Tibesti Mountains

The Tibesti Mountains are named for the Toubou people, also written Tibu or Tubu, that inhabit the area. In the Kanuri language, tu means "rocks" or "mountain" and bu means "a person" or "dweller," and thus Toubou roughly translates to "people of the mountains"{{efn|An alternative theory holds that the name Toubou means "bird," because members of the Toubou communicate by whistling or because they run fast.{{sfn|Room|2006|p=375}}}} and Tibesti to the "place where the mountain people live".{{sfn|Room|2006|p=375}}{{sfn|Shoup|2011|p=284}}

Most of the mountain names are derived from Arabic as well as the Tedaga and Dazaga languages. The term ehi precedes the names of peaks and rocky hills, emi precedes those of larger mountains, and tarso precedes high plateaus and gently-sloping mountainsides.{{sfn|Permenter and Oppenheimer|2007|p=611}}{{sfn|Salam, Hammuda and Eliagoubi|1991|p=1155}}{{sfn|Sola and Worsley|2000|p=xi}} For example, the Ehi Mousgou is a {{convert|2849|m|adj=on|sp=us}} stratovolcano near Tarso Voon.{{sfn|Permenter and Oppenheimer|2007|pp=615, 619}} The name Toussidé means "that which killed the Tou," as in the Toubou, reflecting the danger of the still active volcano.{{sfn|Beauvilain|1996|p=20}} The name of Bardaï, the principal town in the range, means "cold" in Chadian Arabic.{{efn|Temperatures in the Tibesti can drop to {{cvt|-10|C|sp=us}}.{{sfn|Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek|1992|p=3}}}} In the Tedaga language, the town is known as Goumodi, which means "red pass," signifying the color of the mountains at dusk.{{sfn|Braquehais|2006}}

{{clear}}

File:Tibesti Worldwind.jpg satellite image of the Tibesti Mountains viewed from the south]]

The mountains lie on the border between Chad and Libya, straddling the Chadian region of Tibesti and the Libyan districts of Murzuq and Kufra, around {{convert|1000|km|sp=us}} north of N'djamena and {{convert|1500|km|sp=us}} south-southeast of Tripoli. The range is adjacent to Niger and located approximately halfway between the Gulf of Sidra and Lake Chad, just south of the Tropic of Cancer.{{sfn|Roure|1939|p=1}}{{sfn|Grove|1960|p=18}} The East African Rift is {{cvt|1900|km|mi|sp=us}} to the east and the Cameroon line lies {{cvt|1800|km|mi|sp=us}} to the southwest.{{sfn|Permenter and Oppenheimer|2007|p=611}}

The range is {{cvt|480|km|sp=us}} in length, {{cvt|350|km|mi|sp=us}} in width,{{sfn|Bosworth|2012}} and spans {{cvt|100000|km2|sp=us}}.{{sfn|Gourgaud and Vincent|2004|p=261}}{{sfn|Permenter and Oppenheimer|2007|p=609}} It draws a large triangle with sides of {{cvt|400|km|mi|sp=us}}{{sfn|Roure|1939|p=1}} and vertices facing south, northwest and northeast in the heart of the Sahara,{{sfn|Permenter and Oppenheimer|2007|p=610}}{{sfn|Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek|1992|p=1}} making it the largest mountain range of the desert.{{sfn|Baldur|2018|p=9}}

The highest peak in the Tibesti Mountains, as well as the highest point in Chad and the Sahara Desert, is the {{convert|3415|m|adj=on|sp=us}} Emi Koussi, located at the southern end of the range.{{sfn|Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek|1992|p=1}} Other prominent peaks include Pic Toussidé{{efn|Pic Toussidé is the highest point on the high plateau Tarso Toussidé.{{sfn|Permenter and Oppenheimer|2007|pp=615, 619}}}} at {{cvt|3296|m|sp=us}} and the {{convert|3012|m|adj=on|sp=us}} Timi on its western side, the {{convert|2972|m|adj=on|sp=us}} Tarso Yega, the {{convert|2925|m|adj=on|sp=us}} Tarso Tieroko, the {{convert|2849|m|adj=on|sp=us}} Ehi Mousgou, the {{convert|2845|m|adj=on|sp=us}} Tarso Voon, the {{convert|2820|m|adj=on|sp=us}} Ehi Sunni, and the {{convert|2774|m|adj=on|sp=us}} Ehi Yéy near the center of the range.{{sfn|Permenter and Oppenheimer|2007|pp=615–616}} The {{convert|3376|m|adj=on|sp=us}} Mouskorbé is a peak notable for its height in the northeastern part of the mountain range.{{sfn|Hellmich|1972|p=10}} The {{convert|2266|m|adj=on|sp=us}} Bikku Bitti, the highest point in Libya, is nearby, on the other side of the border.{{sfn|Braun and Passon|2020|p=1}} The average elevation of the Tibesti Mountains is about {{cvt|2000|m|sp=us}}; sixty percent of its area exceeds {{cvt|1500|m|sp=us}} in elevation.{{sfn|Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek|1992|p=1}}

File:Emi Koussi Volcano, Chad From ISS.JPG]]

The range includes five shield volcanoes with broad bases whose diameter can reach {{cvt|80|km|sp=us}}: Emi Koussi; Tarso Toon, which rises {{cvt|2575|m|sp=us}} above sea level; Tarso Voon; Tarso Yega; and Tarso Toussidé, which culminates in the peak of the same name. Several of these peaks are topped with large calderas.{{sfn|Beauvilain|1996|pp=15–20}}{{sfn|Permenter and Oppenheimer|2007|pp=609, 615–616, 620–621}} Tarso Yega has the largest caldera, with a diameter of {{cvt|19|to|20|km|sp=us}} and a depth of approximately {{cvt|300|m|sp=us}}, while Tarso Voon has the deepest caldera, with a depth of approximately {{cvt|1000|m|sp=us}} and a diameter of {{cvt|12|to|13|km|sp=us}}.{{sfn|Permenter and Oppenheimer|2007|p=615}} They are complemented by four large lava dome complexes, {{cvt|1300|to|2000|m|sp=us}} high and several km wide, all located in the central part of the mountain range: Tarso Tieroko; Ehi Yéy; Ehi Mousgou; and Tarso Abeki, which rises to {{cvt|2691|m|sp=us}} above sea level.{{sfn|Permenter and Oppenheimer|2007|pp=615–616}} These volcanic complexes are now considered inactive, but according to the Smithsonian Institution were active during the Holocene.{{sfn|Permenter and Oppenheimer|2007|p=619}} Tarso Toussidé is an active volcano that has spewed lava over the past two millennia.{{sfn|Beauvilain|1996|pp=15–20}} Gases escaping from fumaroles on Toussidé are visible when evaporation is low.{{sfn|Beauvilain|1996|pp=15–20}}{{sfn|Permenter and Oppenheimer|2007|p=619}} The volcano's crater, Trou au Natron, is {{cvt|8|km|sp=us}} in diameter and {{cvt|768|m|sp=us}} deep.{{sfn|Permenter and Oppenheimer|2007|pp=615, 619}} On the northwest side of Tarso Voon is the Soborom geothermal field, which contains mud pools and fumaroles that vent sulfuric acid. The sulfur has stained the surrounding soil bright colors. Fumaroles are also present at the Yi Yerra hot springs on Emi Koussi.{{sfn|Beauvilain|1996|pp=15–20}} Tarso Tôh was an active volcano in the early Holocene.{{sfn|Permenter and Oppenheimer|2007|p=619}} The volcanic area of the Tibesti Mountains is located entirely in Chad; it covers about a third of the total area of the Tibesti Mountains and is responsible for between {{cvt|5000|and|6000|km3|sp=us}} of rock.{{sfn|Beauvilain|1996|pp=15–20}}{{sfn|Permenter and Oppenheimer|2007|pp=611, 614}}

{{center|

File:Ehi Yéy & Tarso Toon Worldwind.jpg|Satellite image of Tarso Toon (top right) and Ehi Yéy (bottom left)|alt=Satellite image of Tarson Toon and Ehi Yéy

File:Tarso Voon NASA.jpg|Satellite image of Tarso Voon|alt=Satellite image of Tarso Voon

File:Tarso Yéga ASTER.jpg|False-color satellite image of Tarso Yega (top)|alt=Satellite image of Tarso Yega

File:Tousside, Tibesti Mountains, Chad.jpg|Satellite image of Tarso Toussidé showing Pic Toussidé (the center of the dark spot) and Trou au Natron crater (bottom right)|alt=Satellite image of Tarso Toussidé showing Pic Toussidé and Trou au Natron

}}

The rest of the Tibesti Mountains consists of volcanic plateaus (tarsos), located between {{cvt|1000|and|2800|m|sp=us}} elevation, as well as lava fields and ejecta deposits.{{sfn|Permenter and Oppenheimer|2007|pp=609, 611, 615}} The plateaus are larger and more numerous in the east: the {{cvt|7700|km2|adj=on|sp=us}} Tarso Emi Chi, the {{cvt|6500|km2|adj=on|sp=us}} Tarso Aozi, the {{cvt|3000|km2|adj=on|sp=us}} Tarso Ahon to the north of Emi Koussi, and the {{cvt|1200|km2|adj=on|sp=us}} Tarso Mohi. In the center is Tarso Ourari at about {{cvt|700|km2|sp=us}}. To the west, in the vicinity of Tarso Toussidé, is the aforementioned Tarso Tôh, a small plateau at just {{cvt|490|km2|sp=us}}, and the even smaller Tarso Tamertiou at {{cvt|98|km2|sp=us}}.{{sfn|Permenter and Oppenheimer|2007|pp=615–616}} The plateaus are strewn with volcanic spires and are separated by canyons that have been formed by the irregular flow of wadis.{{sfn|Beauvilain|1996|pp=15–20}}{{sfn|Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek|1992|pp=1–2, 18–20}}{{sfn|Grove|1960|p=23}} After often-violent rains, they see the formation of ephemeral streams and flora.{{sfn|Chapelle|1982|pp=68–70, 184}} The southern, southwestern and eastern slopes of the mountain range have a gentle rise, while the northern slope of the range is a cliff overlooking the vast Libyan desert pavement known as the Serir Tibesti.{{sfn|Chapelle|1982|p=67}}

File:Tibesti tributaries.jpgs (enneris)]]

Five rivers in the northern half of the Tibesti Mountains flow to Libya, while the southern half belongs to the endorheic basin of Lake Chad. However, none of the rivers travel long distances, as the water evaporates in the desert heat or seeps into the ground, although the latter may flow great distances through subterranean aquifers.{{sfn|Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek|1992|pp=1–2}}

The wadis in the Tibesti are called enneris.{{sfn|Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek|1992|p=18}} The water mainly originates from the storms that periodically rage over the mountains.{{sfn|Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek|1992|pp=2–3}}{{sfn|Grove|1960|pp=23, 25}} Their flow is highly variable.{{sfn|Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek|1992|pp=1–3}} For example, the largest wadi, named Bardagué (or Enneri Zoumeri on its upstream portion) and located in the northern part of the range, recorded a flow of {{cvt|425|m3/s|sp=us}} in 1954, yet over the next nine years it experienced four years of total drought, four years of flow less than {{cvt|5|m3/s|sp=us}} and one year where three different flow rates were measured: {{cvt |4|,|9|and|32|m3/s|ft3/s|sp=us}}.{{sfn|Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek|1992|pp=1–2, 18}}

{{Clear2|right}}

File:GueltaCamels.jpg on the Ennedi Plateau, {{cvt|500|km|mi|sigfig=1|sp=us}} southeast of the Tibesti]]

Other major rivers cut into the mountains: the Enneri Yebige flows northward until its riverbed disappears on the Serir Tibesti, while Enneri Touaoul joins the south-flowing Enneri Ke to form Enneri Miski, which then disappears in the plains of Borkou. Their basins are separated by an {{convert|1800|m|adj=on|sp=us}} high watershed that runs from Tarso Tieroko in the west to Tarso Mohi in the east.{{sfn|Roure|1939|p=1}}{{sfn|Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek|1992|p=2}} The Enneri Tijitinga is the longest wadi in the range, flowing some {{cvt|400|km|sp=us}} southward. It forms in the west of the range and peters out in the Bodélé Depression, as does Enneri Miski a little further to the east, along with other wadis such as the Enneri Korom and Enneri Aouei.{{sfn|Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek|1992|p=18}} Several rivers flow radially on the southern slopes of the Emi Koussi before seeping into the sands of Borkou and then reemerging at escarpments up to {{cvt|400|km|sp=us}} south of the summit, near the Ennedi Plateau.{{sfn|Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek|1992|pp=18–19}}

At the bottom of many canyons are gueltas, wetlands that accumulate water mainly during storms.{{sfn|Grove|1960|pp=23, 25}}{{sfn|Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek|1992|pp=3, 18}} Above {{cvt|2000|m|sp=us}}, enneri beds sometimes contain sequential pools of water that {{As of|alt=remain largely unexplored|1992}}. The water is replenished several times a year during flooding, and salinity levels are low.{{sfn|Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek|1992|p=18}} The Mare de Zoui is a small permanent body of water {{cvt|600|m|sp=us}} above sea level, located in the northern part of the mountains in the wadi of the Enneri Bardagué, {{cvt|10|km|sp=us}} east of Bardaï. Supplied by sources upstream of the wadi, in heavy rains it overflows and spills into small wetlands.{{sfn|Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek|1992|pp=18–19}}

The Yi Yerra hot springs is located on the southern flank of Emi Koussi at about {{cvt|850|m|sigfig=2|sp=us}} elevation. Water emerges from the springs at {{cvt|37|C|sp=us}}.{{sfn|Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek|1992|p=1}} A dozen hot springs are also located at the Soborom geothermal field on the northwest side of Tarso Voon, where water emerges at temperatures ranging between {{cvt|22|and|88|C|F|sp=us}}.{{sfn|Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek|1992|p=1}}{{sfn|Beauvilain|1996|pp=15–20}}

File:Tarso Toh.jpg, two maars and several basalt lava channels]]

The Tibesti Mountains are a large area of tectonic uplift that, according to contemporary theory, resulted from a mantle plume in the craton of the African Plate lithosphere, which is about {{cvt|130|to|140|km|sp=us}} thick.{{sfn|Permenter and Oppenheimer|2007|pp=611, 616, 619}}{{sfn|Pegram et al.|1976|p=127}} This tectonic uplift may have been accompanied by the opening, and subsequent closure via subduction, of a rift zone.{{sfn|El Makkrouf|1988|p=964}}{{sfn|Suayah|2006|p=568}} A system of regional faults, although partially obscured by the volcanic product, has two distinct orientations: a NNE-SSW alignment that could be an extension of Cameroon line, and a NW-SE alignment that could extend to the Great Rift Valley; however, the relationship between these fault systems has not been conclusively demonstrated.{{sfn|Permenter and Oppenheimer|2007|pp=611–612}}

The basement of the Tibesti is composed of granite, diorite and schist, one of six exposures of Precambrian crystalline rock in North Africa.{{sfn|Permenter and Oppenheimer|2007|pp=611, 616}} These are overlaid by sandstone of the Paleozoic era, while the peaks consist of volcanic rock.{{sfn|Permenter and Oppenheimer|2007|p=611}}{{sfn|Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek|1992|p=1}} The continental hotspot activity began as early as the Oligocene, although most of the volcanic rock dates from the Lower Miocene to the Pleistocene and, in places, to the Holocene.{{sfn|Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek|1992|p=1}}{{sfn|Permenter and Oppenheimer|2007|pp=609, 616, 619}} Due to the comparatively slow movement of the African Plate—roughly between {{cvt|0|and|20|mm|sigfig=1|sp=us}} per year since the Lower Miocene—there is no relationship between the age of the volcanoes and their dimensions, geographic distribution or alignment, in contrast to hotspots such as the Hawaiian–Emperor and Cook-Austral seamount chains.{{sfn|Permenter and Oppenheimer|2007|pp=619–620}} This phenomenon is also seen in Martian volcanoes, particularly Elysium Mons.{{sfn|Permenter and Oppenheimer|2007|p=621}} Early volcanic activity created trap basalt formations that extend tens of kilometers and stack up to {{cvt|300|m|sigfig=1|sp=us}} thick.{{sfn|Beauvilain|1996|pp=15–20}}{{sfn|Permenter and Oppenheimer|2007|p=619}} Basanite and andesite are also found in the volcanic layer.{{sfn|Permenter and Oppenheimer|2007|p=611}} More recently in geologic time, volcanic activity has deposited dacite, rhyolite and ignimbrite, as well as trachyte and trachyandesite.{{sfn|Permenter and Oppenheimer|2007|pp=611, 619}}{{sfn|El Makkrouf|1988|p=951}} This trend towards the production of more felsic, viscous lavas could be a sign of a waning mantle plume.{{sfn|Permenter and Oppenheimer|2007|p=619}}

File:Tibesti.gif in the Tibesti Mountains]]

Volcanic activity in the Tibesti took place in several phases. In the first phase, uplift and extension of the Precambrian basement occurred in the central area. The first structure to be formed was probably Tarso Abeki, followed by Tarso Tamertiou, Tarso Tieroko, Tarso Yega, Tarso Toon and Ehi Yéy. The product of this early volcanic activity has been completely obscured by later eruptions. In the second phase, the volcanic activity moved north and east, forming Tarso Ourari and the ignimbrite bases of the vast tarsos, as well as Emi Koussi to the southeast. Thereafter, during the third phase, the outpouring of lava and ejecta deposits increased from Tarso Yega, Tarso Toon, Tarso Tieroko and Ehi Yéy; the collapse of these structures formed the first calderas. This phase also saw the formation of the Bounaï lava dome and Tarso Voon. To the east, the lava flows formed the large plateaus of Tarso Emi Chi, Tarso Ahon and Tarso Mohi. Emi Koussi increased in height. The fourth phase saw the formation of Tarso Toussidé and the lava flows of Tarso Tôh in the west, the collapse of the caldera on the summit of Tarso Voon and associated ejecta deposits in the center, and the decline in lava production in the east, with the exception of Emi Koussi, which continued to rise. In the fifth phase, volcanic activity became much more localized and lava production continued to wane. Calderas formed on top of Tarso Toussidé and Emi Koussi, and the lava domes Ehi Sosso and Ehi Mousgou appeared. Finally, in the sixth phase, Pic Toussidé formed on the western rim of several pre-Trou au Natron calderas, along with new lava flows, including Timi on the northern slope of Tarso Toussidé. With scarce time for erosion, these lava flows have a dark, youthful appearance.{{sfn|Permenter and Oppenheimer|2007|pp=615, 617–619}}

File:Pic Toussidé ASTER.jpg crater (bottom right)]]

The Trou au Natron and Doon Kidimi craters have formed even more recently, with the former dissecting the earlier Toussidé calderas. Lava flows, minor pyroclastic deposits, and the appearance of small cinder cones, and the formation of the Era Kohor crater are the most recent volcanic activities on Emi Koussi.{{sfn|Permenter and Oppenheimer|2007|pp=617–619}} {{As of|alt=Presently|2007|post=,}} there are reports of volcanic activity in various parts of the massif, including hot springs at the Soborom geothermal field and fumaroles on Tarso Voon, Yi Yerra near Emi Koussi and Pic Toussidé.{{sfn|Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek|1992|p=1}}{{sfn|Beauvilain|1996|pp=15–20}}{{sfn|Permenter and Oppenheimer|2007|p=619}} Carbonate deposits in the Trou au Natron and Era Kohor craters are also representative of more recent volcanic activity.{{sfn|Permenter and Oppenheimer|2007|p=619}}

The study of fluvial terraces has revealed coarse sand and gravel alternating with terraces of silt, clay and fine sand.{{sfn|Hagedorn|1997|pp=267–268}} This alternation highlights repeated changes in the dominant fluvial or wind patterns in the valleys of Tibesti during the Quaternary Period.{{sfn|Hagedorn|1997|p=267}} The phases of erosion and sendimentation are indicative of the climate alternating between dry and wet conditions, the latter of which fostered vegetation in the Tibesti that was likely significantly denser than that which exists today.{{efn|It is unlikely that the earlier vegetation was significantly qualitatively different from that which exists today, although Mediterranean flora would have been somewhat more common.{{sfn|Hagedorn|1997|p=273}}}}{{sfn|Hagedorn|1997|pp=268–270, 273}} Furthermore, the discovery of calcified charophyta (particularly of the family Characeae) and gastropod fossils in Trou au Natron indicates the presence of a lake at least {{cvt|300|m|sigfig=1|sp=us}} deep during the Late Pleistocene.{{sfn|Soulié-Märsche et al.|2010|pp=334–335}} These phenomena are associated with various changes in climate, most notably during the last glacial maximum, which increased precipitation and reduced evaporation due to lower temperatures.{{sfn|Maley|2000|p=121}} In fact, the Tibesti supplied a considerable amount of water to the Paleolake Chad until the 5th millennium BC.{{sfn|Tourte|2005|p=11}}

The Tibesti climate is substantially less dry than that of the surrounding Sahara Desert, but rainfall events are highly variable from year to year.{{sfn|Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek|1992|pp=2–3}}{{sfn|Musch|2021|p=2}} In the south of the range, this variation is largely due to oscillations of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), which steadily moves northward toward northern Chad from November until August, accompanied by humid monsoonal air. Normally, the ITCZ repels the Harmattan, a dry trade wind that blows west or southwest from the Sahara Desert, and brings rainfall to southern Tibesti. However, sometimes the front retires early, before reaching the Tibesti, leaving its southern portion dry.{{sfn|Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek|1992|p=2}} In the arid northern Tibesti, where the monsoon has little influence, storms are caused by episodic Sahara-Sudanese weather systems.{{sfn|Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek|1992|p=3}}{{sfn|Musch|2021|p=2}} For example, between 1957 and 1968, Bardaï, on the northern flank of the range, saw an average of {{cvt|12|mm|sp=us}} of precipitation annually, yet some years were completely dry while others saw {{cvt|60|mm|sp=us}} of rainfall.{{sfn|Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek|1992|p=3}} In general, the range receives less than {{cvt|20|mm|sp=us}} of rainfall per year.{{sfn|Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek|1992|p=18}} However, precipitation increases with altitude; for example Trou au Natron {{cvt|2250|m|ft|sp=us}} receives {{cvt|126|mm|in|sp=us}} annually. When the rainfall coincides with low temperatures, it can fall as snow.{{sfn|Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek|1992|p=3}}{{sfn|Messerli|1973|p=A143}} This occurs, on average, once every seven years.{{sfn|Messerli|1973|p=A140}}

The average monthly maximum temperature is {{cvt|28.1|C|F|sp=us|adj=ri0|sigfig=2}} in the central Tibesti Mountains, while the average monthly minimum is {{cvt|11.8|C|F|sp=us|adj=ri0|sigfig=2}}. Lows of {{cvt|-10|C|sp=us}} are not uncommon. Bardaï, located {{cvt|1020|m|sp=us}} above sea level, experiences average temperatures ranging between {{cvt|4.6|and|23.7|C|F|sp=us}} in January, between {{cvt|14.4|and|34|C|F|sp=us}} in April, and between {{cvt|19.4|and|36.7|C|F|sp=us}} in August.{{sfn|Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek|1992|p=3}} The combination of high temperatures and low humidity results in potentially high evaporation rates, ranging from {{cvt|129.4|mm|in|sp=us|adj=ri0|sigfig=1}} in January to {{cvt|254.1|mm|in|sp=us|adj=ri0|sigfig=2}} in May, parching many enneris before they can exit the mountain range.{{sfn|Musch|2021|p=3}}

{{Weather box

|location=the central Tibesti Mountains ({{coord|21|15|N|17|45|E|display=inline}}), approximately {{cvt|1200|m|sp=us}} elevation, 1901–2009

|collapsed=

|single line=yes

|metric first=yes

|source 1=Global Species

|source 2=University of East Anglia Climatic Research Unit

|Jan high F=64.5

|Feb high F=70

|Mar high F=77

|Apr high F=85.7

|May high F=93.5

|Jun high F=97.2

|Jul high F=96.3

|Aug high F=94

|Sep high F=91.5

|Oct high F=83.5

|Nov high F=72.9

|Dec high F=65.8

|Jan mean F=50.5

|Feb mean F=55.1

|Mar mean F=61.7

|Apr mean F=70

|May mean F=77.6

|Jun mean F=81.2

|Jul mean F=81

|Aug mean F=79.7

|Sep mean F=77.1

|Oct mean F=69.3

|Nov mean F=59.1

|Dec mean F=52.8

|Jan low F=36.7

|Feb low F=40.3

|Mar low F=46.5

|Apr low F=54.3

|May low F=61.7

|Jun low F=65.1

|Jul low F=65.8

|Aug low F=65.5

|Sep low F=62.8

|Oct low F=55.3

|Nov low F=45.4

|Dec low F=39.7

}}

Much like an island surrounded by ocean, the ecology of the Tibesti Mountains is distinguishable from that of the surrounding desert.{{sfn|Mies and Lösch|1995|p=192}} As such, the mountains lie within their own biome, the {{convert|31700|mi2|order=flip|adj=mid|sp=us}} Tibesti-Jebel Uweinat montane xeric woodlands ecoregion, along with the Jebel Uweinat, a disjunct mountain range that also rises from the Sahara {{cvt|650|km|mi|sp=us}} to the east. Most of the ecoregion remains unexplored due to its remoteness and persistent political instability, yet it is known to contain a number of endemic and endangered species. Indeed, the isolation of the region is a benefit to its flora and fauna, serving as a sort of refuge, allowing plants to grow untrammeled and animals to roam unmolested. Nevertheless, hunting is unregulated in the region, and vegetation has suffered from overgrazing in the past.

File:Acacia laeta ms 2460.jpg in Burkina Faso]]

The flora in the Tibesti is Saharomontane, mixing Mediterranean, Sahara, Sahel and Afromontane vegetation.{{sfn|White|1998|p=243}} Biodiversity and endemism levels are higher in the Tibesti than in the Aïr Mountains or the Ennedi Plateau, although the vegetation's coverage is highly dependent on rainfall.{{sfn|Giazzi|1996|p=179}}{{sfn|White|1998|pp=243–244}} Oases lie along the courses of the enneris, such as Enneri Yebige{{As of|alt=, which is virtually unexplored|1992}}.{{sfn|Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek|1992|p=18}} These oases, which are more numerous to the north and west of the range, are scattered with acacia, figs, palms and tamarisks.{{sfn|Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek|1992|pp=18–20}} Most gueltas are lined with macrophytes—including smooth flatsedge and branched horsetail{{sfn|Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek|1992|pp=18–20}}—and bryophytes—including Oxyrrhynchium speciosum and species of Bryum.{{sfn|Schultze-Motel|1969|pp=218–219}} Egyptian acacia grows near these water basins.{{sfn|Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek|1992|pp=18–20}} Saharan myrtle and oleander grow between elevations of {{cvt|1500|and|2300|m|ft|sp=us}} in the western part of the range, while Nile tamarisk grows at similar elevations in its northern part.{{sfn|White|1998|pp=243–244}} Downstream, where the current of the enneris is slower and the riverbed is deeper, there are dense thickets of Athel tamarisk and arak.{{sfn|Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek|1992|p=19}}

Around the edge of the Tibesti, where the canyons exit the range, are doum palms.{{sfn|Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek|1992|p=19}} The banks of Mare de Zoui are home to dense stands of reeds (Phragmites australis and Typha capensis), along with sedges (Scirpoides holoschoenus), sea rush, toad rush and branched horsetail, while pondweed grows in the open water. Although the lake appears rich in phytoplankton, it has not been thoroughly studied.{{sfn|Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek|1992|pp=18–19}}{{sfn|White|1998|pp=243–244}} To the south and southwest of the range, between {{cvt|1600|and|2300|m|ft|sp=us}} elevation, the wadis support woody species characteristic of the Sahel, such as Egyptian balsam, grey-leaved cordia, red-leaved fig, sycamore fig, wonderboom and gay acacia. Chrysopogon plumulosus is the most common grass in the area. Other plants have more Mediterranean characteristics, such as Globularia alypum and lavender or the more tropical sweet Indian mallow and least snout-bean.{{sfn|White|1998|pp=243–244}} The liverwort Plagiochasma rupestre is found around the wadis at these elevations, as are mosses of the genera Fissidens, Gymnostomum and Timmiella.{{sfn|Schultze-Motel|1969|pp=218–219}}

File:Abutilon fruticosum 1.JPG]]

Saharomontane grasslands are found on the slopes, plateaus and the upper portions of the wadis at elevations between {{cvt|1800|and|2700|m|ft|sp=us}}. They are dominated by Stipagrostis obtusa and Aristida caerulescens, as well some Eragrostis papposa locally. In addition, shrubs represented by jointed anabis, Fagonia flamandii and Zilla spinosa dot this environment. On the sheltered upper slopes of Emi Koussi is the endemic grass Eragrostis kohorica, named after the volcano's crater.{{sfn|White|1998|pp=243–244}}

The vegetation above {{convert|2600|m|abbr=off|sp=us}} consists of dwarf shrubs, which are generally limited to {{cvt|20|to|60|cm|0|sp=us}} in height and do not exceed {{convert|1|m|ft|sigfig=1|spell=in|sp=us}}. The shrubbery consists of the species Pentzia monodiana, Artemisia tilhoana and Ephedra tilhoana. At the highest elevations of the Tibesti, tree heath grows from moist crevices formed by early lava flows, while 24 different species of moss provide substrate for the tree heath.{{sfn|White|1998|pp=243–244}} Various genera of mosses also grow around fumaroles, including Fissidens, Campylopus, Gymnostomum and Trichostomum.{{sfn|Schultze-Motel|1969|pp=218–219}} Lichens, though rare in the dry climate of the Tibesti, also grow at these elevations, with green rock shield, scrambled-egg lichen, sunken disk lichen and Squamarina crassa found on the highest peaks.{{sfn|Mies and Lösch|1995|p=196}}{{sfn|Kappen|1973|p=311}}

File:Canis aureus revivim2.JPGs are present in the Tibesti]]

Mammals abound in the Tibesti. Bovids include the endangered addax along with the dorcas gazelle, rhim gazelle and a significant population of Barbary sheep.{{sfn|Beudels|2008}}{{sfn|Baseline Study|2009|p=13}} Rodents are the most represented order of mammals, and include the spiny mouse, bushy-tailed jird and the North African gerbil. Also present are cats such as the African wildcat and, more rarely, the cheetah, as well as several canine species, including the golden jackal, fennec fox and Rüppell's fox.{{sfn|Camps-fabrer|1999}} The striped hyena may also occupy the range. African wild dogs formerly roamed the range, although these populations are now extirpated.{{sfn|Ginsberg and Macdonald|1990|pp=17–18}} Olive baboons, found as recently as 1960, are now likely extirpated as well.{{sfn|Roos et al.|2021|pp=410, 415}} Bats are heavily represented in the Tibesti, including the Egyptian mouse-tailed bat, Egyptian slit-faced bat and the trident bat.{{sfn|Benda et al.|2014|pp=10, 34, 126}} The Cape hare and the rock hyrax also populate the area.

Reptiles and amphibians, on the other hand, are sparse. Snake species include the braid snake and the long-nosed worm snake. Among the lizards are Bibron's agama,{{efn|Although usually ascribed to A. impalearis, the Tibesti agama may in fact be the Afrotropical species A. agama.{{sfn|Geniez|2011|p=27}}}} the ringed wall gecko and the Sudan mastigure.{{sfn|Geniez|2011|p=27}}{{sfn|Animals Committee|2006|p=69}} Mid-20th-century herpetological studies noted the presence of brown frogs and true toads.{{sfn|Salvador|1996|p=1}}

Many resident birds can be found in the Tibesti. These include the crowned sandgrouse, bar-tailed lark, blackstart, desert lark, desert sparrow, fulvous babbler, greater hoopoe-lark, Lichtenstein's sandgrouse, pale crag martin, trumpeter finch and the white-crowned wheatear. The Tibesti massif has been designated an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International.{{cite web |url=https://datazone.birdlife.org/site/factsheet/tibesti-massif-iba-chad |title=Tibesti massif |author= |date=2024 |website=BirdLife Data Zone |publisher=BirdLife International |access-date=October 31, 2024 |archive-date=November 11, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231111191549/http://datazone.birdlife.org/site/factsheet/tibesti-massif-iba-chad |url-status=live }}

The gueltas are flushed periodically each year by stormwater, maintaining low salinity and supporting several species of freshwater fish. These include the African sharptooth catfish, East African red-finned barb, Tibesti labeo (Labeo tibestii, an endemic species) and the redbelly tilapia.{{sfn|Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek|1992|p=18}}

File:Massif du Tibesti topographic map-fr.svg

The town of Bardaï, located on the northern flank of the mountains at an elevation of {{cvt|1020|m|sp=us}}, is the capital of the Tibesti region.{{sfn|Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek|1992|p=3}}{{sfn|Azevedo and Decalo|2018|p=495}} It is connected to the town of Zouar, to the southwest, by a track that crosses Tarso Toussidé.{{sfn|Ministère des Affaires étrangères|2016}}{{sfn|Tilho|1920}} The village of Omchi is accessible from Bardaï via Aderké, or from the town of Aouzou via Irbi. These rough tracks extend southward towards Yebbi Souma and Yebbi Bou, and then follow the course of Enneri Misky. The eastern half of the Tibesti is cut off from the western half, and the eastern village of Aozi is accessible from Libya via Ouri.{{sfn|Ministère des Affaires étrangères|2016}} Zouar has an airport, as does Bardaï at Zougra.{{sfn|Thompson|2020}} Bardaï also has a hospital, although the medical supply is very much dependent upon the prevailing political situation.{{sfn|Braquehais|2006}}

{{Clear2|left}}

File:Toubou map.svg population in Africa{{sfn|Mahjoub|2015|p=19}}]]

The vast majority of the population is Teda, one of the two ethnicities of the Toubou people. However, some clans are Daza, the other Toubou ethnicity, who left their traditional homes in the lowlands to the south and moved north to the Tibesti.{{sfn|Chapelle|1982|p=6}} The Toubou live primarily in northern Chad, but also in southern Libya and eastern Niger.{{sfn|Tubiana and Gramizzi|2017|p=106}} The Toubou language has two main dialects, Tedaga, spoken by the Teda, and Dazaga, spoken by the Daza.{{sfn|Chapelle|1982|p=7}}{{sfn|Tubiana and Gramizzi|2017|p=30}} Despite their differences, the two Toubou groups generally identify as a single ethnic group.{{sfn|Tubiana and Gramizzi|2017|p=29}} The Toubou elect a chief, the Derdé, from the Tomagra clan, although never from the same family consecutively.{{sfn|Tubiana and Gramizzi|2017|pp=66–67}}{{sfn|Chapelle|1982|pp=72–79}}{{sfn|Baroin|1985|p=75}} Historically, individual clans rarely had more than a thousand members and were quite dispersed throughout the Tibesti.{{sfn|Chapelle|1982|pp=2, 38, 407}} {{As of|alt=In 2009|2009|post=,}} the population of the Tibesti was officially estimated at 21,000 inhabitants. {{As of|2017|post=,}} that number has risen to 54,000 inhabitants.{{sfn|Tubiana and Gramizzi|2017|p=32}} Yet the Toubou, in general, are semi-nomadic, moving between the mountains and other regions, and thus the Tibesti may have no more than 10,000 to 15,000 permanent residents.{{sfn|Tubiana and Gramizzi|2017|pp=32, 106}}

Traditional Toubou life is punctuated by the seasons, divided between animal husbandry and agriculture.{{sfn|Chapelle|1982|loc=chpts. 4, 5}} Twentieth-century anthropological studies show Toubou, particularly around palm groves, living in primitive round huts built with stone walls bound by mortar or clay, or built from clay or salt blocks. In the highlands, the buildings were built of stone, forming circles {{cvt|1.5|m|ft|sigfig=1|sp=us}} in diameter and {{convert|1|m|ft|sigfig=1|spell=in|sp=us}} high, which served as shelters for goats, or as granaries, or as human shelters and defense structures.{{sfn|Chapelle|1982|pp=30–31}} In other cases, the Toubou lived in tents that could be easily moved between the fields and the palm groves.{{sfn|Chapelle|1982|p=70}}

File:PhotoduTchad.jpg

There is evidence of human occupation of the Tibesti dating back to the Stone Age, when denser paleovegetation facilitated human habitation.{{sfn|Hagedorn|1997|p=273}} The Toubou were settled in the region by the 5th century BC and eventually established trade relations with the Carthaginian civilization.{{sfn|Chapelle|1982|pp=33–36}}{{sfn|Beck and Huard|1969|p=228}} Around this time, Herodotus mentioned the Toubou, whom he labeled "Aethiopians", and described them as having a language akin to the "cry of bats".{{efn|Herodotus described "Aethiopian troglodytes", located "ten days" from Awjila near a "mound of salt, water and palm trees", being pursued by four-horsed chariots of the civilization of Garamantes.{{sfn|Chapelle|1982|pp=35–36}} {{harvtxt|Chapelle|1982|p=36}} reasons that these were the Toubou, as troglodytes are by definition cave dwellers, the only caves near the described location are those of the Tassili n'Ajjer and the Tibesti, and the ergs neighboring the Tassili n'Ajjer are unsuitable for chariots, while the flat regs surrounding the Tibesti would have allowed chariots to pursue those who came to plunder the palm groves.}}{{sfn|Chapelle|1982|pp=33–36}}{{sfn|Roure|1939|p=2}}

Herodotus further remarked on a conflict between the Toubou and the civilization of Garamantes based in present-day Libya.{{sfn|Roure|1939|p=2}} Between AD 83 and 92, a Roman traveler, likely a trader, named Julius Maternus, explored the territory of the Tibesti Mountains with, or under the charge of, the king of Garamantes.{{sfn|Oliver|1975|p=286}}{{sfn|Huß|2006}}{{sfn|Desanges|1964|p=713}} The Tibesti are suspected by modern historians to have been part of an unidentified country named Agisymba, and Maternus's expedition may have been part of a broader military campaign by Garamantes against the populace of Agisymba.{{efn|According to {{harvtxt|Oliver|1975|p=290}}, this populace was "in all probability" the Toubou.}}{{sfn|Huß|2006}}{{sfn|Oliver|1975|p=290}}

In the 12th century, the geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi spoke of a "country of Zaghawa negroes", or camel herders, that had converted to Islam. The historian Ibn Khaldun described the Toubou in the 14th century.{{sfn|Chapelle|1982|pp=8, 54}} In the 15th and 16th centuries, Al-Maqrizi and Leo Africanus referred to the "country of the Berdoa", meaning Bardaï, the former associating the Toubou with the Berbers and the latter describing them as Numidian relatives of the Tuareg.{{sfn|Chapelle|1982|p=9}}

{{Clear2|right}}

File:Tibesti population-fr.svg

The Toubou settled in the Tibesti in several waves. Generally, newcomers either killed or absorbed the previous clans after battles that were often both long-lasting and bloody.{{sfn|Chapelle|1982|loc=chpt. 2 sect. 1}} The Teda clans, considered indigenous to the area, were first established around Enneri Bardagué. Namely, these clans were the Cerdegua, Zouia, Kossseda (nicknamed yobat or "hunters of well water"), and possibly the Ederguia, although the Ederguia's origin may be Zaghawa and only go back to the 17th century. These clans controlled the palm groves, and made a peace pact with the Tomagra, a nearby clan of camel herders who practiced Ghazw.{{sfn|Chapelle|1982|pp=72–79}} It was upon the agreement to this pact at the end of the 16th century that power was consolidated under the Derdé, the principal regulator of the clans, whose appointment is always made from the Tomagra clan.{{sfn|Chapelle|1982|pp=72–79}}{{sfn|Collelo|1990}}

There is evidence of early Daza settlements in the Tibesti; however, these early clans—the Goga, Kida, Terbouna and Obokina—were assimilated into later Daza clans, who arrived in the Tibesti between the 15th and 18th centuries, possibly having fled the Kanem-Bornu Empire in the southwest. These later Daza arrivals include the Arna Souinga in the south, Gouboda in the center-west, Tchioda and Dirsina in the west, Torama in the northwest and center-east, and the Derdekichia (literally, "descendants of the chief," the products of a union between an Arna Souinga and an Emmeouia) in the north.{{sfn|Chapelle|1982|pp=72–79}} The Tibesti then played the role of an impregnable mountain stronghold for the newcomers.{{sfn|Chapelle|1982|p=41}} Meanwhile, constant migration between the north and southwest of Chad, along with significant mixing of the populations, forged a significant degree of cohesion among the Toubou ethnicities. Periods of territorial expansion in the 10th and 13th centuries and periods of recession in the 15th and 16th centuries likely coincided with more or less pronounced wet and dry periods.{{sfn|Chapelle|1982|pp=41–44, 72–79}}

Several clans with traditions similar to those of the Donzas of the Borkou region, south of the Tibesti, settled in the range in the 16th and 17th centuries. These include the Keressa and Odobaya in the west, Foctoa in the northwest and northeast, and Emmeouia in the north. Several other clans—the Mogode in the west, Terintere in the north, Tozoba in the center, and Tegua and Mada in the south—are originally clans of the Bideyat people who immigrated from the Ennedi Plateau, southeast of Tibesti, around the same time. The Mada, however, have since largely emigrated to Borkou, Kaouar and Kanem.{{sfn|Chapelle|1982|pp=72–79}}

The early 17th century also saw the arrival of three clans from the region of Kufra to the northeast. The Taïzera settled in the plateau in the center and west of the mass, probably fleeing the Arab push into present-day Libya. According to oral tradition, their leader was initially rejected by the Daza clans and lived in isolation until winning the favor of a Dirsina woman. The Mahadena occupy the northeast quarter of the range and are likely from the Jalo oasis of Cyrenaica and thus related to the Mogharba Arab tribes, although an alternative hypothesis is that they are of Bideyat origin. Following years of conflict, a branch of the Mahadena clan, the Fortena, withdrew to the western margin of the Tibesti. The Fortena Mado ("Red Fortena") settled there, while the Fortena Yasko ("Black Fortena") pushed further west to Kaouar.{{sfn|Chapelle|1982|pp=72–79}}

The Tuareg people intermixed with the Toubou clans, especially with the early Goga clan, which produced the Gouboda, and with the later Arna clan, which produced the Mormorea. In both instances, the new clans were placed under the authority of suzerain clans of the traditionally feudal Tuareg, although they were eventually assimilated into the Toubou majority.{{sfn|Chapelle|1982|pp=79–81}}

{{center|

File:Tibesti_population-1-fr.svg|The indigenous Teda clans|alt=Map of the indigenous Teda clans in the Tibesti

File:Tibesti_population-2-fr.svg|The Daza clans migrate from Kanem|alt=Map showing the migration of the Daza clans to the Tibesti from Kanem

File:Tibesti_population-3-fr.svg|The Donza clans migrate from Borkou|alt=Map showing the migration of the Donza clans to the Tibesti from Borkou

File:Tibesti_population-4-fr.svg|The Bideyat clans migrate from Ennedi|alt=Map showing the migration of the Bideyat clans to the Tibesti from Ennedi

File:Tibesti_population-5-fr.svg|Other clans migrate from Kufra, Cyrenaica and Jalu|alt=Map showing the migration of other clans to the Tibesti from Kufra, Cyrenaica and Jalu

}}

In the mid-19th century the Ottoman Empire began a campaign of territorial conquest across northern Africa from its regional headquarters in Libya, yet was unable to subdue the Tibesti.{{sfn|Ricciardi|1992|pp=338–339}} In 1890, to the chagrin of the Turks, France and Great Britain signed a declaration recognizing a French zone of influence in northern Africa from the Mediterranean Sea down to Lake Chad.{{sfn|Ricciardi|1992|p=334}} In response, the Toubou allied with the Senussi Arabs of Libya and agreed that the southern half of the Tibesti could serve as a fallback base for the Senussi in their struggle against the French Colonial Army.{{sfn|Chapelle|1982|pp=61–64, 93–97}} As the Sennussis' influence moved southward, so did their headquarters, which in 1899 was moved to the town of Gouro on the southeast flank of the range.{{sfn|Ministère des Affaires étrangères|2016}}{{sfn|Chapelle|1982|pp=64, 96, 107}}{{sfn|Ricciardi|1992|p=342}} The Senussi founded a Zawiya in Bardaï, which quickly promoted the total Islamization of the Tibesti.{{sfn|Bosworth|2012}}{{sfn|Ricciardi|1992|p=341}} At the outbreak of the Italo-Turkish War, the Senussi allied with the Ottoman Empire and, at the request of the Derdé, the Turks established garrisons in Tibesti beginning in March 1911. These garrisons fell apart a few months later when the Toubou attacked the Turkish troops.{{sfn|Chapelle|1982|p=64}}

While the Italians occupied the Fezzan, a French column entered the Tibesti in early 1914 from Kaouar.{{sfn|Chapelle|1982|p=64}}{{sfn|Ricciardi|1992|pp=346–347, 357}} The region was at the heart of a dispute between the colonial powers,{{sfn|Permenter and Oppenheimer|2007|p=610}} with the Italian Empire to the north and French West Africa to the south. During World War I, a Senussi revolt forced the Italians to temporarily withdraw from the Fezzan and the northeastern part of the Tibesti.{{sfn|Chapelle|1982|p=64}} Likewise, fierce resistance from the Toubou forced the French troops to retreat southward from the Tibesti in 1916.{{sfn|Ricciardi|1992|p=358}} After a period of internal disorder, the Tibesti was reconquered by the French colonial empire in 1929, and the region was placed under the administration of French Equatorial Africa.{{sfn|Roure|1939|p=2}}{{sfn|Ricciardi|1992|p=358}}{{sfn|Chapelle|1982|pp=2, 64}} Libya gained its independence from Italy in 1947, and was released from British and French oversight in 1951.{{sfn|Ricciardi|1992|pp=364–365, 371}}

{{Main|Chadian Civil War (1965–79)}}

{{See also|Claustre Affair}}

Chad gained independence from France in 1960, and in 1965 the Chadian government led by François Tombalbaye imposed its administrative and judicial authority in the Tibesti.{{sfn|Collelo|1990}}{{sfn|Fearon, Laitin and Kasara|2006|pp=3–4}} Mere days after the withdrawal of French troops from the region, rebellion erupted in Bardaï, followed by numerous small battles over subsequent months and a more significant battle in Bardaï in September. In response, the Tombalbaye government imposed travel and trade restrictions on the Toubou and voided the traditional power of the then Derdé, Oueddei Kichidemi.{{sfn|Fearon, Laitin and Kasara|2006|p=4}} Kichidemi went into exile in Libya the following year and became a national symbol in Chad for opposition to the government.{{sfn|Collelo|1990}} These events sparked the First Chadian Civil War, which lasted from 1965 to 1979.{{sfn|Collelo|1990}}{{sfn|Fearon, Laitin and Kasara|2006|pp=4, 12}}

In 1968, the French Army, at the request of Tombalbaye, intervened in an attempt to put an end to the rebellion. However, French General Edouard Cortadellas admitted their attempts to quell the Toubou were essentially hopeless, remarking, "I believe we should draw a line below [the Tibesti region] and leave them to their stones. We can never subdue them." The French therefore focused their intervention on the center and east of the country, leaving the Tibesti region largely alone.{{sfn|Nolutshungu|1995|pp=62–63}}{{sfn|Fearon, Laitin and Kasara|2006|p=6}}

In 1969, Goukouni Oueddei, a Teda leader, and Hissène Habré, a Daza leader, emerged from the Tibesti to form the Second Liberation Army.{{sfn|Fearon, Laitin and Kasara|2006|p=10}} In April 1974, the Second Liberation Army captured Bardaï from the Chadian government and took hostage the French archeologist Françoise Claustre, German doctor Christophe Staewen and Marc Combe, an assistant to Claustre's husband, and held them in the mountains.{{sfn|Fearon, Laitin and Kasara|2006|p=10}}{{sfn|Arsenault|2006}}{{sfn|Correau|2008}} Staewen's wife and two soldiers of the Chadian army were killed.{{sfn|"Zum Weinen"|1975}} The West German government quickly paid the ransom and Staewen was released. The French government sent the military officer Pierre Galopin to negotiate with the rebels, but he was captured by the rebels and executed in April 1975. Marc Combe was able to escape in May 1975. The remaining hostages were released in January 1977 in Tripoli after France acceded to the rebels' ransom demand.{{sfn|Arsenault|2006}}{{sfn|Correau|2008}} The hostage incident, known as "L'affaire Claustre", caused a rift between the French and Chadian governments.{{sfn|Fearon, Laitin and Kasara|2006|p=10}}{{sfn|Henderson|1984|loc=chpt. II}}

Another rift formed between Goukouni and Habré, which by 1976 had spread to the Second Liberation Army, leaving one side commanded by Habré and the other commanded by Goukouni and supported by Libya.{{sfn|Henderson|1984|loc=chpt. II}}{{sfn|Fearon, Laitin and Kasara|2006|p=11}} In June 1977, Goukouni's forces attacked the Chadian government stronghold in Bardaï.{{sfn|Higgins|1993|p=18}}{{sfn|Arnold|2009|p=286}} The rebels also attacked Zouar. These battles resulted in the death of 300 government troops.{{sfn|Higgins|1993|p=18}} Bardaï surrendered to the rebels on July 4, while Zouar was evacuated.{{sfn|Higgins|1993|p=18}} The Chadian government, led by Félix Malloum since Tombalbaye's overthrow in 1975, signed a peace agreement with Habré in 1978, although fighting with other rebel groups, many aligned with Libya, continued.{{sfn|Higgins|1993|p=18}}{{sfn|Fearon, Laitin and Kasara|2006|pp=10–11}}

{{See also|Chadian–Libyan conflict}}

File:Map of Aouzou stip chad-svg.svg between Chad and Libya{{sfn|Jacobs|2011}}]]

In 1978, war broke out between Chad and Libya ostensibly over the Aouzou Strip, a {{convert|114000|km2|mi2|sp=us|adj=on}} borderland between Chad and Libya that extends into the Tibesti Mountains and is rumored to contain uranium deposits.{{sfn|Roure|1939|p=2}}{{sfn|Jacobs|2011}}{{sfn|Metz|1989|p=55}}{{sfn|Ricciardi|1992|p=305}} In 1980, Libya used the strip as a base from which stage an attack, led by Goukouni, on the Chadian capital, N'Djamena, located in southern Chad and controlled by Habré.{{sfn|Metz|1989|pp=55–56}} N'Djamena was toppled in December; however, under considerable international pressure, Libya withdrew from southern Chad in late 1981, and Habré's Armed Forces of the North (FAN) took control of the entirety of Chad with the exception of the Tibesti, where Goukouni retreated with his Libyan-backed Government of National Unity (GUNT) forces.{{sfn|Metz|1989|pp=55–56}}{{sfn|Nolutshungu|1995|p=186–188}}{{sfn|Henderson|1984|loc=Chpt. III}} Goukouni then established a National Peace Government in Bardaï and proclaimed it the legitimate government of Chad. Habré attacked the GUNT in the Tibesti in both December 1982 and January 1983 but was repelled on both occasions. Although fighting intensified over the next several months, the mountains remained under the control of the GUNT and Libyan forces.{{sfn|Nolutshungu|1995|p=188}}

By 1986, following a series of military defeats, the GUNT had begun to disintegrate along with relations between Goukouni and Libya.{{sfn|Nolutshungu|1995|pp=213–214}}{{sfn|Fearon, Laitin and Kasara|2006|p=13}}{{sfn|Pollack|2004|loc=loc. 5452}} In December, Goukouni was arrested by the Libyans, which spurred his troops to attack Libyan positions in the Tibesti, forcing the Libyans to withdraw.{{sfn|Pollack|2004|loc=loc. 5452}}{{sfn|Nolutshungu|1995|p=xii}} Libya sought to retake Bardaï and Zouar, and sent a task-force of 2,000 troops with T-62 tanks and heavy support by the Libyan Air Force into the Tibesti.{{sfn|Pollack|2004|loc=loc. 5452}} The offensive started successfully, expelling the GUNT from its key strongholds.{{sfn|Pollack|2004|loc=locs. 5452–5457}} The attack ultimately backfired, however, as it resulted in the prompt reaction of Habré, who sent 2,000 soldiers to support the GUNT forces.{{sfn|Pollack|2004|loc=loc. 5457}} Although the Libyans were only partially repelled from the Tibesti, the broader campaign was a great strategic victory, as it transformed a civil war into a national war against a foreign invader, stimulating a sense of national unity never before seen in Chad.{{sfn|Pollack|2004|loc=loc. 5457}}{{sfn|Nolutshungu|1995|pp=230, 245}} After a series of defeats in northeastern Chad, Libyan forces withdrew fully from the Tibesti in March 1987.{{sfn|Pollack|2004|loc=locs. 5457–5462}}

{{See also|Chadian Civil War (2005–2010)}}

Following a decade of relative peace, in late 1997 the Tibesti saw the formation of the Movement for Democracy and Justice in Chad (MDJT), a rebel group opposed to Chadian president Idriss Déby.{{sfn|Tubiana and Gramizzi|2017|pp=34–36}} Numbering around 1,000 fighters at its peak between 2000 and 2001, and financed by Libyan Teda clans and the Libyan government, the MDJT was able to take control of several towns in the Tibesti.{{sfn|Tubiana and Gramizzi|2017|pp=36–37}} Battles with the Chadian National Army (ANT) were particularly violent between 1998 and 2002, resulting in the deaths of between 500 and 850 MDJT rebels and a comparable number of ANT soldiers at locales across northern Chad, including Bardaï.{{sfn|Tubiana and Gramizzi|2017|pp=37–38}} Although civilian casualties were relatively limited, many civilians were killed and injured by landmines, and the war resulted in the displacement of a large portion of the local population.{{sfn|Tubiana and Gramizzi|2017|p=38}}

Between 1998 and 2010 the MDJT had established a weak government in the Tibesti region, functionally independent from that of Chad.{{sfn|Tubiana and Gramizzi|2017|p=43}} In 2002, however, weakened by its isolation in the Tibesti and from a series of military defeats, the MDJT split into several factions following the death of its leader, Youssouf Togoïmi.{{sfn|Tubiana and Gramizzi|2017|p=47}} In 2005, under pressure from Libya, the "most legitimate" MDJT faction signed a peace agreement with the Chadian government, yet the war continued, albeit at a lower intensity.{{sfn|Tubiana and Gramizzi|2017|pp=37, 48, 52}} From 2009 to 2010, the last of the MDJT rebels surrendered to the Chadian government.{{sfn|Tubiana and Gramizzi|2017|pp=9, 152–154}} The legacy of decades of war continues to burden the Tibesti with a lack of government, a warrior culture, and a landscape strewn with thousands of landmines.{{sfn|Permenter and Oppenheimer|2007|p=610}}{{sfn|Tubiana and Gramizzi|2017|p=43}}

Gold was discovered in the Tibesti Mountains in 2012, attracting prospectors from across the Sahel.{{sfn|Tubiana and Gramizzi|2017|pp=10, 78–79}} The arrival of migrants has led to violent conflicts with the Teda locals, a problem exacerbated by an influx of weaponry to the region due to the {{As of|alt=ongoing|2021|02}} wars in Darfur and Libya.{{sfn|Tubiana and Gramizzi|2017|pp=10–11, 13, 132–133}} Violence has also arisen as a result of disputes between the miners themselves; for example, around 100 people were killed in May 2022 over a "banal dispute" between miners. The increased migration has also increased drug traffic, with the Tibesti lying along the trans-Saharan smuggling route for South American cocaine destined for Europe.{{sfn|Tubiana and Gramizzi|2017|pp=131–132}}{{sfn|Tubiana|2016}} Nevertheless, the gold discovery has benefited the impoverished region economically. Many Tibesti residents have been able to purchase goods such as cars, televisions and satellite telephones that they could not otherwise afford. "If by the grace of God, gold had not appeared we would not even have anything to eat", remarked one Tibesti prospector.{{sfn|Tubiana and Gramizzi|2017|p=102}}

File:Gustav Nachtigal by Hanfstaengl (cropped).jpg, the first European explorer of the Tibesti]]

Due to its isolation and geopolitical situation, the Tibesti Mountains were long unexplored by scientists.{{sfn|Permenter and Oppenheimer|2007|p=609}} The German Gustav Nachtigal was the first European to explore, albeit with great difficulty, the Tibesti in 1869.{{sfn|Chapelle|1982|p=10}} While Nachtigal provided an accurate description of the population, his expedition was fiercely opposed by the Toubou, and his account discouraged any new adventure into the Tibesti for over 40 years.{{sfn|Baroin|2003|p=11}}{{sfn|Fisher and Fisher|1987|pp=236–237}} Later expeditions carried out between 1920 and 1970 yielded valuable information on the geology and petrology of the range.{{sfn|Permenter and Oppenheimer|2007|p=609}} The French anthropologist Charles le Cœur and his wife Marguerite, a geographer, lived among the Teda of Tibesti between 1933 and 1935. Le Cœur was the first to closely study the Tibesti populace, but the outbreak of World War II prevented him from publishing his research.{{efn|Le Cœur was killed in action in Italy in 1944.{{sfn|Conklin|2013|loc=search [https://books.google.com/books?id=CQoGAQAAQBAJ&q=Le%20C%C5%93ur%20Italy&pg=PP1 "Le Cœur Italy"]}}}}{{sfn|Baroin|2003|p=11}}{{sfn|Conklin|2013|loc=search [https://books.google.com/books?id=CQoGAQAAQBAJ&q=Le%20C%C5%93ur%20Italy&pg=PP1 "Le Cœur Italy"]}} French Colonel Jean Chapelle published #{{harvid and their lifestyle in 1957.{{sfn|Baroin|2003|p=11}} In 1965, the Free University of Berlin opened a geomorphological research station in Bardaï; however, research was slowed due to the Chadian Civil War, and the station was ultimately closed in 1974.{{sfn|Jäkel|1977|p=61}}{{sfn|Klitzsch|2004|pp=245, 247}}

Although the Tibesti is one of the world's most significant examples of intracontinental volcanism, ongoing political instability and the presence of landmines means that, today, geologic research often must be conducted on the basis of satellite images and comparison with research on Martian volcanoes.{{sfn|Permenter and Oppenheimer|2007|pp=609–610}} Little public geologic research had been conducted in the Tibesti Mountains until the work of #{{harvid; however, an expedition in 2015 sought to assess the feasibility of establishing a new geoscience research station in Bardaï.{{sfn|Permenter and Oppenheimer|2007|p=610}}{{sfn|University of Cologne|2015}}

Although not an alpine climb, Gustav Nachtigal ascended to {{cvt|7873|ft|m|sp=us|order=flip}} elevation as he traversed a pass abutting Pic Toussidé during his exploration of the Tibesti in 1869.{{sfn|L.|1876|p=169}} The Englishman Wilfred Thesiger summited the highest mountain in the range, the {{convert|3415|m|ft|sp=us|adj=on}} Emi Koussi, in 1938.{{sfn|Thesiger|1939|pp=434, 438–439}} In 1948, the Swiss Foundation for Alpine Research mounted an expedition under Edouard Wyss-Dunant, which scaled both the peak and needle of Botoum, at {{cvt|2400|m|sp=us}} and {{cvt|2000|m|sp=us}}, respectively.

In 1957, Peter Steele led a University of Cambridge expedition that sought to conquer Tarso Tieroko, which Thesiger had described as "probably the most beautiful peak in Tibesti".{{sfn|Steele|1964|p=268}} After climbing two peaks situated on a ridge to the north,{{efn|The two peaks are "The Imposter" and "Hadrian's Peak."{{sfn|Steele|1964|p=268}}}} they attempted Tieroko, but just {{cvt|200|ft|order=flip|sp=us|sigfig=1}} from the summit, they were faced with a vertical, crumbling rock wall and were forced to descend. Following this defeat, they took the opportunity to climb Emi Koussi, 19 years after its first ascent by Thesiger, and also Pic Woubou, a prominent spire located between Bardaï and Aouzou.{{sfn|Steele|1964|pp=268–270}} Seven years later, in 1965, a team led by the Englishman Doug Scott succeeded in climbing Tieroko.{{sfn|Scott|2017|loc=search [https://books.google.com/books?id=Sf0-DwAAQBAJ&q=Tibesti&pg=PP1 "Tibesti"] and [https://books.google.com/books?id=Sf0-DwAAQBAJ&q=%22climb%20Tieroko%22&pg=PP1 "'climb Tieroko'"]}}

In 1963, an expedition under the Italian Guido Monzino ascended a peak in the massif of the Aiguilles of Sissé which, despite rising only {{cvt|800|ft|m|sp=us}} above ground level, proved "very difficult".{{sfn|Cox|1965|p=126}} The Englishman Eamon "Ginge" Fullen scaled Bikku Bitti, the highest peak in Libya at {{cvt|2266|m|ft|sp=us}}, in 2005, capping a successful Guinness World Records attempt.{{sfn|Braun and Passon|2020|p=1}} Due to the unstable political situation, mountaineering in the Tibesti remains a challenging endeavor today.{{sfn|Ingram|2001|p=39}}

{{clear}}

File:Amazonite 1.jpg from Ethiopia]]

Although gold was long known to exist in small quantities, substantial deposits were discovered in 2012.{{sfn|Tubiana and Gramizzi|2017|p=78}}{{sfn|Maoundonodji|2009|p=258}} Diamonds have also been found. The mountains and their surroundings could contain significant quantities of uranium, tin, tungsten, niobium, tantalum, beryllium, lead, zinc and copper.{{sfn|Maoundonodji|2009|p=258}} Amazonite is present and was reportedly mined by the ancient Libyan civilization of Garamantes.{{sfn|Chapelle|1982|p=32}}{{sfn|Suayah|2006|p=564}}{{sfn|Braun and Passon|2020|p=144}} Salt is mined today, and is an important source of income for the Toubou.{{sfn|Tubiana and Gramizzi|2017|p=30}}

The Soborom geothermal field, the name of which means "healing water",{{efn|At least one other source reports that the name instead means "boiling water".{{sfn|Kaiser|1972|p=17}}}} is known to locals for its medicinal qualities; its pools are rumored to cure dermatitis and rheumatism after several days of soaking.{{sfn|Beauvilain|1996|p=20}} {{as of|alt=As of the latest analysis, in 1992|1992|post=,}} Mare de Zoui and its surroundings were rarely visited, aside from a nearby oasis. However, there are numerous small oases on the plains of Borkou, near Emi Koussi, which are extensively exploited. This water is thought to be sourced from the Tibesti Mountains, from where it flows underground before surfacing at these springs.{{sfn|Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek|1992|pp=18–19}}

There are accessible oases to the west and north of the range. Where mosquitoes do not abound, they support several villages, such as Zouar where, by the 1950s, indigenous plant species had been largely replaced by some 56,000 date palms (Phoenix dactylifera).{{sfn|Chapelle|1982|p=69}}{{sfn|Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek|1992|pp=19–20}} The dates are harvested between late July and early August.{{sfn|Chapelle|1982|p=70}} In winter, when reserves are depleted, it is not uncommon for the cores of the dates and the fiber of the palms to be ground into a paste and consumed. Some native palm species remain, such as the doum palm (Hyphaene thebaica), from which the hard yet vaguely-sweet fruit rinds are collected, ground and consumed, despite their low nutritional value.{{sfn|Chapelle|1982|p=69}} The banks of the enneris grow desert gourd (Citrullus colocynthis), which are collected in October to extract the bitter seeds which, after being washed, are ground to make flour.{{sfn|Chapelle|1982|pp=69–70}} Women are customarily responsible for gathering wild grains on the tarsos in August.{{sfn|Chapelle|1982|p=70}}

Horticulture is practiced on a small scale using traditional irrigation methods.{{sfn|Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek|1992|pp=19–20}} The palm groves can also grow wheat, millet and maize, but the crops are spotty and sometimes swept away by flooding.{{sfn|Chapelle|1982|p=70}} {{As of|alt=In the 1950s|1957|post=,}} in total, including barley, the Tibesti produced {{convert|300|t|ST|sp=us}} of cereals each year.{{sfn|Chapelle|1982|p=69}} On the plains of Borkou, some fields are irrigated, where cattle, goats and dromedaries can drink.{{sfn|Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek|1992|p=19}} In the 1950s, it was reported that goats and, more rarely, sheep numbered 50,000 heads, while 8,000 dromedaries and 7,000 donkeys were being raised in the range.{{sfn|Chapelle|1982|p=70}}{{sfn|Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek|1992|pp=19–20}} Since the droughts of the 1970s and 1980s, dromedaries have come to dominate at the expense of cattle.{{sfn|Tubiana and Gramizzi|2017|p=30}} Most animals spend the winter on the plateaus or in the high valleys. They descend into the lower valleys in February, just after the sowing of wheat, and then return in June to allow harvest.{{sfn|Chapelle|1982|p=70}} Fishing is possible in the water holes.{{sfn|Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek|1992|p=20}} Traditionally, agricultural product was traded once a year in exchange for fabrics.{{sfn|Chapelle|1982|p=70}}

As the Sahara's highest mountain range, with geothermal features, a distinctive culture, and numerous rock and parietal artworks, the Tibesti has tourism potential.{{sfn|Beauvilain|1996|pp=21–24}}{{sfn|Kröpelin|2017}}{{sfn|"Nine extraordinary tours"|2019}} However, tourist accommodations are limited at best.{{sfn|Tubiana and Gramizzi|2017|p=71}} In the early 2010s, the French adventure travel company Point-Afrique financed the repair of the airport at Faya-Largeau, some {{convert|200|km|sp=us}} southeast of the Tibesti, and established direct charter flights between Faya and Marseille. Although the flights mainly brought tourists destined for the Ounianga Lakes UNESCO World Heritage Site, there was considerable hope that they would also open the gates for tourism in the Tibesti.{{sfn|Kröpelin|2017}}{{sfn|Grolle|2013}} For example, the Chadian government invested in a tourist camp along with walled pavilions in Bardaï.{{sfn|Kröpelin|2017}}{{sfn|Tubiana and Gramizzi|2017|p=71}} Yet, following the Libyan Crisis and France's intervention in Mali, the French government pressured tour operators to prevent French tourists from venturing into the Sahara, and the flights ended.{{sfn|Kröpelin|2017}}

{{As of|2017|post=,}} there are essentially only two tour operators in Chad, run by Chadians and Italians and both based in N'Djamena, which offer all the tours that exist in Chad, including trips to the Tibesti.{{sfn|Kröpelin|2017}} Tours are typically multi-week affairs, with tourists accommodated in tents.{{sfn|"Nine extraordinary tours"|2019}}{{sfn|Leadbeater|2019}} They include exposure to Toubou cultural traditions and to the Tibesti's rock and parietal art.{{sfn|"Nine extraordinary tours"|2019}} Continuing civil unrest and the presence of landmines pose a danger to tourists, and, despite the occasional tour group, the Tibesti remains one of the most isolated places on Earth.{{sfn|Permenter and Oppenheimer|2007|p=610}}{{sfn|"Nine extraordinary tours"|2019}}

The resources available for conservation in the Tibesti are limited. In 2006, various non-governmental working groups proposed a protected area to preserve the area's rhim gazelle and Barbary sheep populations.{{sfn|Beudels|2008}}{{sfn|Baseline Study|2009|p=13}} The protected area would be modeled after the Ouadi Rimé-Ouadi Achim Faunal Reserve to the south. However, due to economic and political barriers, the project has not moved beyond the proposal stage.{{sfn|Sahelo-Saharan Antelopes Project|2006|p=11}} Nevertheless, the establishment of two World Heritage Sites{{efn|Lakes of Ounianga{{cite web |title=Lakes of Ounianga |publisher=UNESCO |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1400/ |access-date=February 14, 2012 |archive-date=July 3, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120703090643/http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1400/ |url-status=live }} and the Ennedi Plateau{{cite web |title=Ennedi Massif: Natural and Cultural Landscape |publisher=UNESCO |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1475 |access-date=February 14, 2021 |archive-date=September 3, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190903212023/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1475 |url-status=live }}}} in northern Chad in 2012 and 2016 has renewed hope that a similar feat might be achieved in the Tibesti.{{sfn|Kröpelin|2017}}

File:Mathendous giraffes.jpg in the Fezzan]]

The Tibesti Mountains are renowned for their rock and parietal art.{{sfn|Davis|1984|p=8}} Around 200 engraving sites and 100 painting sites have been identified. Many date as early as the 6th millennium BC, long before the arrival of the Toubou. The art has suffered the effects of time, including weathering from sand blown by the wind.{{sfn|Beauvilain|1996|pp=21–24}} The earliest works often portray animals that have since died out in the region due to climate change, including elephants, rhinoceros, hippopotamus and giraffes. More recent art includes ostriches, antelopes, gazelles, baboons and sheep. Later works, dated less than 2000 years old, portray domesticated animals, such as oxen and camels.{{sfn|Beauvilain|1996|pp=21–24}}{{sfn|Chapelle|1982|pp=27–28}}

Other engravings portray warriors dressed in feathers or spiked ornaments and armed with bows, shields, assegai, or traditional knives.{{sfn|Chapelle|1982|pp=27–28}} Still others portray celebrations and scenes from everyday life. The walls of a canyon near Bardaï have engravings that measure over {{convert|2|m|ft|0|sp=us}} in height, including that of the "man of Gonoa", Gonoa being the name of the enneri that runs through the valley. These primarily show hunting scenes. The Tibesti art is unique in the Sahara because of the absence of inscriptions, the relative lack of chariots, and the low representation of camels and horses until comparatively recently.{{sfn|Beauvilain|1996|pp=21–24}}

The Tibesti Mountains have inspired several contemporary works of art and literature. The volcanic spires of the Tibesti, along with a stylized sheep's head, were displayed on a 20 CFA franc postage stamp issued by Republic of Chad in 1962. In 1989, French painter and sculptor Jean Vérame used the natural surroundings of the Tibesti to create multidimensional land art works by painting rocks.{{sfn|Berque|1993|p=35}}

The Tibesti range was featured in the 1958 short story "Le Mura di Anagoor" ("The Walls of Anagoor") by the Italian novelist Dino Buzzati.{{efn|Although the plot of "Le Mura di Anagoor" takes place in the Tibesti,{{sfn|Ferrari, Tinazzi and D’Erchia|2020|pp=13–14}} at least one English translation has moved it to Tibet.{{sfn|Buzzati|1984|pp=XI, 27}}}} In the story, a local guide offers to show a traveler the walls of a great city that is absent from the maps. The city is exceedingly opulent, yet exists in total autarky and does not submit to higher authority. The traveler waits many years, in vain, to enter the Tibesti city.{{sfn|Ferrari, Tinazzi and D’Erchia|2020|pp=13–14}}{{sfn|Buzzati|1958|loc=chpt. 39}}

{{clear}}

{{notelist|1}}

{{reflist|30em|refs=

{{cite news |ref={{sfnref|Africanews|2022}} |title=Around 100 dead in clashes between gold miners in Chad |publisher=Africanews |date=May 30, 2022 |url=https://www.africanews.com/2022/05/30/around-100-dead-in-clashes-between-gold-miners-in-chad/ |access-date=June 17, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220530213737/https://www.africanews.com/2022/05/30/around-100-dead-in-clashes-between-gold-miners-in-chad/ |archive-date=May 30, 2022 |url-status=live }}

{{cite gvp |name=Emi Koussi |vn=225021 |access-date=September 7, 2020 }}

{{cite gvp |title=Emi Koussi: Synonyms and Subfeatures |vn=225021 |vtab=Subfeatures |access-date=September 7, 2020 }}

{{cite gvp |title=Tarso Toussidé |vn=225010 |access-date=February 12, 2021 }}

{{cite gvp |title=Tarso Tôh |vn=225009 |access-date=March 20, 2021 }}

{{cite map |map=Google Earth |map-url=https://earth.google.com/web/@20.783,18.05,-672.85015613a,8121722.17254996d,35y,0h,0t,0r |title=Google Earth |author=((Google)) |author-link=Google |access-date=April 19, 2021 }}

{{WWF ecoregion|name=Tibesti-Jebel Uweinat montane xeric woodlands|id=pa1331 }}

{{cite web |title=Tibesti Massif |url=http://datazone.birdlife.org/site/factsheet/tibesti-massif-iba-chad |publisher=BirdLife International |access-date=February 15, 2021 |archive-date=June 19, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619163426/http://datazone.birdlife.org/site/factsheet/tibesti-massif-iba-chad |url-status=live }}

{{cite web |title=Climate Data for Latitude 21.25 Longitude 17.75 |publisher=Global Species |date=July 28, 2011 |url=http://www.globalspecies.org/weather_stations/climate/396/223 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170323034821/http://www.globalspecies.org/weather_stations/climate/396/223 |archive-date=March 23, 2017 |url-status=dead }}

{{cite web |title=Climatic Research Unit (CRU) time-series datasets of variations in climate with variations in other phenomena |publisher=University of East Anglia Climatic Research Unit |date=February 14, 2017 |url=https://catalogue.ceda.ac.uk/uuid/3f8944800cc48e1cbc29a5ee12d8542d |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170430234810/http://catalogue.ceda.ac.uk/uuid/3f8944800cc48e1cbc29a5ee12d8542d |archive-date=April 30, 2017 |url-status=dead }}

{{cite web |title=Fastest time to climb the highest peaks in all African countries |publisher=Guinness World Records |url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/records-5000/fastest-time-to-climb-the-highest-peaks-in-all-african-countries-/ |access-date=February 23, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201017062558/https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/fastest-time-to-climb-the-highest-peaks-in-all-african-countries-/ |archive-date=October 17, 2020 |url-status=live }}

{{cite web |title=Safety and security – Chad travel advice – GOV.UK |publisher=Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office |url=https://www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/chad/safety-and-security |access-date=February 23, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725073628/https://www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/chad/safety-and-security |archive-date=July 25, 2019 |url-status=live }}

{{Cite web |title=Expeditions supported by the SFAR: Swiss Expedition in Tibesti – Central Sahara |publisher=Swiss Foundation for Alpine Research |url=http://www.alpinfo.ch/rueckblick/en/expeditions/sahara.html |access-date=April 20, 2021 |archive-date=April 20, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420093557/http://www.alpinfo.ch/rueckblick/en/expeditions/sahara.html |url-status=live }}

{{cite web |title=Timbre: Head of sheep and Tibesti |publisher=Colnect.com |url=http://colnect.com/fr/stamps/stamp/244610-Head_of_sheep_and_Tibesti-Definitive_issue-Tchad |access-date=February 14, 2021 }}

{{cite web |title=Jean Vérame |website=Encyclopedie Audiovisuelle De L'art Contemporain |language=fr |url=http://imagoart.e-monsite.com/pages/monographies-dvd-t-z/verame-jean.html |access-date=March 21, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128113245/http://imagoart.e-monsite.com/pages/monographies-dvd-t-z/verame-jean.html |archive-date=November 28, 2020 |url-status=live }}

}}

{{refbegin|40em}}

• {{cite conference |ref={{sfnref|Animals Committee|2006}} |author=Animals Committee (22nd) |url=http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.490.4004&rep=rep1&type=pdf |title=Document 10.2: Annex 6c: Uromastyx dispar Heyden, 1827 |date=July 7–13, 2006 |location=Lima, Peru |citeseerx=10.1.1.490.4004 |conference=CITES }}
• {{cite book |last=Arnold |first=Guy |author-link=Guy Arnold |title=The A to Z of Civil Wars in Africa |year=2009 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-7048-2 }}
• {{cite news |last=Arsenault |first=Claire |title='La captive du désert' est morte |publisher=Radio France Internationale |date=September 6, 2006 |language=fr |trans-title=The "captive of the desert" is dead |url=http://www.rfi.fr/actufr/articles/081/article_45982.asp |access-date=February 23, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110130044759/http://www.rfi.fr/actufr/articles/081/article_45982.asp |archive-date=January 30, 2011 |url-status=live }}
• {{cite book |ref={{sfnref|Azevedo and Decalo|2018}} |last1=Azevedo |first1=Mario J. |author-link1=Mario Azevedo |last2=Decalo |first2=Samuel |title=Historical Dictionary of Chad |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-5381-1437-7 }}
• {{cite encyclopedia |last=Baldur |first=Gabriel |title=The African Neogene: Climate, Environments and People |editor-last=Runge |editor-first=Jürgen |chapter=Exploration of the Tibesti Mountains – Re-appraisal after 50 years |encyclopedia=International Yearbook of Landscape Evolution and Paleoenvironments |volume=34: The African Neogene – Climate, Environments and People |series=Paleoecology of Africa |year=2018 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-1380-6212-2 }}
• {{cite book |last=Baroin |first=Catherine |title=Anarchie et cohésion sociale chez les Toubou: les Daza Kéšerda (Niger) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1985 |language=fr |trans-title=Anarchy and social cohesion among the Toubou: Daza Kešerda (Niger) |isbn=978-0-521-30476-4 }}
• {{cite thesis |last=Baroin |first=Catherine |title=Du sable sec à la montagne humide, deux terrains à l'épreuve d'une même méthodologie |publisher=Université de Paris X - Nanterre |year=2003 |language=fr |trans-title=Dry sand to damp mountain, two sites tested with the same methodology |url=http://hal-paris1.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/58/05/18/PDF/HDR_SynthA_se_des_travaux.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130702064121/http://hal-paris1.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/58/05/18/PDF/HDR_SynthA_se_des_travaux.pdf |archive-date=July 2, 2013 |url-status=live }}
• {{cite report |ref={{sfnref|Baseline Study|2009}} |title=Baseline Study C: Etude de l'état des instruments politiques, capacités institutionnelles et niveaux de sensibilisation en relation avec les changements climatiques et les aires protégées en Afrique de l'Ouest: Gambie, Mali, Sierra Leone, Tchad et Togo |publisher=United Nations Environment Programme |date=September 2009 |language=fr |url=http://ccpawa.demoapps.unep-wcmc.org/docs/Baseline%20Study%20C%20-%20policy,%20awarness%20and%20capacity.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130521053144/http://ccpawa.demoapps.unep-wcmc.org/docs/Baseline%20Study%20C%20-%20policy,%20awarness%20and%20capacity.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 21, 2013 }}
• {{Cite book |last=Beauvilain |first=Alain |url=https://tchadberceauhumanite.monsite-orange.fr/file/69f24ea70d12cf8c6e01629522c7cfdc.pdf |title=Pages d'histoire naturelle de la terre tchadienne |publisher=Centre national d'appui à la recherche |year=1996 |language=fr |trans-title=The Natural History of the Chadian Land |oclc=54307645 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180708133327/http://tchadberceauhumanite.monsite-orange.fr/file/69f24ea70d12cf8c6e01629522c7cfdc.pdf |archive-date=July 8, 2018 |url-status=dead }}
• {{cite book |ref={{sfnref|Beck and Huard|1969}} |last1=Beck |first1=Pierre |last2=Huard |first2=Paul |title=Tibesti, carrefour de la préhistoire saharienne |year=1969 |publisher=Arthaud |language=fr |trans-title=Tibesti, crossroads of Saharan prehistory |oclc=919879871 }}
• {{cite journal |ref={{sfnref|Benda et al.|2014}} |last1=Benda |first1=Peter |last2=Spitzenberger |first2=Friederike |last3=Hanák |first3=Vladimír |last4=Andreas |first4=Michal |last5=Reiter |first5=Anontín |last6=Ševčík |first6=Martin |last7=Šmíd |first7=Jiří |last8=Uhrin |first8=Marcel |title=Bats (Mammalia: Chiroptera) of the Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East. Part 11. On the bat fauna of Libya II |journal=Acta Societatis Zoologicae Bohemicae |year=2014 |volume=78 |pages=1–162 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Berque |first=Augustin |author-link=Augustin Berque |title=Beyond the Modern Landscape |journal=AA Files |year=1993 |issue=25 |pages=33–37 |jstor=29543834 }}
• {{cite web |last=Beudels |first=Marie-Odile |title=Chad |publisher=Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences |date=January 30, 2008 |url=http://www.kbinirsnb.be/cb/antelopes/Action%20Plans%20countries/page%20action%20plan%20Chad.htm |access-date=February 23, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071127143832/http://www.kbinirsnb.be/cb/antelopes/Action%20Plans%20countries/page%20action%20plan%20Chad.htm |archive-date=November 27, 2007 |url-status=dead }}
• {{cite encyclopedia |last=Bosworth |first=Clifford Edmund |author-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |title=Tibesti |editor-last1=Bearman |editor-first1=Peri J. |editor-link1=Peri Bearman |editor-last2=Bianquis |editor-first2=Thierry |editor-link2=Thierry Bianquis |editor-last3=Bosworth |editor-first3=Clifford Edmund |editor-last4=van Donzel |editor-first4=Emeri Johannes |editor-link4=Emeri Johannes van Donzel |editor-last5=Heinrichs |editor-first5=Wolfhart P. |editor-link5=Wolfhart Heinrichs |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam |publisher=Brill |year=2012 |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_7534 }}
• {{cite news |last=Braquehais |first=Stéphanie |title=Bardaï, village garnison au cœur du désert |publisher=Radio France Internationale |date=February 14, 2006 |url=http://www.rfi.fr/actufr/articles/074/article_41884.asp |access-date=February 23, 2021 |language=fr |trans-title=Bardaï, village garrison in the heart of the desert |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110218010932/http://www.rfi.fr/actufr/articles/074/article_41884.asp |archive-date=February 18, 2011 |url-status=live }}
• {{cite book |ref={{sfnref|Braun and Passon|2020}} |editor-last1=Braun |editor-first1=Klaus |editor-last2=Passon |editor-first2=Jacqueline |title=Across the Sahara: Tracks, Trade and Cross-Cultural Exchange in Libya |year=2020 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-030-00145-2 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-00145-2 |s2cid=177517883 }}
• {{cite book |last1=Buzzati |first1=Dino |author-link=Dino Buzzati |chapter=Les Murs d'Anagoor |title=Sessanta racconti |publisher=Mondadori |year=1958 |language=it |trans-title=Sixty stories |oclc=459008523 }}
• {{cite book |last1=Buzzati |first1=Dino |author-link=Dino Buzzati |translator-last1=Venuti |translator-first1=Lawrence |translator-link1=Lawrence Venuti |title=Restless Nights: Selected Stories of Dino Buzzati |year=1984 |publisher=Carcanet Press |isbn=978-0-85635-488-5 }}
• {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Camps-fabrer |first1=Henriette |title=Guépard |encyclopedia=Encyclopédie berbère |language=fr |trans-title=Cheetah |year=1999 |publisher=Édisud |volume=21 |issue=21 |pages=3231–3234 |url=http://journals.openedition.org/encyclopedieberbere/1810 |doi=10.4000/encyclopedieberbere.1810 |doi-access=free }}
• {{cite book |last=Chapelle |first=Jean |title=Nomades noirs du Sahara : les Toubous |publisher=L'Harmattan |year=1982 |orig-year=1957 |language=fr |trans-title=Black nomads of the Sahara: the Toubou |isbn=978-2-296-28368-8 }}
• {{cite book |editor-last=Collelo |editor-first=Thomas |chapter=Chad: Toubou and Daza: Nomads of the Sahara |title=Chad: A Country Study |publisher=Library of Congress |year=1990 |chapter-url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+td0047) |lccn=89600373 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130228023913/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+td0047%29 |archive-date=February 28, 2013 |url-status=dead |access-date=November 21, 2021 }}
• {{cite book |last=Conklin |first=Alice L. |title=In the Museum of Man: Race, Anthropology, and Empire in France, 1850–1950 |year=2013 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-6903-9 }}
• {{cite news |last=Correau |first=Laurent |title=1974–1977 L'affaire Claustre et la rupture avec Habré |publisher=Radio France Internationale |date=August 18, 2008 |language=fr |trans-title=1974–1977 The Claustre affair and break with Habré |url=http://www.rfi.fr/actufr/articles/104/article_70532.asp |access-date=February 23, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120316052848/http://www.rfi.fr/actufr/articles/104/article_70532.asp |archive-date=March 16, 2012 |url-status=live }}
• {{cite journal |editor-last=Cox |editor-first=A. D. M. |title=Expeditions |journal=Alpine Journal |year=1965 |volume=70 |issue=310–311 |pages=120–132 |url=https://www.alpinejournal.org.uk/Contents/Contents_1965_files/AJ%201965%20120-132%20Expeditions.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200715060009/http://www.alpinejournal.org.uk/Contents/Contents_1965_files/AJ%201965%20120-132%20Expeditions.pdf |archive-date=July 15, 2020 |url-status=live }}
• {{cite journal |last=Davis |first=Whitney |author-link=Whitney Davis |title=Representation and Knowledge in the Prehistoric Rock Art of Africa |journal=African Archaeological Review |year=1984 |volume=2 |pages=7–35 |doi=10.1007/BF01117224 |jstor=25130436 |s2cid=144539970 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Desanges |first=Jehan |author-link=Jehan Desanges |title=Note sur la datation de l'expédition de Julius Maternus au pays d''Agisymba' |language=fr |trans-title=Note on the dating of Julius Maternus' expedition to the land of "Agisymba" |journal=Latomus |volume=23 |issue=4 |year=1964 |pages=713–725 |jstor=41523030 }}
• {{cite journal |last=El Makkrouf |first=Ali Ahmed |title=Tectonic interpretation of Jabal Eghei area and its regional application to Tibesti orogenic belt, south central Libya (S.P.L.A.J.) |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=7 |issue=7–8 |year=1988 |pages=945–967 |doi=10.1016/0899-5362(88)90009-7 |bibcode=1988JAfES...7..945E }}
• {{cite web |ref={{sfnref|Fearon, Laitin and Kasara|2006}} |last1=Fearon |first1=James |author-link1=James Fearon |last2=Laitin |first2=David |author-link2=David D. Laitin |last3=Kasara |first3=Kimuli |title=Chad |publisher=Stanford University |date=July 7, 2006 |url=https://web.stanford.edu/group/ethnic/Random%20Narratives/ChadRN2.6.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161022095917/https://web.stanford.edu/group/ethnic/Random%20Narratives/ChadRN2.6.pdf |archive-date=October 22, 2016 |url-status=dead }}
• {{cite book |ref={{sfnref|Ferrari, Tinazzi and D’Erchia|2020}} |last1=Ferrari |first1=Massimo |last2=Tinazzi |first2=Claudia |last3=D’Erchia |first3=Annalucia |chapter=New Foundation Cities |year=2020 |editor-last1=Aste |editor-first1=Niccolò |editor-last2=Della Torre |editor-first2=Stefano |editor-last3=Talamo |editor-first3=Cinzia |editor-last4=Singh Adhikari |editor-first4=Rajendra |editor-last5=Rossi |editor-first5=Corinna |editor5-link=Corinna Rossi |title=Innovative Models for Sustainable Development in Emerging African Countries |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-030-33323-2 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-33323-2_2 |s2cid=213102386 |url=https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/23058/1007100.pdf |archive-date=March 17, 2021 |access-date=March 17, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210317205128/https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/23058/1007100.pdf |url-status=live }}
• {{cite journal |ref={{sfnref|Fisher and Fisher|1987}} |last1=Fisher |first1=Alan George Bernard |author-link1=Allan George Barnard Fisher |last2=Fisher |first2=Humphrey J. |title=Nachtigal's Companions |journal=Paideuma |year=1987 |volume=33 |pages=231–262 |jstor=41409917 }}
• {{cite journal |ref={{sfnref|Geniez|2011}} |last1=Geniez |first1=Philippe |last2=Padial |first2=José M. |last3=Crochet |first3=Pierre-André |title=Systematics of north African Agama (Reptilia: Agamidae): a new species from the central Saharan mountains |journal=Zootaxa |year=2011 |volume=3098 |issue=1 |pages=26–56 |doi=10.11646/zootaxa.3098.1.3 }}
• {{cite book |last=Giazzi |first=Frank |title=La Réserve Naturelle Nationale de l'Aïr et du Ténéré (Niger) |publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature |year=1996 |language=fr |trans-title=The National Nature Reserve of the Aïr and Ténéré (Niger) |isbn=978-2-8317-0249-0 }}
• {{cite book |ref={{sfnref|Ginsberg and Macdonald|1990}} |last1=Ginsberg |first1=Joshua R. |last2=Macdonald |first2=David W. |author-link2=David Macdonald (biologist) |title=Foxes, Wolves, Jackals, and Dogs: An Action Plan for the Conservation of Canids |year=1990 |publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature |url=https://portals.iucn.org/library/efiles/documents/1990-008.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305091455/https://portals.iucn.org/library/efiles/documents/1990-008.pdf |archive-date=March 5, 2016 |url-status=live }}
• {{cite journal |ref={{sfnref|Gourgaud and Vincent|2004}} |last1=Gourgaud |first1=Alain |last2=Vincent |first2=Pierre M. |title=Petrology of two continental alkaline intraplate series at Emi Koussi volcano, Tibesti, Chad |journal=Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research |year=2004 |volume=129 |issue=4 |pages=261–290 |doi=10.1016/S0377-0273(03)00277-4 |bibcode=2004JVGR..129..261G }}
• {{cite news |last=Grolle |first=Johann |title=Miracle in the Sahara: Oasis Sediments Archive Dramatic History |date=May 25, 2013 |work=ABC News |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/miracle-sahara-oasis-sediments-archive-dramatic-history/story?id=19248668 |access-date=February 23, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180313123910/https://abcnews.go.com/International/miracle-sahara-oasis-sediments-archive-dramatic-history/story?id=19248668 |archive-date=March 13, 2018 |url-status=live }}
• {{cite journal |last=Grove |first=Alfred Thomas |author-link=Alfred Thomas Grove |title=Geomorphology of the Tibesti Region with Special Reference to Western Tibesti |journal=The Geographical Journal |year=1960 |volume=126 |issue=1 |pages=18–27 |doi=10.2307/1790425 |jstor=1790425 |bibcode=1960GeogJ.126...18G }}
• {{cite book |last=Hagedorn |first=Horst |chapter=Tibesti |title=Sahara: Paléomilieux et peuplement préhistorique au Pléistocène supérieur |editor-last=Tillet |editor-first=Thierry |publisher=L'Harmattan |year=1997 |language=fr |trans-title=Sahara: paleoenvironments and prehistoric populations in the Upper Pleistocene |isbn=978-2-7384-6086-8 |oclc=39372160 }}
• {{cite book |last=Hellmich |first=Walter |title=Hochgebirgsforschung: Tibesti-Zentrale Sahara arbeiten aus der Hochgebirgsregion |language=de |trans-title=High mountain research: Tibesti-Central-Sahara work from the high mountain region |publisher=Universitätsverlag Wagner |year=1972 |oclc=174113929 }}
• {{cite report |last=Henderson |first=David H. |title=War since 1945 Seminar: Conflict in Chad, 1975 to Present: A Central African Tragedy |date=April 2, 1984 |publisher=Marine Corps Command and Staff College |url=https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/1984/HDH.htm |access-date=March 21, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200828052441/https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/1984/HDH.htm |archive-date=August 28, 2020 |url-status=live }}
• {{cite conference |last=Higgins |first=Rosalyn |author-link=Rosalyn Higgins |title=The Reactions of Chad to the Libyan Occupation |book-title=Public sitting held on Friday July 2, 1993, at 10 a.m., at the Peace Palace, President Sir Robert Jennings presiding in the case concerning Territorial Dispute (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Chad) |publisher=International Court of Justice |date=July 2, 1993 |location=The Hague |url=http://www.icj-cij.org/cijwww/ccases/cdt/cDT_cr/cDT_cCR9326_19930702.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010727103709/http://www.icj-cij.org/cijwww/ccases/cdt/cDT_cr/cDT_cCR9326_19930702.PDF |archive-date=July 27, 2001 }}
• {{cite book |ref={{sfnref|Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek|1992}} |last1=Hughes |first1=Ralph H. |last2=Hughes |first2=Jane S. |last3=Bernacsek |first3=Garry M. |chapter=Chad |title=A Directory of African Wetlands |publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature |year=1992 |isbn=978-2-88032-949-5 |chapter-url=http://ramsar.wetlands.org/Portals/15/CHAD.pdf |url-status=dead |url=https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/1992-007.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120924181446/http://ramsar.wetlands.org/Portals/15/CHAD.pdf |archive-date=September 24, 2012 }}
• {{cite encyclopedia |last=Huß |first=Werner |author-link=Werner Huß |title=Agisymba |encyclopedia=Brill's New Pauly |editor-last1=Cancik |editor-first1=Hubert |editor-last2=Schneider |editor-first2=Helmuth |year=2006 |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/1574-9347_bnp_e108180 }}
• {{cite magazine |last=Ingram |first=Stuart |title=Africa: Travel and Adventure |year=2001 |magazine=Summit |publisher=British Mountaineering Council |pages=37–39 |url=https://www.thebmc.co.uk/bmcNews/media/u_content/File/summit/back_issues/SUMMIT_23.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111214915/https://www.thebmc.co.uk/bmcNews/media/u_content/File/summit/back_issues/SUMMIT_23.pdf |archive-date=November 11, 2020 |url-status=live }}
• {{cite news |last=Jacobs |first=Frank |title=The World's Largest Sandbox |date=November 7, 2011 |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/11/07/the-worlds-largest-sandbox/ |access-date=February 15, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191006040123/https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/11/07/the-worlds-largest-sandbox/ |archive-date=October 6, 2019 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Jäkel |first=Dieter |title=The Work of the Field Station at Bardai in the Tibesti Mountains |journal=The Geographical Journal |volume=143 |issue=1 |year=1977 |pages=61–72 |jstor=1796675 |issn=0016-7398 |doi=10.2307/1796675 |bibcode=1977GeogJ.143...61J }}
• {{cite journal |last=Kaiser |first=Karlheinz |title=Der känozoische Vulkanismus im Tibesti—Gebirge |trans-title=Cenozoic Volcanism in the Tibesti Mountains |year=1972 |journal=Berliner geographische Abhandlungen |volume=16 |pages=9–34 |language=de |doi=10.23689/fidgeo-2849 }}
• {{cite encyclopedia |last=Kappen |first=Josef |editor-last1=Ahmadjian |editor-first1=Vernon |editor-last2=Hale |editor-first2=Mason E. |encyclopedia=The Lichens |title=Chapter 10: Response to Extreme Environments |year=1973 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-12-044950-7 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-044950-7.50015-5 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Klitzsch |first=Eberhard H. |title=From Bardai to SFB 69: The Tibesti Research Station and Later Geoscientific Research in Northeast Africa |journal=Die Erde |volume=135 |issue=3–4 |year=2004 |pages=245–266 |issn=0013-9998 |url=http://www.die-erde.de/DIE_ERDE_2004_3-4_Klitzsch_x.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130526023346/http://www.die-erde.de/DIE_ERDE_2004_3-4_Klitzsch_x.pdf |archive-date=May 26, 2013 |url-status=dead }}
• {{cite interview |last=Kröpelin |first=Stefan |subject-link=Stefan Kröpelin |interviewer=Frederike Müller |url=https://www.dw.com/en/unesco-sites-an-opportunity-for-chad/a-39517531 |title=UNESCO Sites: An Opportunity for Chad |publisher=Deutsche Welle |date=July 4, 2017 |access-date=February 12, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731003303/https://www.dw.com/en/unesco-sites-an-opportunity-for-chad/a-39517531 |archive-date=July 31, 2020 |url-status=live }}
• {{cite journal |last=L. |first=A. |title=Voyages du Dr Nachtigall |journal=Le Globe. Revue genevoise de géographie |year=1876 |volume=15 |language=fr |pages=167–178 |doi=10.3406/globe.1876.4503 |trans-title=Voyages of Dr. Nachtigal |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/globe_0398-3412_1876_num_15_1_4503 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201209145659/https://www.persee.fr/doc/globe_0398-3412_1876_num_15_1_4503 |archive-date=December 9, 2020 |url-status=live }}
• {{cite news |last=Leadbeater |first=Chris |title=The most beautiful country in the world that you're not supposed to visit |date=August 11, 2019 |newspaper=The Telegraph |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/africa/articles/chad-amazing-facts-about-the-country/ |access-date=February 23, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111222053/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/africa/articles/chad-amazing-facts-about-the-country/ |archive-date=November 11, 2020 |url-status=live }}
• {{cite book |last=Mahjoub |first=A. Monem |author-link=A. Monem Mahjoub |translator-last1=Mathlouthi |translator-first1=Othman |title=Uncharted Ethnicities |publisher=Tanit |year=2015 |url=https://mahjoubinfo.files.wordpress.com/2016/11/d8b9d8a8d8afd8a7d984d985d986d8b9d985-d8a7d984d985d8add8acd988d8a8-uncharted_ethnicities.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210217004840/https://mahjoubinfo.files.wordpress.com/2016/11/d8b9d8a8d8afd8a7d984d985d986d8b9d985-d8a7d984d985d8add8acd988d8a8-uncharted_ethnicities.pdf |archive-date=February 17, 2021 |url-status=live }}
• {{cite journal |last=Maley |first=Jean |title=Last Glacial Maximum lacustrine and fluviatile Formations in the Tibesti and other Saharan mountains, and large-scale climatic teleconnections linked to the activity of the Subtropical Jet Stream |journal=Global and Planetary Change |volume=26 |issue=1–3 |pages=121–136 |year=2000 |doi=10.1016/S0921-8181(00)00039-4 |bibcode=2000GPC....26..121M }}
• {{cite book |last=Maoundonodji |first=Gilbert |title=Les enjeux géopolitiques et géostrategiques de l'exploitation du pétrole au Tchad |publisher=Presses universitaires de Louvain |year=2009 |language=fr |trans-title=The geopolitical and geostrategic issues of the exploitation of oil in Chad |isbn=978-2-87463-171-9 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Messerli |first=Bruno |author-link=Bruno Messerli |title=Problems of vertical and horizontal arrangement in the high mountains of the extreme arid zone (central Sahara) |journal=Arctic and Alpine Research |volume=5 |issue=3 |year=1973 |pages=A139–A147 |doi=10.1080/00040851.1973.12003727 |jstor=1550163 |issn=0004-0851 }}
• {{cite book |last=Metz |first=Helen Chapin |author-link=Helen Chapin Metz |title=Libya: A Country Study |year=1989 |publisher=Library of Congress |lccn=88600480 |url=https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/master/frd/frdcstdy/li/libyacountrystud00metz_0/libyacountrystud00metz_0.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210221124219/https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/master/frd/frdcstdy/li/libyacountrystud00metz_0/libyacountrystud00metz_0.pdf |archive-date=February 21, 2021 |url-status=live }}
• {{cite journal |ref={{sfnref|Mies and Lösch|1995}} |last1=Mies |first1=Bruno |last2=Lösch |first2=Rainer |title=Relative habitat constancy of lichens on the atlantic islands |journal=Cryptogamic Botany |year=1995 |volume=5 |pages=192–198 }}
• {{cite map |ref={{sfnref|Ministère des Affaires étrangères|2016}} |author=Ministère des Affaires étrangères et du Développement international, direction des Archives (pôle géographique) |title=Tchad |trans-title=Chad |language=fr |date=December 2016 |url=https://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/IMG/jpg/tchad-2_cle0cc3da.jpg |publisher=Ministry of Europe and Foreign Affairs |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421042909/https://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/IMG/jpg/tchad-2_cle0cc3da.jpg |archive-date=April 21, 2021 |url-status=live }}
• {{cite journal |last=Musch |first=Tilman |title=Exploring Environments through Water: An Ethno-Hydrography of the Tibesti Mountains (Central Sahara) |year=2021 |journal=Ethnobiology Letters |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=1–11 |doi=10.14237/ebl.12.1.2021.1709 |s2cid=231814001 }}
• {{cite magazine |ref={{sfnref|"Nine extraordinary tours"|2019}} |title=Nine extraordinary tours to Africa's unlikeliest destinations |date=November 18, 2019 |magazine=Wanderlust |url=https://www.wanderlust.co.uk/content/unknown-little-visited-africa-trips/ |access-date=February 23, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200506174646/https://www.wanderlust.co.uk/content/unknown-little-visited-africa-trips/ |archive-date=May 6, 2020 |url-status=live }}
• {{cite book |last=Nolutshungu |first=Sam C. |author-link=Sam Nolutshungu |title=Limits of Anarchy: Intervention and State Formation in Chad |publisher=University of Virginia Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-8139-1628-6 }}
• {{cite book |last=Oliver |first=Roland Anthony |author-link=Roland Oliver |editor-last1=Fage |editor-first1=John D. |editor-link1=John Fage |editor-last2=Clark |editor-first2=John Desmond |editor-link2=J. Desmond Clark |editor-last3=Oliver |editor-first3=Roland Anthony |title=The Cambridge History of Africa |volume=2 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1975 |url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/sites/default/files/file%20uploads%20/j._d._fage_the_cambridge_history_of_africa_volubook4you.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200826034747/https://www.sahistory.org.za/sites/default/files/file%20uploads%20/j._d._fage_the_cambridge_history_of_africa_volubook4you.pdf |archive-date=August 26, 2020 |url-status=live }}
• {{cite journal |ref={{sfnref|Pegram et al.|1976}} |last1=Pegram |first1=William J. |last2=Register |first2=Joseph K. Jr. |last3=Fullagar |first3=Paul D. |last4=Ghuma |first4=Mohamed A. |last5=Rogers |first5=John J. W. |title=Pan-African ages from a Tibesti Massif batholith, southern Libya |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |volume=30 |issue=1 |year=1976 |pages=123–128 |doi=10.1016/0012-821X(76)90014-5 |bibcode=1976E&PSL..30..123P }}
• {{cite journal |ref={{sfnref|Permenter and Oppenheimer|2007}} |last1=Permenter |first1=Jason L. |last2=Oppenheimer |first2=Clive |author-link2=Clive Oppenheimer |title=Volcanoes of the Tibesti massif (Chad, northern Africa) |journal=Bulletin of Volcanology |year=2007 |volume=69 |issue=6 |pages=609–626 |doi=10.1007/s00445-006-0098-x |bibcode=2007BVol...69..609P |s2cid=53463999 }}
• {{cite book |last=Pollack |first=Kenneth M. |author-link=Kenneth M. Pollack |title=Arabs at War: Military Effectiveness, 1948-1991 |publisher=Bison Books |year=2004 |asin=B003NHSEK0 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Ricciardi |first=Matthew M. |title=Title to the Aouzou Strip: A Legal and Historical Analysis |journal=The Yale Journal of International Law |year=1992 |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=301–488 |url=https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1598&context=yjil |archive-date=March 2, 2021 |access-date=February 23, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302104908/https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1598&context=yjil |url-status=live }}
• {{cite book |last=Room |first=Adrian |author-link=Adrian Room |title=Placenames of the World |edition=2nd |year=2006 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0-7864-2248-7 }}
• {{cite journal |ref={{sfnref|Roos et al.|2021}} |last1=Roos |first1=Christian |last2=Knauf |first2=Sascha |last3=Chuma |first3=Idrissa S. |last4=Maille |first4=Audrey |last5=Callou |first5=Cécile |last6=Sabin |first6=Richard |last7=Portela Miguez |first7=Roberto |last8=Zinner |first8=Dietmar |title=New mitogenomic lineages in Papio baboons and their phylogeographic implications |year=2021 |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |volume=174 |issue=3 |pages=407–417 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.24186 |pmid=33244782 |s2cid=227182800 |doi-access=free }}
• {{cite news |last=Roure |first=Gil |title=Le Tibesti, bastion de notre Afrique Noire |newspaper=L'Illustration |issue=5013 |date=April 1, 1939 |language=fr |url=http://memoiresdempire.free.fr/CARTES/AFRIQUE/le_tibesti.pdf |trans-title=The Tibesti, bastion of our Black Africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303212729/http://memoiresdempire.free.fr/CARTES/AFRIQUE/le_tibesti.pdf |archive-date=March 3, 2016 }}
• {{cite book |ref={{sfnref|Sahelo-Saharan Antelopes Project|2006}} |author=Sahelo-Saharan Antelopes Project |title=Rapport de mission: Prospections des zones prioritaires de conservation pour les Antilopes Sahélo-Sahariennes au Tchad, et identification de programmes de conservation/développement durable |publisher=Bonn Convention |language=fr |url=http://www.saharaconservation.org/IMG/pdf/rapport_tchad_final_10_aout_2006.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130521053725/http://www.saharaconservation.org/IMG/pdf/rapport_tchad_final_10_aout_2006.pdf |archive-date=May 21, 2013 }}
• {{cite book |ref={{sfnref|Salam, Hammuda and Eliagoubi|1991}} |last1=Salam |first1=Mustafa J. |last2=Hammuda |first2=Omar S. |last3=Eliagoubi |first3=Bahlul A. |title=The Geology of Libya, Volume 5 |publisher=Elsevier |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-444-88844-0 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Salvador |first=Alfredo |title=Amphibians of Northwest Africa |year=1996 |journal=Smithsonian Herpetological Information Service |volume=109 |issue=109 |pages=1–43 |doi=10.5479/si.23317515.109.1 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/51121 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Schultze-Motel |first=Wolfram |title=Eine Moossammlung Aus Dem Tibesti-Gebirge (Nordafrika) |language=de |trans-title=A Collection of Bryophytes from the Tibesti Mountains (North Africa) |journal=Willdenowia |year=1969 |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=217–220 |jstor=3995401 }}
• {{cite book |last=Scott |first=Doug |author-link=Doug Scott |title=The Ogre: Biography of a Mountain and the Dramatic Story of the First Ascent |publisher=Vertebrate Publishing |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-911342-80-9 }}
• {{cite book |last=Shoup |first=John A. |title=Ethnic Groups of Africa and the Middle East: An Encyclopedia |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-59884-362-0 }}
• {{cite book |ref={{sfnref|Sola and Worsley|2000}} |editor1-last=Sola |editor1-first=M.A. |editor2-last=Worsley |editor2-first=David |title=Geological Exploration in Murzuq Basin |publisher=Elsevier |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-08-053246-2 }}
• {{cite journal |ref={{sfnref|Soulié-Märsche et al.|2010}} |last1=Soulié-Märsche |first1=Ingeborg |last2=Bieda |first2=Stephen |last3=Lafond |first3=R. |last4=Maley |first4=Jean |last5=M'Baitoudji |first5=Mathieu |last6=Vincent |first6=Pierre M. |last7=Faure |first7=Hugues |title=Charophytes as bio-indicators for lake level high stand at 'Trou au Natron', Tibesti, Chad, during the Late Pleistocene |journal=Global and Planetary Change |volume=72 |issue=4 |year=2010 |pages=334–340 |doi=10.1016/j.gloplacha.2010.05.004 |bibcode=2010GPC....72..334S }}
• {{cite journal |last=Steele |first=Peter R. |title=A Note on Tieroko (Tibesti Mountains) |journal=Alpine Journal |volume=69 |issue=308–309 |year=1964 |pages=268–270 |url=http://alpinejournal.org.uk/Contents/Contents_1964_files/AJ%201964%20268-270%20Steele%20Tibesti%20Mts.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200717231028/http://www.alpinejournal.org.uk/Contents/Contents_1964_files/AJ%201964%20268-270%20Steele%20Tibesti%20Mts.pdf |archive-date=July 17, 2020 |url-status=live }}
• {{cite journal |ref={{sfnref|Suayah|2006}} |last1=Suayah |first1=Ismail B. |last2=Miller |first2=Jonathan S. |last3=Miller |first3=Brent V. |last4=Bayer |first4=Tovah M. |last5=Rogers |first5=John J.W. |title=Tectonic significance of Late Neoproterozoic granites from the Tibesti massif in southern Libya inferred from Sr and Nd isotopes and U–Pb zircon data |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=44 |issue=4–5 |year=2006 |pages=561–570 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.11.020 |bibcode=2006JAfES..44..561S }}
• {{cite journal |last=Thesiger |first=Wilfred |author-link=Wilfred Thesiger |title=A Camel Journey to Tibesti |journal=The Geographical Journal |volume=94 |issue=6 |year=1939 |pages=433–446 |jstor=1787293 |doi=10.2307/1787293 |bibcode=1939GeogJ..94..433T }}
• {{cite web |last=Thompson |first=Greg |title=Stations |publisher=National Center for Atmospheric Research |date=September 3, 2020 |url=http://weather.rap.ucar.edu/surface/stations.txt |access-date=February 23, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128010812/http://weather.rap.ucar.edu/surface/stations.txt |archive-date=January 28, 2021 |url-status=live }}
• {{cite map |last=Tilho |first=Jean |title=Carte provisoire de la région Tibesti. Borkou, Erdi, Ennedi, (mission de l'Institut de France, 1912–1917) |publisher=Institut de France |year=1920 |language=fr |trans-title=Provisional map of the Tibesti region. Borkou, Erdi, Ennedi, (mission of the Institut de France, 1912–1917) |url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b8446479s/f1.zoom |access-date=May 21, 2013 |archive-date=June 9, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140609185113/http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b8446479s/f1.zoom |url-status=live }}
• {{cite book |last=Tourte |first=René |title=Histoire de la recherche agricole en Afrique tropicale francophone |volume=I: Aux sources de l'agriculture africaine: de la Préhistoire au Moyen Âge |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization |year=2005 |language=fr |trans-title=History of agricultural research in French tropical Africa |isbn=978-92-5-205407-8 |url=http://www.fao.org/3/a0217f/a0217f00.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420002811/http://www.fao.org/3/a0217f/a0217f00.pdf |archive-date=April 20, 2021 |url-status=live }}
• {{cite magazine |last=Tubiana |first=Jérôme |title=After Libya, a Rush for Gold and Guns |date=February 24, 2016 |magazine=Foreign Affairs |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/chad/2016-02-24/after-libya-rush-gold-and-guns |access-date=February 12, 2021 }}
• {{cite report |ref={{sfnref|Tubiana and Gramizzi|2017}} |last1=Tubiana |first1=Jérôme |last2=Gramizzi |first2=Claudio |title=Tubu Trouble: State and Statelessness in the Chad–Sudan–Libya Triangle |publisher=Small Arms Survey |date=June 2017 |url=http://www.smallarmssurveysudan.org/fileadmin/docs/working-papers/SAS-CAR-WP43-Chad-Sudan-Libya.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201023121604/http://www.smallarmssurveysudan.org/fileadmin/docs/working-papers/SAS-CAR-WP43-Chad-Sudan-Libya.pdf |archive-date=October 23, 2020 |url-status=live }}
• {{cite web |author=University of Cologne |author-link=University of Cologne |title=Scientific Exploration of the Tibesti Mountains: Cologne Researcher Headed Mission to the Peaks of the Sahara Desert |website=Science Daily |date=June 2, 2015 |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/06/150602074952.htm |access-date=January 17, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160125195655/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/06/150602074952.htm |archive-date=January 25, 2016 |url-status=live }}
• {{cite book |last=White |first=Frank |author-link=Frank White (botanist) |title=La Végétation de l'Afrique: Mémoire accompagnant la carte de végétation de l'Afrique |publisher=Institut de recherche pour le développement |year=1998 |orig-year=1986 |language=fr |trans-title=The Vegetation of Africa: Report accompanying a vegetation map of Africa |isbn=978-2-7099-0832-0 |url=https://horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/pleins_textes/divers11-06/24837.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190804230614/http://horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/pleins_textes/divers11-06/24837.pdf |archive-date=August 4, 2019 |url-status=live }}
• {{cite magazine |ref={{sfnref|"Zum Weinen"|1975}} |title=Zum Weinen |language=de |trans-title=Makes You Cry |date=September 15, 1975 |magazine=Der Spiegel |url=https://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/print/d-41443747.html |access-date=February 23, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190415144004/https://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/print/d-41443747.html |archive-date=April 15, 2019 |url-status=live }}

{{refend}}

{{Commons category|2=Tibesti Mountains}}

• [https://explore-chad.org/en/the-tibesti-mountains The Tibesti Mountains], University of Applied Sciences Burgenland
• [https://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/pa1331 Tibesti-Jebel Uweinat montane xeric woodlands], World Wildlife Fund

{{Mountains of Libya}}

{{Major African geological formations}}

{{Authority control}}

Category:Sahara

Category:Stratovolcanoes

Category:Hotspot volcanoes

Category:Mountain ranges of Libya

Category:Mountain ranges of Chad

Category:Volcanoes of Chad

Category:Important Bird Areas of Chad

Category:Saharan rock art

Category:Dormant volcanoes

Category:Inactive volcanoes

Category:Volcanic groups