html |work=Financial Times |date=20 February 2011 |access-date=1 June 2011 |title=Pro-democracy protests reach Djibouti |first=Katrina |last=Manson |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110224011450/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/001f94f6-3d18-11e0-bbff-00144feabdc0.html |archive-date=24 February 2011 }}

{{cite news|last=Lubin |first=Gus |url=http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-arab-protests-20110216,0,1700622.story |title=Protests rage in Yemen, Bahrain; Iran hard-liners want foes executed |work=Los Angeles Times |date=15 February 2011 |access-date=16 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110217053255/http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-arab-protests-20110216%2C0%2C1700622.story |archive-date=17 February 2011 |url-status=live }}

{{cite web|url=http://mideast.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2011/01/02/tunisia_s_protest_wave_where_it_comes_from_and_what_it_means_for_ben_ali |title=Tunisia's Protest Wave: Where It Comes From and What It Means for Ben Ali |work=Foreign Policy|date=3 January 2011 |access-date=14 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110108063501/http://mideast.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2011/01/02/tunisia_s_protest_wave_where_it_comes_from_and_what_it_means_for_ben_ali |archive-date=8 January 2011 |url-status=live}}

{{cite news|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/qaddafi-dead-after-sirte-battle-pm-confirms/ |agency=CBS News |title=Qaddafi dead after Sirte battle, PM confirms |date=20 October 2011 |access-date=20 October 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111020151352/http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2011/10/20/501364/main20123114.shtml |archive-date=20 October 2011 }}

{{cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424053111904233404576458154035344420|work=The Wall Street Journal|date=20 July 2011|title=Rebels Move Toward Gadhafi Stronghold|last=Levinson|first=Charles|access-date=12 August 2011 }}

{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-libya-algeria-gaddafis-idUSTRE77S47020110829 |title=Rebels to seek return of Gaddafi family from Algeria |date=29 August 2011 |publisher=Reuters |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830061940/https://www.reuters.com/article/2011/08/29/us-libya-algeria-gaddafis-idUSTRE77S47020110829 |archive-date=30 August 2011 }}

{{cite news |url=https://vancouversun.com/story_print.html?id=5061000&sponsor=|work=The Vancouver Sun |date=6 July 2011 |access-date=20 July 2011 |title=Rebels wage a secret night-time war on the streets of Tripoli |first=Adrian |last=Blomfield |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120206120930/http://www.vancouversun.com/story_print.html?id=5061000&sponsor=|archive-date=6 February 2012 }}

[http://www.afrol.com/articles/36808 "Mass exodus" from Western Sahara cities] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101023140842/http://www.afrol.com/articles/36808 |date=23 October 2010 }}. Afrol News, 21 October 2010.

{{cite news|url=https://apnews.com/article/f91b86df98c34fb3abedc3d2e8accbcf |title=Report: 338 killed during Tunisia revolution |work=Associated Press News |date=5 May 2012 }}

{{cite news|url=http://english.aljazeera.net/news/middleeast/2011/07/2011718674562571.html |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=18 July 2011 |access-date=20 July 2011 |title=Report: Doctors targeted in Bahrain |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718134321/http://english.aljazeera.net//news/middleeast/2011/07/2011718674562571.html |archive-date=18 July 2011 }}

{{cite news|title=Bahrain delays U.N. investigator, limits rights group visits |url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-bahrain-protests-un-idUKTRE8201VU20120301 |publisher=Reuters |date=1 March 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120515145706/http://uk.reuters.com/article/2012/03/01/uk-bahrain-protests-un-idUKTRE8201VU20120301 |archive-date=15 May 2012 }}

{{cite news|title=Protester killed in Bahrain 'Day of Rage' |url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-bahrain-protests-idUKTRE71D1G520110214 |publisher=Reuters |date=14 February 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120218145528/http://uk.reuters.com/article/2011/02/14/uk-bahrain-protests-idUKTRE71D1G520110214 |archive-date=18 February 2012 }}

{{cite news|title=Mass pro-democracy protest rocks Bahrain |url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-bahrain-protest-idUKBRE82816T20120309 |publisher=Reuters |date=9 March 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023021816/http://uk.reuters.com/article/2012/03/09/uk-bahrain-protest-idUKBRE82816T20120309 |archive-date=23 October 2012 }}

{{cite news|title=Thousands rally for reform in Bahrain |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-bahrain-idUSTRE75A19G20110611 |publisher=Reuters |date=11 June 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022170504/http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/06/11/us-bahrain-idUSTRE75A19G20110611 |archive-date=22 October 2012 }}

{{cite news|title=Bahrain declares state of emergency after unrest |url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/us-bahrain-emergency-idUKTRE72E3E620110315 |publisher=Reuters |date=15 March 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023021911/http://uk.reuters.com/article/2011/03/15/us-bahrain-emergency-idUKTRE72E3E620110315 |archive-date=23 October 2012 }}

{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-egypt-mubarak-idUSTRE74N3LG20110524|title=Mubarak to be tried for murder of protesters|publisher=Reuters |date=24 May 2011|access-date=24 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110531105100/https://www.reuters.com/article/2011/05/24/us-egypt-mubarak-idUSTRE74N3LG20110524 |archive-date=31 May 2011 |url-status=live}}

{{cite news|title=Mauritania police crush protest – doctors announce strike |publisher=Radio Netherlands Worldwide |url=http://www.rnw.nl/africa/article/mauritania-police-crush-protest-doctors-announce-strike |date=9 March 2011 |access-date=23 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121205012606/http://www.rnw.nl/africa/article/mauritania-police-crush-protest-doctors-announce-strike |archive-date=5 December 2012 }}

{{cite news|url=http://onthenews.org/saharawi-protests-violence-and-blackmail-moroccan/ |agency=On the News |date=20 May 2011 |access-date=6 June 2011 |title=Saharawi protests, violence and blackmail Moroccan |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727144609/http://onthenews.org/saharawi-protests-violence-and-blackmail-moroccan/ |archive-date=27 July 2011 }}

{{cite news|url=http://www.thenational.ae/news/worldwide/middle-east/saleh-appears-on-yemen-tv-bandaged-and-burnt |work=The National |date=8 July 2011 |access-date=20 July 2011 |title=Saleh appears on Yemen TV, bandaged and burnt |first=Mohammed |last=Al Qadhi |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110709211229/http://www.thenational.ae/news/worldwide/middle-east/saleh-appears-on-yemen-tv-bandaged-and-burnt |archive-date=9 July 2011 }}

{{cite news |author=Salem |author2=Fadi |author3=Mourtada |title=Civil Movements: The Impact of Facebook and Twitter |date=6 June 2011 |url=http://www.thenational.ae/news/uae-news/facebook-and-twitter-key-to-arab-spring-uprisings-report |publisher=Dubai School of Government |access-date=16 May 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120516161234/http://www.thenational.ae/news/uae-news/facebook-and-twitter-key-to-arab-spring-uprisings-report |archive-date=16 May 2012 }}{{clarify|reason=!url=and !archive-url=point to a different source from that identified by the rest of the citation;|date=May 2023}}

{{cite news|title=Saudi King Boosts Spending, Returns to Country |publisher=Voice of America |date=23 February 2011 |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/saudi-king-boosts-spending-returns-to-country-116739074/172738.html |access-date=23 February 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110309231441/http://www.voanews.com/english/news/middle-east/Saudi-King-Boosts-Spending-Returns-to-Country-116739074.html |archive-date=9 March 2011 }}

{{cite news|title=الاف السوريين يثورون في قلب دمشق و المحافظات مطالبين بالحرية |work=Sawt Beirut |url=http://www.sawtbeirut.com/news-in-arabic/world-now/16474-syria-revolution-2011-march-15.html |access-date=16 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110319034725/http://www.sawtbeirut.com/news-in-arabic/world-now/16474-syria-revolution-2011-march-15.html |archive-date=19 March 2011 }}

{{cite news|title=معلومات عن سقوط شهداء في تظاهرات الثلاثاء في سوريا |work=Sawt Beirut |url=http://sawtbeirut.com/news-in-arabic/world-now/16483-2011-03-16-18-33-05.html |access-date=16 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516012947/http://sawtbeirut.com/news-in-arabic/world-now/16483-2011-03-16-18-33-05.html |archive-date=16 May 2011 }}

Press release (30 March 2011). [http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/WO1103/S01049/usa-emphatic-support-to-saudi-arabia.htm "USA Emphatic Support to Saudi Arabia"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110404215206/http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/WO1103/S01049/usa-emphatic-support-to-saudi-arabia.htm |date=4 April 2011 }}. Zayd Alisa (via Scoop). Retrieved 15 April 2011.

{{cite news|title=Sharm el-Sheikh resort in world spotlight as Egypt's Mubarak flees Cairo |url=http://travel.usatoday.com/destinations/dispatches/post/2011/02/sharm-el-sheikh-resort--in-world-spotlight-as-egypts-mubarak-flees-cairo/142665/1 |access-date=11 February 2011 |work=USA Today |date=11 February 2011 |first=Laura |last=Bly |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110211191733/http://travel.usatoday.com/destinations/dispatches/post/2011/02/sharm-el-sheikh-resort--in-world-spotlight-as-egypts-mubarak-flees-cairo/142665/1 |archive-date=11 February 2011 }}

{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/22/world/africa/22sidi.html |title=Slap to a Man's Pride Set Off Tumult in Tunisia |newspaper=The New York Times |date=22 January 2011 |access-date=1 February 2011 |first=Kareem |last=Fahim |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120521072140/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/22/world/africa/22sidi.html |archive-date=21 May 2012 }}

{{cite news|first=Uriel |last=Abulof |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/uriel-abulof/what-is-the-arab-third-es_b_832628.html |title=What Is the Arab Third Estate? |work=The Huffington Post |date=10 March 2011 |access-date=1 May 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607064239/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/uriel-abulof/what-is-the-arab-third-es_b_832628.html |archive-date=7 June 2011 }}

{{cite news|last=Schillinger |first=Raymond |title=Social Media and the Arab Spring: What Have We Learned? |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/raymond-schillinger/arab-spring-social-media_b_970165.html |work=The Huffington Post |access-date=21 May 2012 |date=20 September 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120513105951/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/raymond-schillinger/arab-spring-social-media_b_970165.html |archive-date=13 May 2012 }}

{{cite web|last=Himelfarb |first=Sheldon |title=Social Media in the Middle East |url=http://www.usip.org/publications/social-media-in-the-middle-east |publisher=United States Institute of Peace |access-date=16 May 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120925115217/http://www.usip.org/publications/social-media-in-the-middle-east |archive-date=25 September 2012 }}

{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12521427 |title=Sudan's Bashir will not stand in next election: party official |agency=Agence France-Presse |publisher=BBC News |date=21 February 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110221190052/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12521427 |archive-date=21 February 2011 }}

{{cite news|url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/2/0/10315/World/0/Syria-clampdown-on-protests-mirrors-Egypts-as-thug.aspx |work=Ahram Online |date=19 April 2011 |access-date=12 June 2011 |title=Syria clampdown on protests mirrors Egypt's as thugs join attacks |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120222154548/http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/2/0/10315/World/0/Syria-clampdown-on-protests-mirrors-Egypts-as-thug.aspx |archive-date=22 February 2012 }}

{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-rights-idUSTRE7274LC20110308 |title=Syria frees 80-year-old former judge in amnesty |publisher=Reuters |date=8 March 2011 |access-date=8 March 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110313061108/https://www.reuters.com/article/2011/03/08/us-syria-rights-idUSTRE7274LC20110308 |archive-date=13 March 2011 }}

{{cite news|url=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/opinion/2011/0531/1224298143757.html |newspaper=The Irish Times |date=31 May 2011 |access-date=12 June 2011 |title=Syria's crackdown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111026093919/http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/opinion/2011/0531/1224298143757.html |archive-date=26 October 2011 }}

{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/syrias-ramadan-massacre/2011/08/01/gIQAZHCKoI_story.html |newspaper=The Washington Post |first=Erik |last=Wemple |date=2 August 2011 |title=Syria's Ramadan massacre |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111020111633/http://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/syrias-ramadan-massacre/2011/08/01/gIQAZHCKoI_story.html |archive-date=20 October 2011 }}

{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12679902 |title=Syrian activist Haitham al-Maleh freed under amnesty |publisher=BBC News |date=8 March 2011|access-date=8 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110311052247/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12679902 |archive-date=11 March 2011 |url-status=live}}

{{cite news|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/04/2011428182333234775.html |title=Syrian army units 'clash over crackdown' |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=28 April 2011 |access-date=28 April 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110503052426/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/04/2011428182333234775.html |archive-date=3 May 2011 }}

{{cite news|title=Syrian cabinet resigns amid unrest |date=29 March 2011 |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/03/201132975114399138.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110407090350/http://aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/03/201132975114399138.html |archive-date=7 April 2011 }}

{{cite news|title=Bahrain authorities destroy Pearl Roundabout |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/bahrain/8390773/Bahrain-authorities-destroy-Pearl-Roundabout.html |work=The Daily Telegraph |date=18 March 2011 |location=London |first=Ben |last=Farmer |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110322053958/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/bahrain/8390773/Bahrain-authorities-destroy-Pearl-Roundabout.html |archive-date=22 March 2011 }}

{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/spotlight/2011/02/2011222121213770475.html |title=The Arab awakening – Spotlight |publisher=Al Jazeera English |access-date=5 July 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120704163242/http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/spotlight/2011/02/2011222121213770475.html |archive-date=4 July 2012 }}

{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/newsbook/2011/03/protests_middle_east |newspaper=The Economist |title=The Arab awakening reaches Syria |date=21 March 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110422100232/https://www.economist.com/blogs/newsbook/2011/03/protests_middle_east |archive-date=22 April 2011 }}

{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2011/mar/06/arab-spring-european-reply-labour |title=The Arab spring requires a defiantly European reply |work=The Guardian |location=UK |date=8 March 2011 |access-date=9 March 2011 |first=Jackie |last=Ashley |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921205548/http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2011/mar/06/arab-spring-european-reply-labour |archive-date=21 September 2013 }}

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{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/28/world/middleeast/28yemen.html |date=28 January 2011 |title=Thousands in Yemen Protest Against the Government |first1=Nada |last1=Bakri |first2=J. David |last2=Goodman |newspaper=The New York Times |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161109131203/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/28/world/middleeast/28yemen.html |archive-date=9 November 2016 }}

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• {{Cite journal |last=Pelletreau |first=Robert H. |author-link=Robert Pelletreau |date=24 February 2011 |title=Transformation in the Middle East: Comparing the Uprisings in Tunisia, Egypt and Bahrain |url=http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/67546/robert-h-pelletreau/transformation-in-the-middle-east |journal=Foreign Affairs |url-access=subscription}}
• {{Cite book |last=Phares |first=Walid |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5afNb3t17fMC |title=The coming revolution: struggle for freedom in the Middle East |publisher=Threshold Editions |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-4391-7837-9 |location=New York}}
• {{Cite book |title=Authoritarianism in the Middle East: regimes and resistance |publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-58826-317-9 |editor-last=Posusney |editor-first=Marsha Pripstein |location=Boulder, Colo. |editor-last2=Angrist, Michele Penner}}
• {{Cite book |last=Rand |first=Dafna Hochman |author-link=Dafna Hochman Rand |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vL97wF4gYucC |title=Roots of the Arab Spring: contested authority and political change in the Middle East |date=2013 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-4530-1 |location=Philadelphia}}
• {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oqXTCgAAQBAJ |title=Civil Resistance in the Arab Spring: Triumphs and Disasters |date=2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-874902-8 |editor-last=Roberts |editor-first=Adam |editor-link=Adam Roberts (scholar) |location=Oxford |oclc=913852718 |editor-last2=Willis |editor-first2=Michael J. |editor-last3=McCarthy |editor-first3=Rory |editor-last4=Garton Ash |editor-first4=Timothy |editor-link4=Timothy Garton Ash}}
• Arabic language edition: {{Cite book |last=Bassil |first=Antoine |publisher=Muttabaat Company |year=2017 |isbn=978-9-953-88970-2 |location=Beirut |language=ar |script-title=ar:المقاومة المدنية في الربيع العربي الانتصارات والكوارث |trans-title=Civil Resistance in the Arab Spring: Triumphs and Disasters}}
• {{Cite journal |last1=Rosiny |first1=Stephan |last2=Richter |first2=Thomas |date=2016 |title=The Arab Spring: Misconceptions and Prospects |url=https://www.giga-hamburg.de/en/publications/giga-focus/the-arab-spring-misconceptions-and-prospects |journal=GIGA Institute for Middle East Studies |series=GIGA Focus Middle East |language=en-GB |location=Hamburg |publisher=German Institute for Global and Area Studies |volume=4 |issn=1862-3611}}
• {{Cite journal |last=Struble |first=Robert Jr. |author-link=Bob Struble, Jr. |date=22 August 2011 |title=Libya and the Doctrine of Justifiable Rebellion |url=http://www.catholiclane.com/libya-and-the-doctrine-of-justifiable-rebellion/ |url-status=live |journal=Catholic Lane |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110417210536/http://catholiclane.com/libya-and-the-doctrine-of-justifiable-rebellion/ |archive-date=17 April 2011 |access-date=1 September 2011}}
• {{Cite journal |last=Tausch |first=Arno |year=2015 |title=Globalization, the Environment and the Future 'Greening' of Arab Politics |url=https://ideas.repec.org/p/pra/mprapa/64511.html |journal=MPRA Paper |location=Connecticut |publisher=REPEC |doi=10.2139/ssrn.2608958 |issn=1556-5068}}
• {{Cite journal |last=Tausch |first=Arno |date=October 2013 |title=A Look at International Survey Data About Arab Opinion |journal=Social Science Research Network |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=57–74 |doi=10.2139/ssrn.2388627 |issn=1556-5068 |ssrn=2388627}}
• {{Cite journal |last=Tausch |first=Arno |date=Spring 2016 |title=The Civic Culture of the Arab World: A Comparative Analysis Based on World Values Survey Data |journal=Social Science Research Network |language=en |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=35–59 |doi=10.2139/ssrn.2827232 |issn=1556-5068 |s2cid=157863317 |ssrn=2827232}}
• {{Cite book |last1=Tausch |first1=Arno |title=The political algebra of global value change: general models and implications for the Muslim world |last2=Heshmati |first2=Almas |last3=Karoui |first3=Hichem |publisher=Nova Publishers |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-62948-899-8 |series=Economic issues, problems and perspectives |location=New York}}
• {{Cite book |url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-112shrg72399/pdf/CHRG-112shrg72399.pdf |title=Women and the Arab Spring: joint hearing before the Subcommittee on International Operations and Organizations, Human Rights, Democracy, and Global Women's Issues and the Subcommittee on Near Eastern and South and Central Asian Affairs of the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate, One Hundred Twelfth Congress, first session, November 2, 2011 |year=2012 |publisher=United States Government Publishing Office |location=Washington, DC}}
• {{Cite journal |last=Jacoby |first=Tami Amanda |year=2013 |title=Israel's Relations with Egypt and Turkey during the Arab Spring: Weathering the Storm |journal=Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=29–42 |doi=10.1080/23739770.2013.11446550 |issn=2373-9770 |s2cid=148402328}}

{{refend}}

{{Sister project links|auto=1|wikt=Arab Spring}}

• {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20150209174836/http://www.teluguaspirant.com/arab-spring-background-causes-impact-present-situation-etc/1575/ Arab Spring]}} (archived 9 February 2015)
• [http://www.righttononviolence.org/ Right to Nonviolence]; {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120214093933/http://www.righttononviolence.org/ |date=14 February 2012 }}
• [https://web.archive.org/web/19961218230120/http://www.usip.org/ United States Institute of Peace]
• [http://www.thenational.ae/news/uae-news/facebook-and-twitter-key-to-arab-spring-uprisings-report Civil Movements: The Impact of Facebook and Twitter]
• [http://www.righttononviolence.org/mecf Middle East Constitutional Forum]

• [http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/ Middle East] at Al Jazeera
• [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12480844 Middle East protests] at BBC News
• [https://www.theguardian.com/news/blog+world/middleeast Arab and Middle East protests] live blog at The Guardian
• [http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/ Middle East Protests] at The Lede blog at The New York Times
• [http://live.reuters.com/Event/Middle_East_Protests Middle East protests live] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190822083627/http://live.reuters.com/Event/Middle_East_Protests?Page=44 |date=22 August 2019 }} at Reuters

• [https://docs.google.com/document/d/1DU8AOlkTV6F0ZyoGcbk_060iBZG5tWKwj_n97EJPe9M/edit A (Working) Academic Arab Spring Reading List] collected peer-reviewed academic articles on the impact of social media on the Arab Spring
• [http://www.righttononviolence.org/mecf/timeline-me Constitutional Transitions Timeline] Collected legal and political changes and short analysis at [http://www.righttononviolence.org/mecf/ Middle East Constitutional Forum]
• [http://www.carnegieendowment.org/topic/?fa=list&id=839 Unrest in the Arab World] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130122225731/http://www.carnegieendowment.org/topic/?fa=list&id=839 |date=22 January 2013 }} collected news and commentary at Carnegie Endowment for International Peace
• [http://www.cfr.org/egypt/issue-guide-arab-world-protests/p23929 Issue Guide: Arab World Protests], Council on Foreign Relations
• [http://www.ft.com/indepth/middle-east-protests Middle East protests] collected news and commentary at the Financial Times
• [http://edition.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2011/arab.unrest/ Unrest in the Arab World] collected map, news and commentary at CNN
• {{Guardiantopic|world/arab-and-middle-east-protests|Arab and Middle East unrest}}
• {{Guardiantopic|world/interactive/2011/mar/22/middle-east-protest-interactive-timeline|Arab and Middle East unrest – interactive timeline}}
• {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20110408135635/http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/t.php?t=uprising Rage on the Streets]}} collected news and commentary at Hurriyet Daily News and Economic Review (archived 8 April 2011)
• [http://www.thenational.ae/news/worldwide/syria-president-appoints-new-government-orders-protesters-freed-from-jail Middle East Unrest] collected news and commentary at The National
• {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20110926175159/http://showdownmideast.com/ Middle East Uprisings]}} collected news and commentary at Showdown in the Middle East website (archived 26 September 2011)
• {{Spiegeltopic|the_arab_revolution/|The Arab Revolution}}
• {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20110203073650/http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/0,28757,2045328,00.html The Middle East in Revolt]}} collected news and commentary at Time (archived 3 February 2011)

• {{cite journal|last1=Hassan|first1=Oz|title=Undermining the transatlantic democracy agenda? The Arab Spring and Saudi Arabia's counteracting democracy strategy|journal=Democratization|volume=22|issue=3|year=2015|pages=479–495|issn=1351-0347|doi=10.1080/13510347.2014.981161|doi-access=free}}
• [https://www.scribd.com/doc/90470593/The-CenSEI-Report-Vol-2-No-6-February-13-19-2012#outer_page_23 The Arab Spring—One Year Later: The CenSEI Report analyzes how 2011's clamor for democratic reform met 2012's need to sustain its momentum.] The CenSEI Report, 13 February 2012
• [http://www.interfacejournal.net/2012/05/interface-volume-4-issue-1-the-season-of-revolution-the-arab-spring-and-european-mobilizations/ Interface journal special issue on the Arab Spring], Interface: A Journal for and about Social Movements, May 2012
• {{cite news |url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/dailychart/2011/02/daily_chart_arab_unrest_index |title=The Shoe Thrower's index (An index of unrest in the Arab world) |newspaper=The Economist |date=9 February 2011}}
• {{cite news |url=http://en.qantara.de/webcom/show_article.php/_c-478/_nr-1164/i.html |title=Interview with Tariq Ramadan: 'We Need to Get a Better Sense of the Trends within Islamism' |publisher=Qantara.de |date=2 February 2011 |access-date=4 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110226115107/http://en.qantara.de/webcom/show_article.php/_c-478/_nr-1164/i.html |archive-date=26 February 2011 }}
• [http://www.reasonpapers.com/pdf/33/rp_33_18.pdf Sadek J. Al Azm, "The Arab Spring: Why Exactly at this Time?" Reason Papers 33 (Fall 2011)]
• {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20140515004200/http://revolutiontrends.org/ Tracking the wave of protests with statistics]}}, RevolutionTrends.org (archived 15 May 2014)
• [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-20626645 Arab uprisings: 10 key moments] from BBC Middle East Editor Jeremy Bowden (10 December 2012)
• [https://www.howtostartarevolution.org/ How to Start a Revolution], documentary directed by Ruaridh Arrow

{{Arab Spring|state=expanded}}

{{Revwave}}

{{Post-Cold War Asian conflicts}}

{{Post-Cold War African conflicts}}

{{Authority control}}

Category:2010 in Africa

Category:2010 in Asia

Category:2010 protests

Category:2010s coups d'état and coup attempts

Category:2011 in Africa

Category:2011 in Asia

Category:2011 protests

Category:2012 in Africa

Category:2012 in Asia

Category:2012 protests

Category:21st-century revolutions

Category:Democratization

Category:History of North Africa

Spring

Category:Internet censorship

Category:Intifadas

Category:Protest marches

Category:Revolutionary waves