Turkey#Republic of Turkey

Turchia, meaning "the land of the Turks", had begun to be used in European texts for Anatolia by the end of the 12th century.{{harvnb|Agoston|Masters|2009|p=574}}{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=31}}{{harvnb|Everett-Heath|2020|loc=Türkiye (Turkey)}} As a word in Turkic languages, Turk may mean "strong, strength, ripe" or "flourishing, in full strength".{{harvnb|Golden|2021|p=30}} It may also mean ripe as in for a fruit or "in the prime of life, young, and vigorous" for a person.{{harvnb|Clauson|1972|pp=542–543}} As an ethnonym, the etymology is still unknown.{{harvnb|Golden|2021|pp=6–7}} In addition to usage in languages such as Chinese in the 6th century, the earliest mention of Turk ({{lang|otk|𐱅𐰇𐰺𐰜}}, {{transliteration|otk|türü̲k̲}}; or {{lang|otk|𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰚}}, {{transliteration|otk|türk/tẄrk}}) in Turkic languages comes from the Second Turkic Khaganate.{{harvnb|Golden|2021|pp=9, 16}}

In Byzantine sources in the 10th century, the name Tourkia was used for defining two medieval states: Hungary (Western Tourkia); and Khazaria (Eastern Tourkia).{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3al15wpFWiMC |title=De Administrando Imperio by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus |last=Jenkins |first=Romilly James Heald |publisher=Dumbarton Oaks Center for Byzantine Studies |year=1967 |isbn=978-0-88402-021-9 |edition=New, revised |series=Corpus fontium historiae Byzantinae |page=65 |access-date=28 August 2013 |archive-date=20 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230120171955/https://books.google.com/books?id=3al15wpFWiMC |url-status=live }} According to Constantine Porphyrogenitus, writing in his {{lang|la|De Administrando Imperio}} ({{circa|950 AD}}) "Patzinakia, the Pecheneg realm, stretches west as far as the Siret River (or even the Eastern Carpathian Mountains), and is four days distant from Tourkia [i.e. Hungary]."{{harvnb|Findley|2005|p=51}} The Mamluk Sultanate, with its ruling elite of Turkic origin, was called the "State of the Turks" ({{transliteration|ar|Dawlat at-Turk}}, or {{transliteration|ar|Dawlat al-Atrāk}}, or {{transliteration|ar|Dawlat-at-Turkiyya}}).{{harvnb|Golden|2021|pp=2–3}} Turkestan, also meaning the "land of the Turks", was used for a historic region in Central Asia.{{harvnb|Everett-Heath|2020|loc=Turkestan, Central Asia, Kazakhstan}}

Middle English usage of {{lang|enm|Turkye}} or {{lang|enm|Turkeye}} is found in The Book of the Duchess (written in 1369–1372) to refer to Anatolia or the Ottoman Empire.{{harvnb|Gray|2003|loc=Turkye, (Turkeye) Turkey; Book of the Duchess, The; Map 1; Map 3}}. The modern spelling Turkey dates back to at least 1719.{{Cite OED|Turkey}} The bird called turkey was named as such due to trade of guineafowl from Turkey to England. The name Turkey has been used in international treaties referring to the Ottoman Empire.

• {{Cite book |last=Hertslet |first=Edward |title=The Map of Europe by Treaty showing the various political and territorial changes which have taken place since the general peace of 1814, with numerous maps and notes |publisher=Butterworth |year=1875 |volume=2 |pages=1250–1265 |chapter=General treaty between Great Britain, Austria, France, Prussia, Russia, Sardinia and Turkey, signed at Paris on 30th March 1856}}
• {{cite web |url=https://archive.org/details/protocolsofconfe00grea/mode/2up |title=Protocols of conferences held at Paris relative to the general Treaty of Peace. Presented to both Houses of Parliament by command of Her Majesty, 1856 |publisher=Harrison |year=1856|access-date=9 May 2023}}
• {{Citation |last=Hertslet |first=Edward |author-link=Edward Hertslet |year=1891 |contribution=Treaty between Great Britain, Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Italy, Russia, and Turkey, for the Settlement of Affairs in the East, Signed at Berlin, 13th July 1878 (Translation)|title= The Map of Europe by Treaty; which have taken place since the general peace of 1814. With numerous maps and notes |volume= IV (1875–1891) |edition=First |publisher=Her Majesty's Stationery Office |publication-date=1891 |pages=2759–2798 |url=https://archive.org/stream/mapofeuropebytre04hert#page/2758/mode/2up |access-date=9 May 2023 |via=Internet Archive}}
• {{cite web|url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/mod/1878berlin.asp|title=Treaty Between Great Britain, Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Italy, Russia and Turkey. (Berlin). July 13, 1878.|website=sourcebooks.fordham.edu|access-date=9 May 2023|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326061204/https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/mod/1878berlin.asp|url-status=live}} With the Treaty of Alexandropol in 1920, the name Türkiye entered international documents for the first time. In the treaty signed with Afghanistan in 1921, the expression {{transliteration|ota|Devlet-i Âliyye-i Türkiyye}} ("Sublime Turkish State") was used, likened to the Ottoman Empire's name.{{TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi|title=Türkiye|author=Cevdet Küçük|page=567|volume=41}}

In December 2021, President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan called for expanded official usage of Türkiye, saying that Türkiye "represents and expresses the culture, civilization, and values of the Turkish nation in the best way".{{cite web|url=https://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2021/12/20211204-5.pdf|title=Marka Olarak 'Türkiye' İbaresinin Kullanımı (Presidential Circular No. 2021/24 on the Use of the Term "Türkiye" as a Brand)|publisher=Resmî Gazete (Official Gazette of the Republic of Türkiye)|date=4 December 2021|access-date=11 April 2022|archive-date=17 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220517002246/https://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2021/12/20211204-5.pdf|url-status=live}} In May 2022, the Turkish government requested the United Nations and other international organizations to use Türkiye officially in English; the UN agreed.{{cite news |first=Ragip |last=Soylu |title=Turkey to register its new name Türkiye to UN in coming weeks |url=https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/turkey-turkiye-new-name-register-un-weeks |newspaper=Middle East Eye |date=17 January 2022 |access-date=11 April 2022 |archive-date=6 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220606203745/https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/turkey-turkiye-new-name-register-un-weeks |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |date=2 June 2022 |title=UN to use 'Türkiye' instead of 'Turkey' after Ankara's request |url=https://www.trtworld.com/turkey/un-to-use-türkiye-instead-of-turkey-after-ankara-s-request-57633 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602042921/https://www.trtworld.com/turkey/un-to-use-t%C3%BCrkiye-instead-of-turkey-after-ankara-s-request-57633 |archive-date=2 June 2022 |access-date=3 June 2022 |website=TRT World}}{{cite news |last=Wertheimer |first=Tiffany |date=2 June 2022 |title=Turkey changes its name in rebranding bid |website=BBC News Online |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-61671913 |url-status=live |access-date=2 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602110511/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-61671913 |archive-date=2 June 2022}}

{{Main|History of Turkey}}

{{see also|History of Anatolia|History of Thrace|Ancient regions of Anatolia}}

{{Main|Prehistory of Anatolia|Prehistory of Southeast Europe}}

{{See also|Hattians|Hittites|Luwians|Pala (Anatolia)}}

File:Göbekli Tepe, Urfa.jpgs at Göbekli Tepe were erected as far back as 9600 BC, predating those of Stonehenge by over seven millennia.{{cite web|url=http://www.archaeology.org/0811/abstracts/turkey.html|title=The World's First Temple|work=Archaeology magazine|date=November–December 2008|page=23|access-date=25 July 2012|archive-date=29 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120329113052/http://www.archaeology.org/0811/abstracts/turkey.html|url-status=live}}]]

Present-day Turkey has been inhabited by modern humans since the late Paleolithic period and contains some of the world's oldest Neolithic sites.{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=24}}{{cite journal|last=Casson|first=Lionel|year=1977|title=The Thracians|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/pubs/bulletins/1/pdf/3258667.pdf.bannered.pdf|journal=The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin|volume=35|issue=1|pages=2–6|doi=10.2307/3258667|jstor=3258667|access-date=3 April 2013|archive-date=3 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190503015440/https://www.metmuseum.org/pubs/bulletins/1/pdf/3258667.pdf.bannered.pdf}} Göbekli Tepe is close to 12,000 years old. Parts of Anatolia include the Fertile Crescent, an origin of agriculture.{{harvnb|Bellwood|2022|p=224}} Other important Anatolian Neolithic sites include Çatalhöyük and Alaca Höyük.{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=25}} Neolithic Anatolian farmers differed genetically from farmers in Iran and Jordan Valley.{{harvnb|Bellwood|2022|p=229}} These early Anatolian farmers also migrated into Europe, starting around 9,000 years ago.{{harvnb|Bellwood|2022|p=229}}{{Cite journal |last1=Kılınç |first1=Gülşah Merve |last2=Omrak |first2=Ayça |last3=Özer |first3=Füsun |last4=Günther |first4=Torsten |last5=Büyükkarakaya |first5=Ali Metin |last6=Bıçakçı |first6=Erhan |last7=Baird |first7=Douglas |last8=Dönertaş |first8=Handan Melike |last9=Ghalichi |first9=Ayshin |last10=Yaka |first10=Reyhan |last11=Koptekin |first11=Dilek |last12=Açan |first12=Sinan Can |last13=Parvizi |first13=Poorya |last14=Krzewińska |first14=Maja |last15=Daskalaki |first15=Evangelia A. |date=June 2016 |title=The Demographic Development of the First Farmers in Anatolia |journal=Current Biology |language=en |volume=26 |issue=19 |pages=2659–2666 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2016.07.057 |pmc=5069350 |pmid=27498567|bibcode=2016CBio...26.2659K }}{{Cite journal |last1=Lipson |first1=Mark |last2=Szécsényi-Nagy |first2=Anna |last3=Mallick |first3=Swapan |last4=Pósa |first4=Annamária |last5=Stégmár |first5=Balázs |last6=Keerl |first6=Victoria |last7=Rohland |first7=Nadin |last8=Stewardson |first8=Kristin |last9=Ferry |first9=Matthew |last10=Michel |first10=Megan |last11=Oppenheimer |first11=Jonas |last12=Broomandkhoshbacht |first12=Nasreen |last13=Harney |first13=Eadaoin |last14=Nordenfelt |first14=Susanne |last15=Llamas |first15=Bastien |date=November 2017 |title=Parallel palaeogenomic transects reveal complex genetic history of early European farmers |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=551 |issue=7680 |pages=368–372 |doi=10.1038/nature24476 |issn=0028-0836 |pmc=5973800 |pmid=29144465|bibcode=2017Natur.551..368L }} Troy's earliest layers go back to around 4500 BC.

File:Empire of the Hitties.png

Anatolia's historical records start with clay tablets from approximately around 2000 BC that were found in modern-day Kültepe.{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=26}} These tablets belonged to an Assyrian trade colony. The languages in Anatolia at that time included Hattian, Hurrian, Hittite, Luwian, and Palaic.{{harvnb|Steadman|2012|p=234}} Hattian was a language indigenous to Anatolia, with no known modern-day connections.{{harvnb|Michel|2012|p=327}} Hurrian language was used in northern Syria. Hittite, Palaic, and Luwian languages were "the oldest written Indo-European languages",{{harvnb|Sagona|Zimansky|2015|p=246}} forming the Anatolian sub-group.{{harvnb|Beckman|2012|p=522}}{{efn|The origin of Indo-European languages is unknown.{{cite journal |doi=10.1146/annurev-linguistics-011619-030507 |title=Cognacy Databases and Phylogenetic Research on Indo-European |date=2021 |last1=Heggarty |first1=Paul |journal=Annual Review of Linguistics |volume=7 |pages=371–394}} They may be native to Anatolia{{harvnb|Bellwood|2022|p=242}} or non-native.{{harvnb|Melchert|2012|p=713}}}}

Hattian rulers were gradually replaced by Hittite rulers. The Hittite kingdom was a large kingdom in Central Anatolia, with its capital of Hattusa. It co-existed in Anatolia with Palaians and Luwians, approximately between 1700 and 1200 BC. As the Hittite kingdom was disintegrating, further waves of Indo-European peoples migrated from southeastern Europe, which was followed by warfare.{{harvnb|Howard|2016|pp=26–27}} The Thracians were also present in modern-day Turkish Thrace.{{harvnb|Ahmed|2006|p=1576}} It is not known if the Trojan War is based on historical events.{{harvnb|Jablonka|2012|pp=724–726}} Troy's Late Bronze Age layers matches most with Iliad{{'}}s story.{{harvnb|McMahon|2012|p=17}}

{{Main|Classical Anatolia}}

{{See also|Phrygia|Lydia|Lycia|Caria|Urartu|Achaemenid Empire|Hellenistic period}}

File:The Lycian Way - 2014.10 - panoramio.jpg is a {{convert|470|mi|km|order=flip|sp=us}} long hiking path in Southwestern Turkey.{{cite web |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/photo-story-turkey-lycian-way |title=Photo story: tombs, turquoise seas and trekking along Turkey's Lycian Way |last=Denisyuk |first=Yulia |date=29 October 2023 |website=National Geographic |publisher=National Geographic Traveller}}]]

Around 750 BC, Phrygia had been established, with its two centers in Gordium and modern-day Kayseri.{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=27}} Phrygians spoke an Indo-European language, which was closer to Greek than Anatolian languages. Phrygians shared Anatolia with Neo-Hittites and Urartu. Luwian-speakers were probably the majority in various Anatolian Neo-Hittite states.{{harvnb|Yakubovich|2012|p=538}} Urartians spoke a non-Indo-European language and their capital was around Lake Van.{{harvnb|Zimansky|2012|p=552}} Urartu and Phrygia fell in seventh century BC.{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=28}} They were replaced by Carians, Lycians and Lydians. These three cultures "can be considered a reassertion of the ancient, indigenous culture of the Hattian cities of Anatolia".

Before 1200 BC, there were four Greek-speaking settlements in Anatolia, including Miletus.{{Cite web|title=Anatolia – Greek colonies on the Anatolian coasts, c. 1180–547 bce|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Anatolia/Greek-colonies-on-the-Anatolian-coasts-c-1180-547-bce|access-date=2 February 2024|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|quote=Before the Greek migrations that followed the end of the Bronze Age (c. 1200 BCE), probably the only Greek-speaking communities on the west coast of Anatolia were Mycenaean settlements at Iasus and Müskebi on the Halicarnassus peninsula and walled Mycenaean colonies at Miletus and Colophon. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230321122314/https://www.britannica.com/place/Anatolia/Greek-colonies-on-the-Anatolian-coasts-c-1180-547-bce |archive-date=21 March 2023 |url-status=live }} Around 1000 BC, Greeks started migrating to the west coast of Anatolia. These eastern Greek settlements played a vital role in shaping the Archaic Greek civilization;{{harvnb|Harl|2012|p=760}}: "Greek cities on the shores of Asia Minor and on the Aegean islands were the nexus

of trade and cultural exchange in the early Greek world, so Archaic Greek civilization was to a great extent the product of the Greek cities of Asia Minor." important cities included Miletus, Ephesus, Halicarnassus, Smyrna (now İzmir) and Byzantium (now Istanbul), the latter founded by colonists from Megara in the seventh century BCE.{{harvnb|Harl|2012|pp=753-756}} These settlements were grouped as Aeolis, Ionia, and Doris, after the specific Greek groups that settled them.{{harvnb|Greaves|2012|p=505}}{{harvnb|Harl|2012|p=753}} Further Greek colonization in Anatolia was led by Miletus and Megara in 750–480 BC.{{harvnb|Harl|2012|pp=753–754}} The Greek cities along the Aegean prospered with trade, and saw remarkable scientific and scholarly accomplishments.{{cite book | last=Rovelli | first=C. | title=Anaximander: And the Birth of Science | publisher=Penguin Publishing Group | year=2023 | isbn=978-0-593-54237-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=huNxEAAAQBAJ | access-date=2024-06-01 | pages=20–30}} Thales and Anaximander from Miletus founded the Ionian School of philosophy, thereby laying the foundations of rationalism and Western philosophy.{{harvnb|Baird|2016|p=8}}

File:Ephesus_Celsus_Library_Façade.jpg in Ephesus was built by the Romans in 114–117.{{cite web|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Celsus_Library/|title=Celsus Library|publisher=World History Encyclopedia|author=Mark Cartwright|access-date=2 February 2017|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328151448/https://www.worldhistory.org/Library_of_Celsus/?arg1=Celsus_Library&arg2=&arg3=&arg4=&arg5=|url-status=live}}]]

Cyrus attacked eastern Anatolia in 547 BC, and Achaemenid Empire eventually expanded into western Anatolia. In the east, the Armenian province was part of the Achaemenid Empire. Following the Greco-Persian Wars, the Greek city-states of the Anatolian Aegean coast regained independence, but most of the interior stayed part of the Achaemenid Empire. Two of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, and the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, were located in Anatolia.{{cite web|title=The Temple of Artemis at Ephesus: The Un-Greek Temple and Wonder|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/article/128/|website=World History Encyclopedia|access-date=17 February 2017|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328151417/https://www.worldhistory.org/Temple_of_Artemis_at_Ephesus/|url-status=live}}

Following the victories of Alexander in 334 BC and 333 BC, the Achaemenid Empire collapsed and Anatolia became part of the Macedonian Empire. This led to increasing cultural homogeneity and Hellenization of the Anatolian interior,{{harvnb|McMahon|Steadman|2012a|p=5}}{{harvnb|McMahon|2012|p=16}}{{harvnb|Sams|2012|p=617}} which met resistance in some places.{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=29}}: "The sudden disappearance of the Persian Empire and the conquest of virtually the entire Middle Eastern world from the Nile to the Indus by Alexander the Great caused tremendous political and cultural upheaval." ... "statesmen throughout the conquered regions attempted to implement a policy of Hellenization. For indigenous elites, this amounted to the forced assimilation of native religion and culture to Greek models. It met resistance in Anatolia as elsewhere, especially from priests and others who controlled temple wealth." Following Alexander's death, the Seleucids ruled large parts of Anatolia, while native Anatolian states emerged in the Marmara and Black Sea areas. In eastern Anatolia, the kingdom of Armenia appeared. In third century BC, Celts invaded central Anatolia and continued as a major ethnic group in the area for around 200 years. They were known as the Galatians.{{harvnb|Mitchell|1995|pp=3–4}}

{{Main|Classical Anatolia|Byzantine Anatolia}}

{{See also|Roman Republic|Roman Empire|Christianity in Turkey|Byzantine Empire}}

File:Justinian555AD.png in 555 under Justinian the Great, at its greatest extent]]

When Pergamon requested assistance in its conflict with the Seleucids, Rome intervened in Anatolia in the second century BC. Without an heir, Pergamum's king left the kingdom to Rome, which was annexed as province of Asia. Roman influence grew in Anatolia afterwards.{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=29}} Following Asiatic Vespers massacre, and Mithridatic Wars with Pontus, Rome emerged victorious. Around the 1st century BC, Rome expanded into parts of Pontus and Bithynia, while turning rest of Anatolian states into Roman satellites.{{harvnb|Hoyos|2019|pp=35–37}} Several conflicts with Parthians ensued, with peace and wars alternating.{{harvnb|Hoyos|2019|pp=62, 83, 115}}

According to Acts of the Apostles, early Christian Church had significant growth in Anatolia because of St Paul's efforts. Letters from St. Paul in Anatolia comprise the oldest Christian literature.{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=30}} Under Roman authority, ecumenical councils such as Council of Nicaea (Iznik) in 325 served as a guide for developing "orthodox expressions of basic Christian teachings".{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=30}}

File:Aya_Sophia_(7144824757).jpg in Constantinople (now Istanbul) was built by the Eastern Roman emperor Justinian the Great in 532–537.{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://global.britannica.com/topic/Hagia-Sophia|title=Hagia Sophia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=2 February 2017|archive-date=29 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429163151/https://global.britannica.com/topic/Hagia-Sophia|url-status=live}}]]

The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centered in Constantinople during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages. The eastern half of the Empire survived the conditions that caused the fall of the West in the 5th century AD, and continued to exist until the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire remained the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in the Mediterranean world. The term Byzantine Empire was only coined following the empire's demise; its citizens referred to the polity as the "Roman Empire" and to themselves as Romans. Due to the imperial seat's move from Rome to Byzantium, the adoption of Christianity as the state religion, and the predominance of Greek instead of Latin, modern historians continue to make a distinction between the earlier Roman Empire and the later Byzantine Empire.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}}

In the early Byzantine Empire period, the Anatolian coastal areas were Greek speaking. In addition to natives, interior Anatolia had diverse groups such as Goths, Celts, Persians and Jews. Interior Anatolia had been "heavily Hellenized".{{harvnb|Horrocks|2008|pp=778–779}}: "Thus the majority of traditional 'Greek' lands, including the coastal areas of Asia Minor, remained essentially Greek-speaking, despite the superimposition of Latin and the later Slavic incursions into the Balkans during the sixth and seventh centuries. Even on the Anatolian plateau, where Hellenic culture had come only with Alexander's conquests, both the extremely heterogeneous indigenous populations and immigrant groups (including Celts, Goths, Jews, and Persians) had become heavily Hellenized, as the steady decline in epigraphic evidence for the native languages and the great mass of public and private inscriptions in Greek demonstrate. Though the disappearance of these languages from the written record did not entail their immediate abandonment as spoken languages,..." Anatolian languages eventually became extinct after Hellenization of Anatolia.{{harvnb|van den Hout|2011|p=1}}

{{main|Seljuk Empire|Sultanate of Rum|Anatolian beyliks}}

{{further|Turkic migration|Oghuz Turks|Turkification}}

{{Location map+

| Seljuk Empire

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| float = right

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| places =

{{Annotation|270|05|1090|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=10|color=#000000}}

{{Annotation|210|90|GHAZNAVID
EMPIRE|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}

{{Annotation|150|15|KIPCHAKS|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}

{{Annotation|30|20|PECHENEGS|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}

{{Annotation|25|105|FATIMID
CALIPHATE|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}

{{Annotation|97|120|UYUNIDS|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}

{{Annotation|95|51|GEORGIA|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}

{{Annotation|1|40|BYZANTINE
EMPIRE|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}

{{Annotation|50|60|RUM|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}

{{Annotation|245|145|YADAVAS|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}

{{Annotation|186|45|KARAKHANID KHANATE|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}

{{Annotation|272|155| ◁ ▷ |text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=12|color=#000000}}

| caption=Seljuk Empire circa 1090, during the reign of Malik Shah I. To the west, Anatolia was under the independent rule of Suleiman ibn Qutalmish as the Sultanate of Rum.

}}

According to historians and linguists, the Proto-Turkic language originated in Central-East Asia.{{cite journal |last1=Uchiyama|first1=Junzo|last2=Gillam|first2=J. Christopher|last3=Savelyev|first3=Alexander|last4=Ning|first4=Chao|display-authors=1|date=21 May 2020 |title=Populations dynamics in Northern Eurasian forests: a long-term perspective from Northeast Asia |journal=Evolutionary Human Sciences |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume= 2|pages=e16 |doi=10.1017/ehs.2020.11 |pmid=37588381 |pmc=10427466 |doi-access=free |quote=Most linguists and historians agree that Proto-Turkic, the common ancestor of all ancient and contemporary Turkic languages, must have been spoken somewhere in Central-East Asia}} Initially, Proto-Turkic speakers were potentially both hunter-gatherers and farmers; they later became nomadic pastoralists.{{cite journal |last1=Uchiyama|first1=Junzo|last2=Gillam|first2=J. Christopher|last3=Savelyev|first3=Alexander|last4=Ning|first4=Chao|display-authors=1|date=21 May 2020 |title=Populations dynamics in Northern Eurasian forests: a long-term perspective from Northeast Asia |journal=Evolutionary Human Sciences |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume= 2|pages=e16 |doi=10.1017/ehs.2020.11 |pmid=37588381 |pmc=10427466 |doi-access=free |quote=To sum up, the palaeolinguistic reconstruction points to a mixed subsistence strategy and complex economy of the Proto-Turkic-speaking community. It is likely that the subsistence of the Early Proto-Turkic speakers was based on a combination of hunting–gathering and agriculture, with a later shift to nomadic pastoralism as an economy basis, partly owing to the interaction of the Late Proto-Turkic groups with the Iranian-speaking herders of the Eastern Steppe.}} Early and medieval Turkic groups exhibited a wide range of both East Asian and West-Eurasian physical appearances and genetic origins, in part through long-term contact with neighboring peoples such as Iranic, Mongolic, Tocharian, Uralic, and Yeniseian peoples.

• {{harvnb|Lee|2023|p=4}}: "It should also be noted that even the early Turkic peoples, including the Tiele and the Türks, were made up of heterogeneous elements. Importantly, DNA studies demonstrate that the expansion process of the Turkic peoples involved the Turkicization of various non-Turkic-speaking groups. The "Turks" intermixed with and Turkicized various indigenous groups across Eurasia: Uralic hunter-gatherers in northern Eurasia; Mongolic nomads in Mongolia; Indo-European-speaking nomads and sedentary populations in Xinjiang, Transoxiana, Iran, Kazakhstan, and South Siberia; and Indo-European elements (the Byzantine subjects, among others) in Anatolia and the Balkans.11"
• {{harvnb|Findley|2005|p=18}}: "Moreover, Turks do not all physically look alike. They never did. The Turks of Turkey are famous for their range of physical types. Given the Turks' ancient Inner Asian origins, it is easy to imagine that they once presented a uniform Mongoloid appearance. Such traits seem to be more characteristic in the eastern Turkic world; however, uniformity of type can never have prevailed there either. Archeological evidence indicates that Indo-Europeans, or certainly Europoid physical types, inhabited the oases of the Tarim basin and even parts of Mongolia in ancient times. In the Tarim basin, persistence of these former inhabitants' genes among the modern Uyghurs is both observable and scientifically demonstrable.32 Early Chinese sources describe the Kirghiz as blue-eyed and blond or red-haired. The genesis of Turkic ethnic groups from earliest times occurred in confederations of diverse peoples. As if to prove the point, the earliest surviving texts in Turkic languages are studded with terms from other languages."
• {{Cite journal |last=Golden |first=Peter B. |date=25 July 2018 |title=The Ethnogonic Tales of the Türks |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0971945818775373 |journal=The Medieval History Journal |language=en |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=291–327 |doi=10.1177/0971945818775373 |s2cid=166026934 |issn=0971-9458 |access-date=12 March 2024 |archive-date=14 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210214053008/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0971945818775373 |url-status=live }}"Some DNA tests point to the Iranian connections of the Ashina and Ashide,133 highlighting further that the Turks as a whole 'were made up of heterogeneous and somatically dissimilar populations'.134 Geographically, the accounts cover the regions of Inner Mongolia, Gansu, Xinjiang, the Yenisei zone and the Altay, regions with Turkic, Indo-European (Iranian [Saka] and Tokharian), Yeniseic, Uralic and other populations. Wusun elements, like most steppe polities of an ethno-linguistic mix, may have also played a substratal role."
• {{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Joo-Yup |last2=Kuang |first2=Shuntu |date=18 October 2017 |title=A Comparative Analysis of Chinese Historical Sources and Y-DNA Studies with Regard to the Early and Medieval Turkic Peoples |journal=Inner Asia |publisher=Brill |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=197–239 |doi=10.1163/22105018-12340089 |issn=2210-5018 |doi-access=free |quote=Both Chinese histories and modern dna studies indicate that the early and medieval Turkic peoples were made up of heterogeneous populations}} During the 9th and 10th centuries CE, the Oghuz were a Turkic group that lived in the Caspian and Aral steppes.{{harvnb|Lee|2023|p=84}} Partly due to pressure from the Kipchaks, the Oghuz migrated into Iran and Transoxiana. They mixed with Iranic-speaking groups in the area and converted to Islam. Oghuz Turks were also known as Turkmen or Turkoman.{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=34}}

File:Beylicats d%u2019Anatolie vers 1330-en.svg in Anatolia during the 14th century]]

The ruling family of the Seljuks originated from the Kınık branch of the Oghuz Turks.{{harvnb|Lee|2023|p=90}} In 1040, the Seljuks defeated the Ghaznavids at the Battle of Dandanaqan and established the Seljuk Empire in Greater Khorasan.{{harvnb|Lee|2023|p=91}} Baghdad, the Abbasid Caliphate's capital and center of the Islamic world, was taken by Seljuks in 1055. Given the role Khurasani traditions played in art, culture, and political traditions in the empire, the Seljuk period is described as a mixture of "Turkish, Persian and Islamic influences".{{harvnb|Peacock|2015|p=9}} In the latter half of the 11th century, the Seljuk Turks began penetrating into medieval Armenia and Anatolia. At the time, Anatolia was a diverse and largely Greek-speaking region after previously being Hellenized.{{harvnb|Ahmed|2006|p=1576}}: "Subsequently, hellenization of the elites transformed Anatolia into a largely Greek-speaking region"{{harvnb|Davison|1990|pp=3–4}}: "So the Seljuk sultanate was a successor state ruling part of the medieval Greek empire, and within it the process of Turkification of a previously Hellenized Anatolian population continued. That population must already have been of very mixed ancestry, deriving from ancient Hittite, Phrygian, Cappadocian, and other civilizations as well as Roman and Greek."

The Seljuk Turks defeated the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, and later established the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum.{{harvnb|Howard|2016|pp=34–36}} During this period, there were also Turkish principalities such as Danishmendids.{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=36}} Seljuk arrival started the Turkification process in Anatolia;{{harvnb|Ahmed|2006|p=1576}} there were Turkic/Turkish migrations, intermarriages, and conversions into Islam.{{harvnb|Findley|2005|pp=71–73, 225}}{{harvnb|Howard|2016|pp=36–38}} The shift took several centuries and happened gradually.{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=33}}{{harvnb|Leiser|2010|p=303}} Members of Islamic mysticism orders, such as Mevlevi Order, played a role in the Islamization of the diverse people of Anatolia.{{harvnb|Davison|1990|p=4}}{{harvnb|Howard|2016|pp=37–39}} Seljuk expansion was one of the reasons for the Crusades.{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=35}} In 13th century, there was a second significant wave of Turkic migration, as people fled Mongol expansion.{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=38}}{{harvnb|Leiser|2010|pp=308–310}} Seljuk sultanate was defeated by the Mongols at the Battle of Köse Dağ in 1243 and disappeared by the beginning of the 14th century. It was replaced by various Turkish principalities.{{harvnb|Leiser|2010|pp=309–310}}

{{Main|Ottoman Empire}}

File:OttomanEmpireMain.png at its greatest European extent, in 1683, during the Battle of Vienna]]

Based around Söğüt, Ottoman Beylik was founded by Osman I in the early 14th century.{{harvnb|Fleet|2010|pp=313–314}} According to Ottoman chroniclers, Osman descended from the Kayı tribe of the Oghuz Turks.{{harvnb|Lee|2023|p=94}} Ottomans started annexing the nearby Turkish beyliks (principalities) in Anatolia and expanded into the Balkans.{{harvnb|Howard|2016|pp=40–41}} Mehmed II completed Ottoman conquest of the Byzantine Empire by capturing its capital, Constantinople, on 29 May 1453.{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=43}} Selim I united Anatolia under Ottoman rule. Turkification continued as Ottomans mixed with various indigenous people in Anatolia and the Balkans.

The Ottoman Empire was a global power during the reigns of Selim I and Suleiman the Magnificent.{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=45}}{{harvnb|Somel|2010|p=xcvii}} In the 16th and 17th centuries, Sephardic Jews moved into Ottoman Empire following their expulsion from Spain.{{harvnb|Agoston|Masters|2009|p=302}} From the second half of the 18th century onwards, the Ottoman Empire began to decline. The Tanzimat reforms, initiated by Mahmud II in 1839, aimed to modernize the Ottoman state in line with the progress that had been made in Western Europe. The Ottoman constitution of 1876 was the first among Muslim states, but was short-lived.{{harvnb|Hanioğlu|2012|p=19}}{{harvnb|Özbudun|2012|p=194}}

{{Multiple image

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| image1 = View of Topkapı Palace from the Galata Tower, Istanbul, Turkey 001 cropped.jpg

| image2 = Dolmabahçe_Palace,_Istanbul_cropped.jpg

| caption2 = Topkapı Palace and Dolmabahçe Palace were the primary residences of the Ottoman sultans in Istanbul between 1465 and 1856{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/08/22/travel/center-of-ottoman-power.html|title=Center of Ottoman Power|work=The New York Times|last=Simons|first=Marlise|access-date=4 June 2009|date=22 August 1993|archive-date=12 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180712043016/https://www.nytimes.com/1993/08/22/travel/center-of-ottoman-power.html|url-status=live}} and 1856 to 1922,{{cite web|title=Dolmabahce Palace|url=http://www.dolmabahcepalace.com/listingview.php?listingID=3|website=dolmabahcepalace.com|access-date=4 August 2014|archive-date=16 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316140350/http://www.dolmabahcepalace.com/listingview.php?listingID=3|url-status=live}} respectively.}}

As the empire gradually shrank in size, military power and wealth; especially after the Ottoman economic crisis and default in 1875{{cite news|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/6667a18a-b888-11dc-893b-0000779fd2ac.html|title=An Ottoman warning for indebted America|author=Niall Ferguson|newspaper=Financial Times|date=2 January 2008|access-date=5 September 2016|author-link=Niall Ferguson|archive-date=25 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140125174604/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/6667a18a-b888-11dc-893b-0000779fd2ac.html|url-status=live}} which led to uprisings in the Balkan provinces that culminated in the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878). The decline of the Ottoman Empire led to a rise in nationalist sentiment among its various subject peoples, leading to increased ethnic tensions which occasionally burst into violence, such as the Hamidian massacres of Armenians, which claimed up to 300,000 lives.{{cite web|title=Collapse of the Ottoman Empire, 1918–1920|url=http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/war/ottoman-empire/collapse|website=nzhistory.net.nz|access-date=9 August 2014|archive-date=19 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151219183629/http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/war/ottoman-empire/collapse|url-status=live}}{{Better source needed|reason=some of this information is not in the source|date=November 2024}} Ottoman territories in Europe (Rumelia) were lost in the First Balkan War (1912–1913).{{cite book|url=https://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/ottoman-refugees-1878-1939-9781472515360/|title=Ottoman Refugees, 1878–1939: Migration in a Post-Imperial World|author=Isa Blumi|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic|year=2013|isbn=978-1-4725-1536-0|access-date=23 April 2020|archive-date=29 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229235331/https://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/ottoman-refugees-1878-1939-9781472515360/|url-status=live}} Ottomans managed to recover some territory in Europe, such as Edirne, in the Second Balkan War (1913).

In the 19th and early 20th centuries, persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction and in the Russian Empire resulted in estimated 5 million deaths,{{harvnb|Kaser|2011|p=336}}{{harvnb|Fábos|2005|p=437}} with the casualties including Turks. Five to seven or seven to nine million refugees migrated into modern-day Turkey from the Balkans, Caucasus, Crimea, and Mediterranean islands,

• {{harvnb|Pekesen|2012}}
• {{harvnb|Kaser|2011|p=336}}
• {{harvnb|Karpat|2001|p=343}}
• {{harvnb|Karpat|2004|pp=5–6}} shifting the center of the Ottoman Empire to Anatolia.{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=70}} In addition to a small number of Jews, the refugees were overwhelmingly Muslim; they were both Turkish and non-Turkish people, such as Circassians and Crimean Tatars.{{harvnb|Karpat|2001|p=343}}{{harvnb|Armour|2012|p=213}} Paul Mojzes has called the Balkan Wars an "unrecognized genocide", where multiple sides were both victims and perpetrators.{{Cite web|last=Mojzes|first=Paul|date=November 2013|title=Ethnic cleansing in the Balkans, why did it happen and could it happen again|url=https://www.cicerofoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/Paul_Mojzes_Ethnic_Cleansing_In_The_Balkans.pdf|website=Cicero Foundation|access-date=23 February 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240223191938/https://www.cicerofoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/Paul_Mojzes_Ethnic_Cleansing_In_The_Balkans.pdf|archive-date=23 February 2024|url-status=live}} Circassian refugees included the survivors of the Circassian genocide.{{harvnb|Levene|2015|p=430–431}}

Following the 1913 coup d'état, the Three Pashas took control of the Ottoman government. The Ottoman Empire entered World War I on the side of the Central Powers and was ultimately defeated.Roderic H. Davison; Review "From Paris to Sèvres: The Partition of the Ottoman Empire at the Peace Conference of 1919–1920" by Paul C. Helmreich in Slavic Review, Vol. 34, No. 1 (March 1975), pp. 186–187 During the war, the empire's Armenian subjects were deported to Syria as part of the Armenian genocide. As a result, an estimated 600,000{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Armenian-Genocide/Genocide|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Armenian Genocide|access-date=4 January 2023|archive-date=1 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101025841/https://www.britannica.com/event/Armenian-Genocide/Genocide|url-status=live}} to more than 1 million, or up to 1.5 million{{cite web|url=http://www.umd.umich.edu/dept/armenian/facts/genocide.html|title=Fact Sheet: Armenian Genocide|publisher=University of Michigan|access-date=15 July 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818233348/http://www.umd.umich.edu/dept/armenian/facts/genocide.html|archive-date=18 August 2010}}{{cite book|last=Freedman|first=Jeri|title=The Armenian genocide|year=2009|publisher=Rosen Pub. Group|isbn=978-1-4042-1825-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cuqxYldvClQC|edition=1st|access-date=3 April 2015|archive-date=14 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151655/https://books.google.com/books?id=cuqxYldvClQC|url-status=live}}Totten, Samuel, Paul Robert Bartrop, Steven L. Jacobs (eds.) Dictionary of Genocide. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2008, p. 19. {{ISBN|978-0-313-34642-2}}. Armenians were killed. The Turkish government has refused to acknowledge{{Cite book| publisher = ABC-CLIO| isbn = 978-1-4408-3161-4| last1 = Tatz| first1 = Colin| last2 = Higgins| first2 = Winton| title = The Magnitude of Genocide| year=2016}}{{Cite web |website= Deutsche Welle |title= Erdogan: Turkey will 'never accept' genocide charges |access-date= 7 February 2018 |url= http://www.dw.com/en/erdogan-turkey-will-never-accept-genocide-charges/a-19307115 |archive-date= 7 February 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180207123001/http://www.dw.com/en/erdogan-turkey-will-never-accept-genocide-charges/a-19307115 |url-status= live }} the events as genocide and states that Armenians were only "relocated" from the eastern war zone.{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/turkey/11373115/Amal-Clooneys-latest-case-Why-Turkey-wont-talk-about-the-Armenian-genocide.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/turkey/11373115/Amal-Clooneys-latest-case-Why-Turkey-wont-talk-about-the-Armenian-genocide.html |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=ECHR: Why Turkey won't talk about the Armenian genocide|author=Raziye Akkoç|newspaper=The Daily Telegraph|date=15 October 2015|access-date=28 May 2016}}{{cbignore}} Genocidal campaigns were also committed against the empire's other minority groups such as the Assyrians and Greeks.{{cite book|author=Donald Bloxham|title=The Great Game of Genocide: Imperialism, Nationalism, And the Destruction of the Ottoman Armenians|url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=TSRkGNoEPFwC |page=150 }}|access-date=9 February 2013|year=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-927356-0|page=150}}{{cite journal|last=Levene|first=Mark|title=Creating a Modern 'Zone of Genocide': The Impact of Nation- and State-Formation on Eastern Anatolia, 1878–1923|journal=Holocaust and Genocide Studies|date=Winter 1998|volume=12|issue=3|pages=393–433|doi=10.1093/hgs/12.3.393}}{{cite book|last=Ferguson|first=Niall|title=The War of the World: Twentieth-Century Conflict and the Descent of the West|year=2007|publisher=Penguin Group|isbn=978-0-14-311239-6|page=180}} Following the Armistice of Mudros in 1918, the victorious Allied Powers sought the partition of the Ottoman Empire through the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres.{{Cite web|url=http://net.lib.byu.edu/~rdh7/wwi/versa/sevres1.html|title=The Treaty of Sèvres, 1920|publisher=Harold B. Library, Brigham Young University|access-date=18 April 2020|archive-date=12 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171112082305/http://net.lib.byu.edu/~rdh7/wwi/versa/sevres1.html|url-status=live}}

{{Main|History of the Republic of Turkey}}

File:Atatürk şapkasıyla selam verirken.jpg, the founder and the first President of the Turkish Republic]]

The occupation of Istanbul (1918) and İzmir (1919) by the Allies in the aftermath of World War I initiated the Turkish National Movement. Under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Pasha, a military commander who had distinguished himself during the Battle of Gallipoli, the Turkish War of Independence (1919–1923) was waged with the aim of revoking the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres (1920).{{Cite book|title=Atatürk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey|first=Andrew|last=Mango|publisher=Overlook|year=2000|isbn=978-1-58567-011-6|page=lxxviii}}

The Turkish Provisional Government in Ankara, which had declared itself the legitimate government of the country on 23 April 1920, started to formalize the legal transition from the old Ottoman into the new Republican political system. The Ankara Government engaged in armed and diplomatic struggle. In 1921–1923, the Armenian, Greek, French, and British armies had been expelled.Robert H. Hewsen. Armenia: A Historical Atlas, p. 237. {{ISBN|0-226-33228-4}}{{cite book |first=Harry J. |last=Psomiades |title=The Eastern Question, the Last Phase: a study in Greek-Turkish diplomacy |publisher=Pella |year=2000 |pages=27–38 |isbn=0-918618-79-7}}{{cite journal |first=A. L. |last=Macfie |title=The Chanak affair (September–October 1922) |journal=Balkan Studies |volume=20 |issue=2 |year=1979 |pages=309–41}}{{cite book|last1=Heper|last2=Criss|first1=Metin|first2=Nur Bilge|title=Historical Dictionary of Turkey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mKoanep9aBEC&q=18+september+1922+turkey&pg=PA317|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-6281-4|year=2009|access-date=13 October 2020|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328152525/https://books.google.com/books?id=mKoanep9aBEC&q=18+september+1922+turkey&pg=PA317#v=snippet&q=18%20september%201922%20turkey&f=false|url-status=live}} The military advance and diplomatic success of the Ankara Government resulted in the signing of the Armistice of Mudanya on 11 October 1922. On 1 November 1922, the Turkish Parliament in Ankara formally abolished the Sultanate, thus ending 623 years of monarchical Ottoman rule.

The Treaty of Lausanne of 24 July 1923, which superseded the Treaty of Sèvres, led to the international recognition of the sovereignty of the new Turkish state as the successor state of the Ottoman Empire. On 4 October 1923, the Allied occupation of Turkey ended with the withdrawal of the last Allied troops from Istanbul. The Turkish Republic was officially proclaimed on 29 October 1923 in Ankara, the country's new capital.{{cite book|title=Political Islam and the Secular State in Turkey: Democracy, Reform and the Justice and Development Party|publisher=I.B. Tauris|date=2014|last=Axiarlis|first=Evangelia|page=11}} The Lausanne Convention stipulated a population exchange between Greece and Turkey.{{cite book|last=Clogg|first=Richard|title=A Concise History of Greece|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H5pyUIY4THYC|access-date=9 February 2013|year=2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-00479-4|page=101|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328152433/https://books.google.com/books?id=H5pyUIY4THYC|url-status=live}}

File:Turkey-1658 (2215850337).jpg in Ankara was completed in 1953 to become the mausoleum of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]]

Mustafa Kemal became the republic's first president and introduced many reforms. The reforms aimed to transform the old religion-based and multi-communal Ottoman monarchy into a Turkish nation state that would be governed as a parliamentary republic under a secular constitution.{{cite book|author1=Gerhard Bowering|author2=Patricia Crone|author3=Wadad Kadi |author4=Devin J. Stewart |author5=Muhammad Qasim Zaman |author6=Mahan Mirza|title=The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought|url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=JHcZlo12SGoC |page=49 }}|access-date=14 August 2013|year=2012|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-3855-4|page=49|quote=Following the revolution, Mustafa Kemal became an important figure in the military ranks of the Ottoman Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) as a protégé ... Although the sultanate had already been abolished in November 1922, the republic was founded in October 1923. ... ambitious reform programme aimed at the creation of a modern, secular state and the construction of a new identity for its citizens.}} Women gained the right to vote nationally in 1934.{{harvnb|Heper|2012|p=146}} With the Surname Law, the Turkish Parliament bestowed upon Kemal the honorific surname "Atatürk" (Father Turk). Atatürk's reforms caused discontent in some Kurdish and Zaza tribes leading to the Sheikh Said rebellion in 1925{{Cite book| publisher = Princeton University Press| isbn = 978-1-4008-8371-4| last = Hassan| first = Mona| title = Longing for the Lost Caliphate: A Transregional History| date = 10 January 2017| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=pqqtDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA168| access-date = 23 April 2020| archive-date = 17 January 2023| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230117230856/https://books.google.com/books?id=pqqtDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA168| url-status = live}} and the Dersim rebellion in 1937.{{cite journal|title=Reconfiguring the Turkish nation in the 1930s|journal=Nationalism and Ethnic Politics|publisher=Yale University|author=Soner Çağaptay|s2cid = 143855822|year=2002|volume = 8|issue = 2|pages=67–82|doi=10.1080/13537110208428662}}

İsmet İnönü became the country's second president following Atatürk's death in 1938. In 1939, the Republic of Hatay voted in favor of joining Turkey with a referendum. Turkey remained neutral during almost all of World War II,{{harvnb|Dodd|2012|p=55}} but entered the war on the side of the Allies on 23 February 1945.{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/00263208908700778 |title=The Turkish straits in the second world war, 1939–45 |date=1989 |last1=MacFie |first1=A.L. |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=238–248 }} Later that year, Turkey became a charter member of the United Nations.{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/Overview/growth.htm |title=Growth in United Nations membership (1945–2005) |publisher=United Nations |access-date=30 October 2006 |date=3 July 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160117212320/http://www.un.org/Overview/growth.htm |archive-date=17 January 2016}} In 1950 Turkey became a member of the Council of Europe. After fighting as part of the UN forces in the Korean War, Turkey joined NATO in 1952, becoming a bulwark against Soviet expansion into the Mediterranean.

Military coups or memorandums, which happened in 1960, 1971, 1980, and 1997, complicated Turkey's transition to a democratic multiparty system.{{harvnb|Sayarı|2012|p=1}}{{harvnb|Karaosmanoğlu|2012|p=149}} Between 1960 and the end of the 20th century, the prominent leaders in Turkish politics who achieved multiple election victories were Süleyman Demirel, Bülent Ecevit and Turgut Özal.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}} PKK started a "campaign of terrorist attacks on civilian and military targets" in the 1980s.{{harvnb|Hale|2023|p=xiii}} It is designated as a terrorist organization by Turkey,{{cite web |url=https://www.mfa.gov.tr/pkk.en.mfa |title=PKK |website=Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Foreign Affairs |access-date=29 September 2024}} the United States,{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/foreign-terrorist-organizations|title=U.S. Department of State – Bureau of Counterterrorism: Foreign Terrorist Organizations|publisher=U.S. Department of State|access-date=18 April 2020|archive-date=16 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201216141450/https://www.state.gov/foreign-terrorist-organizations/|url-status=live}} and the European Union.{{cite web|url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:32019D1341&from=en|title=Council of the European Union: Council Decision (CFSP) 2019/1341 of 8 August 2019 updating the list of persons, groups and entities subject to Articles 2, 3 and 4 of Common Position 2001/931/CFSP on the application of specific measures to combat terrorism|publisher=Official Journal of the European Union|access-date=18 April 2020|archive-date=18 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201218043108/https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:32019D1341&from=en|url-status=live}} Tansu Çiller became the first female prime minister of Turkey in 1993. Turkey applied for full membership of the EEC in 1987, joined the European Union Customs Union in 1995 and started accession negotiations with the European Union in 2005.{{cite web|url=http://www.abgs.gov.tr/en/tur-eu_relations_dosyalar/chronology.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070515022203/http://www.abgs.gov.tr/en/tur-eu_relations_dosyalar/chronology.htm|archive-date=15 May 2007|title=Chronology of Turkey-EU relations|publisher=Turkish Secretariat of European Union Affairs|access-date=30 October 2006}}{{harvnb|Dodd|2012|pp=59–63}} Customs Union had an important impact on the Turkish manufacturing sector.{{harvnb|Yılmaz|2012|p=360}}{{cite web|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2006/05/03/000016406_20060503112446/Rendered/PDF/wps3908.pdf |title=Turkey's evolving trade integration into Pan-European markets |author=Bartolomiej Kaminski |author2=Francis Ng |publisher=World Bank |access-date=27 December 2006 |date=1 May 2006 |page=3|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614030216/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2006/05/03/000016406_20060503112446/Rendered/PDF/wps3908.pdf |archive-date=14 June 2007}}

File:Visit of Tansu Çiller, Turkish Prime Minister, to the EC 6.jpg, Turkey's first female prime minister, attends a European Commission meeting in January 1994]]

In 2014, prime minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan won Turkey's first direct presidential election.{{cite news |title=Recep Tayyip Erdogan wins Turkish presidential election |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-28729234 |work=BBC News |date=10 August 2014 |access-date=25 November 2022 |archive-date=25 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221125234358/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-28729234 |url-status=live }} On 15 July 2016, an unsuccessful coup attempt tried to oust the government.{{cite news|title=Turkey rounds up thousands of suspected participants in coup attempt|first1=Erin|last1=Cunningham|first2=Liz|last2=Sly|first3=Zeynep|last3=Karatas|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/after-bloody-night-turkeys-president-declares-coup-attempt-foiled/2016/07/16/9b84151e-4af7-11e6-8dac-0c6e4accc5b1_story.html|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=16 July 2016|access-date=17 July 2016|archive-date=18 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160718235759/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/after-bloody-night-turkeys-president-declares-coup-attempt-foiled/2016/07/16/9b84151e-4af7-11e6-8dac-0c6e4accc5b1_story.html|url-status=live}} According to the Turkish government, there are 13,251 arrested or convicted people in jail as of 2024, related to the 2016 coup attempt.{{cite web |url=https://www.adalet.gov.tr/adalet-bakani-yilmaz-tunc-15-temmuzu-degerlendirdi |title=Adalet Bakanı Yılmaz Tunç, 15 Temmuz'u Değerlendirdi |date=12 July 2024 |website=Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Adalet Bakanlığı |access-date=30 September 2024}}{{cite news |last1=Karakaş |first1=İsmet |last2=Sarica |first2=Abdullah |date=12 July 2024 |title=Adalet Bakanı Tunç: Demokrasiye müdahale olmasın diye hem yargımız hem yasamamız gerekli tedbirleri almaya devam ediyor |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/15-temmuz-darbe-girisimi/adalet-bakani-tunc-demokrasiye-mudahale-olmasin-diye-hem-yargimiz-hem-yasamamiz-gerekli-tedbirleri-almaya-devam-ediyor/3273261 |work=Anadolu Agency}} With a referendum in 2017, the parliamentary republic was replaced by an executive presidential system. The office of the prime minister was abolished, and its powers and duties were transferred to the president. On the referendum day, while the voting was still underway, the Supreme Electoral Council lifted a rule that required each ballot to have an official stamp. The opposition parties claimed that as many as 2.5 million ballots without a stamp were accepted as valid.{{cite news|date=16 April 2017|title=Here's why Turkish opposition parties are contesting the referendum results|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2017/04/16/heres-why-turkish-opposition-parties-are-contesting-the-referendum-results/|newspaper=Washington Post|access-date=17 April 2017|archive-date=19 April 2017|archive-url=https://archive.today/20170419222645/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2017/04/16/heres-why-turkish-opposition-parties-are-contesting-the-referendum-results/|url-status=live}} In 2025 the PKK declared a ceasefire.{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2025-04-03 |title=Kurds in Turkey back PKK's response to jailed leader's peace call |url=https://www.duvarenglish.com/kurds-in-turkey-back-pkks-response-to-jailed-leaders-peace-call-news-65749 |access-date=2025-03-04 |website=Gazete Duvar |language=}}

{{Main|Administrative divisions of Turkey}}

{{Further|Regions of Turkey|NUTS of Turkey}}

Turkey is a unitary state. Its administrative system includes central and local administration. Central administration consists of the central government in Ankara, and local departments such as 81 provinces and their subdivisions. Local administration authorities consist of metropolitan municipalities, municipalities, neighborhoods or villages, and special provincial administrations. For economic and geographic reasons, Turkey is also categorized into seven regions and 21 sub-regions.{{harvnb|Karabulut|2022|pp=712–718}}

{{Main|Government of Turkey|Politics of Turkey|Constitution of Turkey}}

{{See also|Law enforcement in Turkey}}

File:TBMM,_October_2021.jpg is the legislative chamber.]]

Turkey is a presidential republic within a multi-party system.{{cite web|title=CIA World Factbook: Turkey|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/turkey/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110073821/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/turkey|archive-date=10 January 2021|access-date=29 August 2011|publisher=Cia.gov}} The current constitution was adopted in 1982.{{harvnb|Özbudun|2012|p=194}} In the Turkish unitary system, citizens are subject to three levels of government: national, provincial, and local. The local government's duties are commonly split between municipal governments and districts, in which the executive and legislative officials are elected by a plurality vote of citizens by district.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}} The government comprises three branches: first is the legislative branch, which is Grand National Assembly of Turkey;{{cite web |title=Duties and Powers |url=https://global.tbmm.gov.tr/index.php/EN/yd/icerik/13 |website=global.tbmm.gov.tr |publisher=The Grand National Assembly of Turkey |access-date=12 April 2022 |archive-date=5 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190405013028/https://global.tbmm.gov.tr/index.php/EN/yd/icerik/13 |url-status=live }} second is the executive branch, which is the President of Turkey;{{cite web |title=Duties and Powers |url=https://www.tccb.gov.tr/en/presidency/power/ |publisher=Presidency Of The Republic Of Turkey |access-date=11 April 2022 |archive-date=15 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230515184321/https://www.tccb.gov.tr/en/presidency/power/ |url-status=live }} and third is the judicial branch, which includes the Constitutional Court,

the Court of Cassation and Court of Jurisdictional Disputes.{{Cite web|url=https://www.anayasa.gov.tr/en/legislation/law-on-constitutional-court/|title=Law on Constitutional Court {{pipe}} Anayasa Mahkemesi|website=www.anayasa.gov.tr}}{{cite web |title=Turkish Constitution |url=https://www.anayasa.gov.tr/en/legislation/turkish-constiution/ |publisher=Anayasa Mahkemesi |access-date=12 April 2022 |archive-date=10 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110193216/https://www.anayasa.gov.tr/en/legislation/turkish-constiution/ |url-status=live }}

The Parliament has 600 seats, distributed among the provinces proportionally to the population. The Parliament and the president serve a five-year terms, with elections on the same day. The president is elected by direct vote and cannot run for re-election after two terms, unless the parliament calls early presidential elections during the second term.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}} The Constitutional Court is composed of 15 members, elected for single 12-year terms. They are obliged to retire when they are over the age of 65.{{cite web |title=Law on Constitutional Court |url=https://www.anayasa.gov.tr/en/legislation/law-on-constitutional-court/ |website=anayasa.gov.tr |access-date=12 April 2022 |archive-date=7 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307215646/https://www.anayasa.gov.tr/en/legislation/law-on-constitutional-court/ |url-status=live }} Turkish politics have become increasingly associated with democratic backsliding, being described as a competitive authoritarian system.{{cite journal | last1=Esen | first1=Berk | last2=Gumuscu | first2=Sebnem | title=Why did Turkish democracy collapse? A political economy account of AKP's authoritarianism | journal=Party Politics | publisher=SAGE Publications | volume=27 | issue=6 | date=11 May 2020 | issn=1354-0688 | doi=10.1177/1354068820923722 | pages=1075–1091| hdl=11693/75894 | s2cid=219458590 | hdl-access=free}}{{cite journal | last1=Borsuk | first1=Imren | last2=Levin | first2=Paul T. | title=Social coexistence and violence during Turkey's authoritarian transition | journal=Southeast European and Black Sea Studies | publisher=Informa UK Limited | volume=21 | issue=2 | date=3 April 2021 | issn=1468-3857 | doi=10.1080/14683857.2021.1909292 | pages=175–187| s2cid=233594832 | doi-access=free}}

{{Main|Elections in Turkey|Political parties in Turkey|Electoral cycle of Turkey}}

File:2024 Turkish local elections.svg]]

Elections in Turkey are held for six functions of government: presidential (national), parliamentary (national), municipality mayors (local), district mayors (local), provincial or municipal council members (local), and muhtars (local). Referendums are also held occasionally. Every Turkish citizen who has turned 18 has the right to vote and stand as a candidate at elections.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}} Universal suffrage for both sexes has been applied throughout Turkey since 1934.{{cite news |date=5 December 2019 |title=Turkish women celebrate 85th anniversary of suffrage |url=https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkish-women-celebrate-85th-anniversary-of-suffrage-149490 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412174514/https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkish-women-celebrate-85th-anniversary-of-suffrage-149490 |archive-date=12 April 2022 |access-date=12 April 2022 |work=Hürriyet Daily News}} In Turkey, turnout rates of both local and general elections are high compared to many other countries, which usually stands higher than 80%.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}} President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan is currently serving as the head of state and head of government.{{cite web |date=28 May 2023 |title=Erdogan wins Turkey's election |url=https://edition.cnn.com/europe/live-news/turkey-election-runoff-results-intl/index.html |publisher=CNN |access-date=28 May 2023 |archive-date=28 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230528221116/https://edition.cnn.com/europe/live-news/turkey-election-runoff-results-intl/index.html |url-status=live }}{{cite web |date=28 May 2023 |title=Erdogan wins five more years as Turkey's president |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/live/world-europe-65686238 |publisher=BBC |access-date=28 May 2023 |archive-date=28 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230528221325/https://www.bbc.com/news/live/world-europe-65686238 |url-status=live }} Özgür Özel is the Main Opposition Leader. The last parliamentary and presidential elections were in 2023.

The Constitutional Court can strip the public financing of political parties that it deems anti-secular or having ties to terrorism, or ban their existence altogether.{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1466160.stm|title=Euro court backs Turkey Islamist ban|publisher=BBC|access-date=14 December 2006|date=31 July 2001|archive-date=7 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180707045403/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1466160.stm|url-status=live}}{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2850601.stm|title=Turkey's Kurd party ban criticized|publisher=BBC|access-date=14 December 2006|date=14 March 2003|archive-date=7 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180707042827/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2850601.stm|url-status=live}} The electoral threshold for political parties at national level is seven percent of the votes.{{Cite news|url=https://www.dailysabah.com/politics/legislation/ak-party-mhp-announce-draft-for-turkeys-new-election-law|title=AK Party, MHP announce draft for Turkey's new election law|publisher=Daily Sabah|access-date=22 March 2022|date=14 March 2022|archive-date=21 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220321234730/https://www.dailysabah.com/politics/legislation/ak-party-mhp-announce-draft-for-turkeys-new-election-law|url-status=live}} Smaller parties can avoid the electoral threshold by forming an alliance with other parties. Independent candidates are not subject to an electoral threshold.

On the right side of the Turkish political spectrum, parties like the Democrat Party, Justice Party, Motherland Party, and Justice and Development Party became the most popular political parties in Turkey, winning numerous elections. Turkish right-wing parties are more likely to embrace the principles of political ideologies such as conservatism, nationalism or Islamism.{{cite web |last1=Yılmaz |first1=Hakan |title=Conservatism in Turkey |url=https://esiweb.org/pdf/esi_turkey_tpq_vol7_no1_HakanYilmaz.pdf |publisher=European Stability Initiative |access-date=12 April 2022 |archive-date=7 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307223711/https://www.esiweb.org/pdf/esi_turkey_tpq_vol7_no1_HakanYilmaz.pdf |url-status=live }} On the left side of the spectrum, parties like the Republican People's Party, Social Democratic Populist Party and Democratic Left Party once enjoyed the largest electoral success. Left-wing parties are more likely to embrace the principles of socialism, Kemalism or secularism.{{cite book|author1=Kate Fleet|author2=Suraiya Faroqhi|author3=Reşat Kasaba|title=The Cambridge History of Turkey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iOoGH4GckQgC&pg=PA357|access-date=13 June 2013|year=2008|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-62096-3|pages=357–358|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117224558/https://books.google.com/books?id=iOoGH4GckQgC&pg=PA357|url-status=live}}

{{Main|Judicial system of Turkey}}

File:Court of Cassation in Ankara2.jpg is the final court for reviewing verdicts given by courts of criminal and civil justice.]]

With the founding of the Republic, Turkey adopted a civil law legal system, replacing Sharia-derived Ottoman law. The Civil Code, adopted in 1926, was based on the Swiss Civil Code of 1907 and the Swiss Code of Obligations of 1911. Although it underwent a number of changes in 2002, it retains much of the basis of the original Code. The Criminal Code, originally based on the Italian Criminal Code, was replaced in 2005 by a Code with principles similar to the German Penal Code and German law generally. Administrative law is based on the French equivalent and procedural law generally shows the influence of the Swiss, German and French legal systems.{{cite book|first=Z. Derya|last=Tarman|editor-first=Jan M.|editor-last=Smits|chapter=Turkey|edition=2nd|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y_otpAA1EIoC&dq=Turkish+legal+system+european+civil+law&pg=PA940|title=Elgar Encyclopedia of Comparative Law|year=2012|publisher=Edward Elgar|isbn=978-1-84980-415-8|page=940|access-date=20 March 2023|archive-date=6 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406012318/https://books.google.com/books?id=y_otpAA1EIoC&dq=Turkish+legal+system+european+civil+law&pg=PA940|url-status=live}} Islamic principles do not play a part in the legal system.{{cite book|first=Z. Derya|last=Tarman|editor-first=Jan M.|editor-last=Smits|chapter=Turkey|edition=2nd|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y_otpAA1EIoC&dq=Turkish+legal+system+european+civil+law&pg=PA940|title=Elgar Encyclopedia of Comparative Law|year=2012|publisher=Edward Elgar|isbn=978-1-84980-415-8|page=941|access-date=20 March 2023|archive-date=6 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406012318/https://books.google.com/books?id=y_otpAA1EIoC&dq=Turkish+legal+system+european+civil+law&pg=PA940|url-status=live}}

Law enforcement in Turkey is carried out by several agencies under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. These agencies are the General Directorate of Security, the Gendarmerie General Command and the Coast Guard Command.{{Cite web|url=https://polis.osce.org/country-profiles/turkey|title=OSCE POLIS}} In the years of government by the Justice and Development Party and Erdoğan, particularly since 2013, the independence and integrity of the Turkish judiciary has increasingly been said to be in doubt by institutions, parliamentarians and journalists both within and outside of Turkey, because of political interference in the promotion of judges and prosecutors and in their pursuit of public duty.{{cite web|url=http://www.ab.gov.tr/files/5%20Ekim/2015_turkey_report.pdf|title=European Commission: Turkey 2015 report|work=European Commission|date=10 November 2015|access-date=6 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160818052601/http://www.ab.gov.tr/files/5%20Ekim/2015_turkey_report.pdf|archive-date=18 August 2016}}{{cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//NONSGML+TA+P8-TA-2016-0133+0+DOC+PDF+V0//EN|title=European Parliament resolution of 14 April 2016 on the 2015 report on Turkey|work=European Parliament|date=14 April 2016|access-date=6 July 2016|archive-date=17 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817221313/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//NONSGML+TA+P8-TA-2016-0133+0+DOC+PDF+V0//EN|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=http://www.transparency.org/news/pressrelease/turkeys_institutions_are_failing_to_comply_with_good_governance_principles|title=Turkey's institutions are failing to comply with good governance principles and combat corruption|work=Transparency International|date=7 April 2016|access-date=6 July 2016|archive-date=3 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203014904/https://www.transparency.org/news/pressrelease/turkeys_institutions_are_failing_to_comply_with_good_governance_principles|url-status=dead}}

{{Main|Foreign relations of Turkey}}

File:300622-SanchezOTANSegunda3.jpg since 1952, has its second largest army and is the host of the Allied Land Command headquarters.]]

Turkey has been characterized as an emerging{{harvnb|Acharya|2014|loc=Emerging Powers}} or rising,{{harvnb|Oğuzlu|Dal|2016}} a middle,{{cite journal |doi=10.1057/s41311-023-00511-2 |title=Beyond hierarchy: Regional orders in the twenty-first century |date=2023 |last1=Giedraityte |first1=Ieva |journal=International Politics }} a quasi-regional,{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/01436597.2021.1898280 |title=Do regional powers prioritise their regions? Comparing Brazil, South Africa and Turkey |date=2021 |last1=Mesquita |first1=Rafael |last2=Chien |first2=Jia Huei |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=42 |issue=7 |pages=1544–1565 }} and a regional power.{{harvnb|Bank|Karadag|2012|p=3}}{{harvnb|Kardaş|2016}} Turkey's constant foreign policy goal is to pursue its national interests. These interests are mainly growing the economy, and maintaining security from internal terrorist and external threats.{{harvnb|Martin|2012|p=227}} After the establishment of the Republic, Atatürk and İnönü followed the "peace at home, peace in the world" principle until the Cold War's start.{{harvnb|Martin|2012|p=228}} Following threats from the Soviet Union, Turkey sought to ally with the United States and joined NATO in 1952.{{harvnb|Dodd|2012|p=56}}{{harvnb|Martin|2012|p=228}}

File:Organization of Turkic States (orthographic projection).svg]]

Overall, Turkey aims for good relations with Central Asia, the Caucasus, Russia, the Middle East, and Iran. With the West, Turkey also aims to keep its arrangements.{{harvnb|Martin|2012|pp=234–235}} By trading with the east and joining the EU, Turkey pursues economic growth. Turkey joined the European Union Customs Union in 1995,{{harvnb|Martin|2012|p=229}} but its EU accession talks are frozen as of 2024.{{cite news |date=29 August 2024 |title=Turkey's top diplomat attends first EU meeting in 5 years in bid to boost ties |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/turkeys-top-diplomat-attends-eu-meeting-after-5-years-bid-boost-ties-2024-08-29/ |work=Reuters |access-date=}}

Turkey has sought closer relations with the Central Asian Turkic states after the breakup of the Soviet Union.{{harvnb|Martin|2012|p=230}} Closer relations with Azerbaijan, a culturally close country, was achieved. Turkey is a founding member of the International Organization of Turkic Culture and Organization of Turkic States.{{cite web |url=https://www.turksoy.org/en-US/about-turksoy |title=About TURKSOY |website=International Organization of Turkic Culture |access-date=23 September 2024}}{{cite web |url=https://turkicstates.org/en/turk-konseyi-hakkinda |title=Organization of Turkic States |website=Organization of Turkic States |access-date=23 September 2024}} It is also a member of Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, Council of Europe, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.{{cite web |url=https://www.mfa.gov.tr/synopsis-of-the-turkish-foreign-policy.en.mfa |title=National Foreign Policy in the "Century Of Türkiye": A Synopsis |website=Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Foreign Affairs |access-date=24 September 2024}}

Following the Arab Spring, Turkey had problems with countries such as United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, and Egypt.{{cite news |date=19 May 2023 |title=In Middle East, once improbable ententes set new tone |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/middle-east-once-improbable-ententes-set-new-tone-2023-05-18/ |work=Reuters |access-date=24 September 2024}} Relations with these countries have improved since then.{{cite news |date=9 September 2024 |title=Turkey heads to Arab League ministerial for first time in 13 years, source says |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/turkey-heads-arab-league-ministerial-first-time-13-years-source-says-2024-09-09/ |work=Reuters |access-date=24 September 2024}}{{cite news |date=4 September 2024 |title=Egypt's Sisi makes first presidential visit to Turkey in 12 years |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/egypts-sisi-heads-turkey-first-presidential-visit-12-years-2024-09-04/ |work=Reuters |access-date=24 September 2024}} There are disputes with Greece over maritime boundaries and with Cyprus.{{harvnb|Martin|2012|p=235}} In 2018, the Turkish military and the Turkish-backed forces began an operation in Syria aimed at ousting US-backed YPG (which Turkey considers to be an offshoot of the outlawed PKK){{cite web|url=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/menasource/the-ypg-pkk-connection/|title=The YPG-PKK connection|author1=Aaron Stein|author2=Michelle Foley|publisher=Atlantic Council|date=26 January 2016|access-date=31 December 2022|archive-date=31 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221231150115/https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/menasource/the-ypg-pkk-connection/|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=https://www.mfa.gov.tr/pkk.en.mfa|title=PKK|publisher=Republic of Türkiye, Ministry of Foreign Affairs|website=mfa.gov.tr|access-date=31 December 2022|archive-date=25 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230325204651/https://www.mfa.gov.tr/pkk.en.mfa|url-status=live}} from the enclave of Afrin.{{cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-afrin-idUSKBN1H00OD|title=Turkey takes full control of Syria's Afrin: military source|website=reuters.com|publisher=Reuters|date=24 March 2018|access-date=7 January 2023|archive-date=7 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230107144921/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-afrin-idUSKBN1H00OD|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/the-ypg-menace-understanding-pkk-s-syria-offshoot-57427|title=The YPG menace: Understanding PKK's Syria offshoot|publisher=TRT World|website=trtworld.com|date=25 May 2022|access-date=7 January 2023|archive-date=7 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230107144923/https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/the-ypg-menace-understanding-pkk-s-syria-offshoot-57427|url-status=live}} Turkey has also conducted airstrikes in Iraqi Kurdistan, which was criticized by Iraq for violating its sovereignty and killing civilians.{{Cite web |last=Dana Taib Menmy |date=23 June 2020 |title=Fear and anger greets Turkish air strikes in northern Iraq |url=https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/turkish-airstrikes-northern-iraq-conflicts-civilian-fatalities |website=Middle East Eye |language=en |quote="Turkish incursions and air strikes on Iraqi territory have been a constant issue for the Iraqi foreign ministry since 2003, with no resolution in sight," Sajad Jiyad, a political analyst based in Baghdad, told MEE. |access-date=18 March 2024 |archive-date=18 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240318114659/https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/turkish-airstrikes-northern-iraq-conflicts-civilian-fatalities |url-status=live }} Diplomatic relations with Israel were damaged after the Gaza flotilla raid,{{harvnb|Martin|2012|p=234}} normalized in 2016,{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-36639834|title=Israel and Turkey end rift over Gaza flotilla killings|publisher=BBC|date=27 June 2016|access-date=27 June 2016|work=BBC News|archive-date=5 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220505073331/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-36639834|url-status=live}} and cut again following the Israeli invasion of the Gaza Strip.{{cite news |date=28 May 2024 |title=Israeli-Turkish trade on life support as relations hit bottom |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/israeli-turkish-trade-life-support-relations-hit-bottom-2024-05-27/ |work=Reuters |access-date=24 September 2024}} In 2024, Turkey stopped trading with Israel.

{{Main|Turkish Armed Forces}}

{{See also|Turkish Land Forces|Turkish Naval Forces|Turkish Air Force}}

File:IMG-TAI-TFX.jpg is currently being produced by Turkish Aerospace Industries for the Turkish Air Force.{{cite web|url=https://www.janes.com/defence-news/news-detail/turkish-future-fighter-comes-together-ahead-of-victory-day-roll-out|title=Turkish future fighter comes together ahead of 'victory day' roll-out|website=janes.com|author=Gareth Jennings|date=24 November 2022|access-date=4 December 2022|archive-date=17 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217140402/https://www.janes.com/defence-news/news-detail/turkish-future-fighter-comes-together-ahead-of-victory-day-roll-out|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=https://www.overtdefense.com/2022/11/25/turkeys-domestic-5th-generation-tf-x-fighter-jet-is-on-the-final-assembly-line/|title=Turkey's Domestic 5th Generation TF-X Fighter Jet Is On The Final Assembly Line|website=overtdefense.com|date=25 November 2022|access-date=4 December 2022|archive-date=4 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221204150849/https://www.overtdefense.com/2022/11/25/turkeys-domestic-5th-generation-tf-x-fighter-jet-is-on-the-final-assembly-line/|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=https://www.thedrive.com/the-war-zone/unique-sensor-setup-emerges-on-turkeys-stealthy-new-fighter|title=Unique Sensor Setup Emerges On Turkey's Stealthy New Fighter|website=thedrive.com|author=Joseph Trevithick|date=10 January 2023|access-date=12 January 2023|archive-date=14 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314180926/https://www.thedrive.com/the-war-zone/unique-sensor-setup-emerges-on-turkeys-stealthy-new-fighter|url-status=live}}]]

The Turkish Armed Forces are responsible for defense against foreign threats. While the Commander-in-Chief is the President, General Staff, Air Force, Naval Force, and Land Force usually report to the Minister of National Defence.{{cite web |url=https://www.tsk.tr/Sayfalar?viewName=Mission |title=Mission |website=Republic of Türkiye Ministry of National Defence General Staff |access-date=29 September 2024}} The Gendarmerie General Command and the Coast Guard Command are under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Interior.{{cite web |url=https://www.icisleri.gov.tr/icisleri-bakanligi-teskilat-semasi |title=İçişleri Bakanlığı Teşkilat Şeması |website=Türkiye Cumhuriyeti İçişleri Bakanlığı |access-date=29 September 2024}} Military service is required for 6–12 months for men,{{cite web |url=https://www.msb.gov.tr/Content/Upload/Docs/7179_Askeralma_Kanunu_(%C4%B0ngilizce).pdf |title=Recruiting Law |website=Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Millî Savunma Bakanlığı |access-date=29 September 2024}} which is reduced to one month after paying a fee.{{cite news |date=26 June 2019 |title=New military service law approved |url=https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkish-parliament-ratifies-new-military-service-law-144475 |work=Hürriyet Daily News |location=Ankara |access-date=}} Turkey does not recognize conscientious objection and does not offer a civilian alternative to military service.{{cite web|url=http://www.ebco-beoc.eu/|title=EBCO: European Bureau for Conscientious Objection|publisher=Ebco-beoc.eu|access-date=4 September 2010|archive-date=10 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160110173525/http://ebco-beoc.eu/|url-status=live}}

File:Baykar Bayraktar Kızılelma 2.png UCAV on TCG Anadolu]]

Turkey has the second-largest military force in NATO, after the United States, with an estimated strength of 890,700 military personnel as of February 2022.{{cite book |author1=The International Institute for Strategic Studies |title=The Military Balance |date=2022 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-032-27900-8 |issn=0459-7222}} As part of the nuclear sharing policy of NATO, Turkey hosts approximately 20 United States B61 nuclear bombs at the Incirlik Air Base.{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/00396338.2024.2403218 |title=Forum: Towards a European Nuclear Deterrent |date=2024 |last1=Fayet |first1=Héloïse |last2=Futter |first2=Andrew |last3=Kühn |first3=Ulrich |journal=Survival |volume=66 |issue=5 |pages=67–98 }}{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/00963402.2020.1859865 |title=United States nuclear weapons, 2021 |date=2021 |last1=Kristensen |first1=Hans M. |last2=Korda |first2=Matt |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists |volume=77 |issue=1 |pages=43–63 |bibcode=2021BuAtS..77a..43K }} The Turkish Armed Forces have a relatively substantial military presence abroad,{{Cite web |date=7 March 2019 |title=Mapping the Turkish Military's Expanding Footprint |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-03-07/mapping-the-turkish-military-s-expanding-footprint-quicktake |access-date=17 March 2022 |website=Bloomberg }} with military bases in Albania,{{cite book|last1=Larrabee|first1=F. Stephen|last2=Lesser|first2=Ian O.|title=Turkish foreign policy in an age of uncertainty|year=2003|publisher=Rand Corporation|url=https://archive.org/details/turkishforeignpo00larr|url-access=registration|quote=albania.|isbn=978-0-8330-3404-5|pages=[https://archive.org/details/turkishforeignpo00larr/page/94 94]}} Iraq,{{cite news|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/what-is-turkey-doing-in-iraq.aspx?pageID=449&nID=104733&NewsCatID=466|title=What is Turkey doing in Iraq?|newspaper=Hürriyet Daily News|date=8 October 2016|access-date=5 April 2017|archive-date=19 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019211312/http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/what-is-turkey-doing-in-iraq.aspx?pageID=449&nID=104733&NewsCatID=466|url-status=live}} Qatar,{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-qatar-turkey-military-idUSKCN0XP2IT|title=Seeing shared threats, Turkey sets up military base in Qatar|newspaper=Reuters|date=28 April 2016|access-date=2 July 2017|archive-date=8 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190208142004/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-qatar-turkey-military-idUSKCN0XP2IT|url-status=live}} and Somalia.{{cite web|url=https://www.trtworld.com/turkey/turkey-to-open-it-s-largest-military-base-in-somalia-10967|title=Turkey to open its largest military base in Somalia|publisher=TRT World|date=30 September 2017|access-date=21 June 2018|archive-date=9 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220909055110/https://www.trtworld.com/turkey/turkey-to-open-it-s-largest-military-base-in-somalia-10967|url-status=live}} The country also maintains a force of 36,000 troops in Northern Cyprus since 1974.{{cite book |last=Richmond |first=Oliver P. |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=_6wRdE2ZH4gC |page=260 }} |title=Mediating in Cyprus: The Cypriot Communities and the United Nations |publisher=Psychology Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7146-4877-4 |page=260 |access-date=9 February 2013}}

Turkey has participated in international missions under the United Nations and NATO since the Korean War, including peacekeeping missions in Somalia, Yugoslavia and the Horn of Africa. It supported coalition forces in the First Gulf War, contributed military personnel to the International Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan, and remains active in Kosovo Force, Eurocorps and EU Battlegroups.{{cite web|title=Enter the EU Battle Groups|url=http://www.iss.europa.eu/uploads/media/cp097.pdf|work=Chaillot Paper no. 97|publisher=European Union Institute for Security Studies|page=88|date=February 2007|access-date=18 February 2012|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304001035/http://www.iss.europa.eu/uploads/media/cp097.pdf}}{{cite web|title=Contribution of Turkish Armed Forces to Peace Support Operations |url=http://www.tsk.tr/20_ingilizce_tsktr/5_international_relations/contribution-of-the-turkish-armed-forces-to-peace-support-operations.html |website=tsk.tr |publisher=Turkish Armed Forces |access-date=3 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150219001301/http://www.tsk.tr/20_ingilizce_tsktr/5_international_relations/contribution-of-the-turkish-armed-forces-to-peace-support-operations.html |archive-date=19 February 2015}} As of 2016, Turkey has assisted Peshmerga forces in northern Iraq and the Somali Armed Forces with security and training.{{cite web|title=Turkey finalizes military training base in Somalia|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-finalizes-military-training-base-in-somalia.aspx?PageID=238&NID=104468&NewsCatID=510|website=hurriyetdailynews.com|date=3 October 2016|access-date=5 April 2017|archive-date=6 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170406110403/http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-finalizes-military-training-base-in-somalia.aspx?PageID=238&NID=104468&NewsCatID=510|url-status=live}}{{cite news|title=Turkey trains Kurdish peshmerga forces in fight against Islamic State|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-turkey-iraq-idUSKCN0J60B720141122|newspaper=Reuters|access-date=5 April 2017|date=22 November 2014|archive-date=23 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220423092232/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-turkey-iraq-idUSKCN0J60B720141122|url-status=live}}

{{Main|Human rights in Turkey}}

File:Feminist_protest_from_Turkey.jpg, Istanbul{{cite news |url=https://www.hurriyet.com.tr/gundem/kadikoyde-kiyafetime-karisma-eylemi-40534870 |last=Uçar |first=Burcu Purtul |title=Kadıköy'de "Kıyafetime Karışma" eylemi |work=Hürriyet |date=30 July 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116101420/https://www.hurriyet.com.tr/gundem/kadikoyde-kiyafetime-karisma-eylemi-40534870 |archive-date=16 November 2022 |access-date=23 June 2024}}]]

Article 2 of the Turkish Constitution includes references to upholding the rule of law and human rights.{{harvnb|Özbudun|2012|p=197}} In the 2000s, legal changes were made for public use of and teaching in the Kurdish language. This included opening a Kurdish-language national TV channel. Various "openings" were made to address concerns of minorities such as Alevi, ethnic Kurds, and ethnic Romani people.{{harvnb|Toprak|2012|p=222}} Sentences for violence against women were strengthened.

In 2013, widespread protests erupted, sparked by a plan to demolish Gezi Park but soon growing into general anti-government dissent.{{cite news |title=What's driving unrest and protests in Turkey? |author1=Mullen, Jethro |author2=Cullinane, Susannah |url=http://www.cnn.com/2013/06/03/world/europe/turkey-conflict-explainer/?hpt=hp_t1 |newspaper=CNN |date=4 June 2013 |access-date=6 June 2013 |archive-date=14 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014001050/http://www.cnn.com/2013/06/03/world/europe/turkey-conflict-explainer/?hpt=hp_t1 |url-status=live }} On 20 May 2016, the Turkish parliament stripped almost a quarter of its members of immunity from prosecution, including 101 deputies from the pro-Kurdish HDP and the main opposition CHP party."[http://www.dw.com/en/turkish-parliament-moves-to-strip-lawmakers-immunity-from-prosecution/a-19270449 Turkish parliament moves to strip lawmakers' immunity from prosecution] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221044905/http://www.dw.com/en/turkish-parliament-moves-to-strip-lawmakers-immunity-from-prosecution/a-19270449 |date=21 December 2016 }}". Deutsche Welle. 20 May 2016.{{cite news |title=Turkey Violated Pro-Kurdish MPs' Rights, European Court Rules |url=https://balkaninsight.com/2022/02/01/turkey-violated-pro-kurdish-mps-rights-european-court-rules/ |work=Balkan Insight |date=1 February 2022 |access-date=11 November 2022 |archive-date=11 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111080130/https://balkaninsight.com/2022/02/01/turkey-violated-pro-kurdish-mps-rights-european-court-rules/ |url-status=live }} According to the Committee to Protect Journalists, there are 13 jailed journalists in Turkey.{{cite web |url=https://cpj.org/reports/2024/01/2023-prison-census-jailed-journalist-numbers-near-record-high-israel-imprisonments-spike/ |title=2023 prison census: Jailed journalist numbers near record high; Israel imprisonments spike |last=Getz |first=Arlene |website=Committee to Protect Journalists |access-date=30 September 2024}} In its 2023 report, the European Commission criticized how democratic institutions in Turkey operate.{{harvnb|EU Commission|2023|p=4}} The criticism was rejected by Turkey.{{Cite web |url=https://www.mfa.gov.tr/no_-291_-avrupa-birligi-komisyonu-2023-yili-turkiye-raporu-hk.en.mfa |title=No: 291, 8 November 2023, Press Release Regarding the European Commission 2023 Report on Türkiye |date=8 November 2023 |website=Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Foreign Affairs}} As of 2023, Turkey was the country with the highest number of European Court of Human Rights cases.{{harvnb|Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Justice Human Rights Department|2024|p=1}}

File:Gay_pride_Istanbul_2013_-_Taksim_Square.jpg was organized in 2003 for the first time. Since 2015, parades in Istanbul have been denied permission by the government.]]

Prior to 1858, Ottoman Empire had "a lenient legal accommodation of same-sex intimacy". When prosecuted, the punishment was monetary fines. In 1858, the 1810 French Penal Code was adopted by the Ottomans, which had no penalties for same-sex intimacy that is private.{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/00918369.2020.1715142 |title=Decolonizing Decriminalization Analyses: Did the Ottomans Decriminalize Homosexuality in 1858? |date=2021 |last1=Ozsoy |first1=Elif Ceylan |journal=Journal of Homosexuality |volume=68 |issue=12 |pages=1979–2002 |pmid=32069182 |hdl=10871/120331 |hdl-access=free }} Under the Republic, same sex acts have never been criminalized.{{harvnb|Özbek|2019|p=34}} However, LGBT people in Turkey face discrimination, harassment and even violence.{{Cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/was-ahmet-yildiz-the-victim-of-turkeys-first-gay-honour-killing-871822.html|access-date=8 May 2021|title=Was Ahmet Yildiz the victim of Turkey's first gay honour killing?|work=Independent|date=19 July 2008|first=Nicholas|last=Birch}} In a survey conducted in 2016, 33% of respondents said that LGBT people should have equal rights, which increased to 45% in 2020. Another survey in 2018 found that the proportion of people who would not want a homosexual neighbor decreased from 55% in 2018 to 47% in 2019.{{Cite news|url=https://www.pinknews.co.uk/2020/03/24/turkey-lgbt-acceptance-muslim-islam-kadir-has-university-istanbul-rights/|title=Almost half of people in Turkey think that LGBT+ people should have equal rights, nine percent more than last year, according to a survey|access-date=11 May 2010}}{{Cite news|url=http://bianet.org/english/lgbti/221831-survey-nearly-half-of-people-think-lgbti-s-should-have-equal-rights|title=Perceptions of Gender Equality|access-date=11 May 2010}}

When the annual Istanbul Pride was inaugurated in 2003, Turkey became the first Muslim-majority country to hold a gay pride march.{{Cite web|title=Turkey's LGBT community draws hope from Harvey Milk|url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2013/12/turkey-lgbt-discrimination-legal-protection-public-awareness.html|access-date=27 January 2022|website=Al Monitor|date=17 June 2016}} Since 2015, parades at Taksim Square and İstiklal Avenue have been denied government permission, citing security concerns, but hundreds of people have defied the ban each year. The bans were criticized.{{Cite web|title=17th İstanbul LGBTI+ Pride Parade: Police Attack with Shields, Pepper Gas After Pride Parade Statement Read|url=https://www.bianet.org/english/lgbti/209921-police-attack-with-shields-pepper-gas-after-pride-parade-statement-read|website=Bianet – Bagimsiz Iletisim Agi}}

{{Main|Geography of Turkey}}

{{See also|List of national parks of Turkey}}

File:Turkey topo.jpg of Turkey]]

Turkey covers an area of {{convert|783562|km2|sqmi|abbr=off}}.{{cite web|url=http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/DYB2004/Table03.pdf|title=UN Demographic Yearbook|access-date=1 November 2010}} With Turkish straits and Sea of Marmara in between, Turkey bridges Western Asia and Southeastern Europe.{{harvnb|Kuzucuoğlu|2019|p=7}} Turkey's Asian side covers 97% of its surface, and is often called Anatolia.

• {{harvnb|Waskey|2005|p=922}}: "Thrace, its European area, is about the size of VERMONT at 9,412 square mi (24,378 square km). Its Asian area (Asia Minor) is called Anatolia and covers 291,971 square mi (756,202 square km)"
• {{harvnb|Cohen|2008|p=125}}: "Anatolia, [Gr.=sunrise], Asiatic part of Turkey; its area covers 97% of all Turkey"
• {{harvnb|Akbulut|Bayarı|Akbulut|Özyurt|Sahin|2022|p=853}}: "About 97% of the country is in Asia Minor (Anatolia) and 3% in Europe (Thrace)"
• {{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/turkey-turkiye/#geography |title=Turkey (Turkiye) {{pipe}} Geography - note |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |access-date=31 May 2024}}: "the 97% of the country in Asia is referred to as Anatolia"
• {{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Anatolia |title=Anatolia |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=29 February 2024}}: "Anatolia, the peninsula of land that today constitutes the Asian portion of Turkey"
• {{harvnb|Khatchadourian|2012|p=467}}
• {{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=7}}
• {{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/turkey/18.htm |editor=Helen Chapin Metz |title=Turkey: A Country Study {{pipe}} Geography |year=1995 |location=Washington |publisher=GPO for the Library of Congress |access-date=31 May 2024}}: "The Asian part of the country is known by a variety of names--Asia Minor, Asiatic Turkey, the Anatolian Plateau, and Anatolia (Anadolu)" Another definition of Anatolia's eastern boundary is an imprecise line from the Black Sea to Gulf of Iskenderun.{{harvnb|Merriam-Webster, Inc|1997|p=46}}: "Anatolia: The part of Turkey in Asia equivalent to the peninsula of Asia Minor up to indefinite line on E from Gulf of Iskenderun to Black Sea comprising about three fifths of Turkey's provinces" Eastern Thrace, Turkey's European side, includes around 10% of the population and covers 3% of the surface area.{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/turkey/18.htm |editor=Helen Chapin Metz |title=Turkey: A Country Study {{pipe}} Geography |year=1995 |location=Washington |publisher=GPO for the Library of Congress |access-date=31 May 2024}} The country is encircled by seas on three sides: the Aegean Sea to the west, the Black Sea to the north and the Mediterranean Sea to the south.{{harvnb|Waskey|2005|p=922}} Turkey is bordered by Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan and Iran to the east. To the south, it's bordered by Syria and Iraq.{{cite web |url=https://countrystudies.us/turkey/19.htm |editor=Helen Chapin Metz |title=Turkey: A Country Study {{pipe}} External Boundaries |year=1995 |location=Washington |publisher=GPO for the Library of Congress |access-date=31 May 2024}} To the north, its Thracian area is bordered by Greece and Bulgaria.

Turkey is divided into "seven major regions": Marmara, Aegean, Central Anatolia, Black Sea, Eastern Anatolia, Southeastern Anatolia and the Mediterranean. As a general trend, the inland Anatolian Plateau becomes increasingly rugged as it progresses eastward.{{cite web |url=http://www.turizm.net/turkey/info/geography.html|title=Geography of Turkey|publisher=Turkish Ministry of Tourism|access-date=13 December 2006|year=2005}} Mountain ranges include Köroğlu and Pontic mountain ranges to the north, and the Taurus Mountains to the south. The Lakes Region contains some of the largest lakes in Turkey such as Lake Beyşehir and Lake Eğirdir.

File:Türkiye tectonic map.jpg, such as North Anatolian Fault and East Anatolian Fault.]]

Geographers have used the eastern Anatolian plateau, Iranian plateau, and Armenian plateau terms to refer to the mountainous area around where Arabian and Eurasian tectonic plates merge. The eastern Anatolian plateau and Armenian plateau definitions largely overlap.{{harvnb|Khatchadourian|2012|p=467}} The Eastern Anatolia Region contains Mount Ararat, Turkey's highest point at {{convert|5137|m|ft|abbr=off}},{{cite web|title=Mount Ararat|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/32131/Mount-Ararat|website=britannica.com|access-date=18 February 2015}} and Lake Van, the largest lake in the country.{{cite web|title=Lake Van|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/622548/Lake-Van|website=britannica.com|access-date=18 February 2015}} Eastern Turkey is home to the sources of rivers such as the Euphrates, Tigris and Aras. The Southeastern Anatolia Region includes the northern plains of Upper Mesopotamia.

Earthquakes happen frequently in Turkey.{{harvnb|Ahmed|2006|pp=1575–1576}} Almost the entire population lives in areas with varying seismic risk levels, with around 70% in highest or second-highest seismic areas.{{harvnb|ISMEP Guide Books 4|2014|p=8}}{{cite web |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/turkey/overview | title=Türkiye Overview |website=The World Bank |access-date=3 May 2024 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240503171625/https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/turkey/overview |archive-date=3 May 2024}} Anatolian plate is bordered by North Anatolian Fault zone to the north; East Anatolian Fault zone and Bitlis–Zagros collision zone to the east; Hellenic and Cyprus subduction zones to the south; and Aegean extensional zone to the west.{{harvnb|Kuzucuoğlu|Çiner|Kazancı|2019a|p=41}} After 1999 İzmit and 1999 Düzce earthquakes, North Anatolian Fault zone activity "is considered to be one of the most dangerous natural hazards in Turkey".{{harvnb|Kuzucuoğlu|Şengör|Çiner|2019|p=33}} 2023 Turkey–Syria earthquakes were the deadliest in contemporary Turkish history.{{cite web | url=https://apnews.com/article/earthquakes-2023-turkey-syria-earthquake-government-8694408019fb13a8131cb146c347ec88 | title=Rising toll makes quake deadliest in Turkey's modern history | website=Associated Press News | date=14 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231028102813/https://apnews.com/article/earthquakes-2023-turkey-syria-earthquake-government-8694408019fb13a8131cb146c347ec88 |archive-date=28 October 2023 |url-status=live}} Turkey is sometimes unfavorably compared to Chile, a country with a similar developmental level that is more successful with earthquake preparedness.{{cite web | url=https://t24.com.tr/yazarlar/esra-akgemci-america-invertida/sili-ve-turkiye-binalar-yasatir-binalar-oldurur,38646 | title=Şili ve Türkiye: Binalar yaşatır, binalar öldürür | website=T24 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230818082406/https://t24.com.tr/yazarlar/esra-akgemci-america-invertida/sili-ve-turkiye-binalar-yasatir-binalar-oldurur,38646 |archive-date=18 August 2023}}{{cite web | url=https://www.indyturk.com/node/703981/r%C3%B6portaj/profes%C3%B6r-mustafa-erdik-t%C3%BCrkiyede-imar-bar%C4%B1%C5%9F%C4%B1-olmasayd%C4%B1-da-%C3%A7ok-%C5%9Fey-de%C4%9Fi%C5%9Fmezdi | title=Profesör Mustafa Erdik: Türkiye'de imar barışı olmasaydı da çok şey değişmezdi | website=Independent Türkçe |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240406122353/https://www.indyturk.com/node/703981/r%C3%B6portaj/profes%C3%B6r-mustafa-erdik-t%C3%BCrkiyede-imar-bar%C4%B1%C5%9F%C4%B1-olmasayd%C4%B1-da-%C3%A7ok-%C5%9Fey-de%C4%9Fi%C5%9Fmezdi |archive-date=6 April 2024}}{{cite web | url=https://www.bbc.com/turkce/articles/cd125km7pzjo | title=Şili depremle mücadelede nasıl başarılı oldu? | date=29 August 2023 | website=BBC News Türkçe |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231229194006/https://www.bbc.com/turkce/articles/cd125km7pzjo |archive-date=29 December 2023}}

{{Main|Wildlife of Turkey|Fauna of Turkey|Flora and vegetation of Turkey}}

{{See also|Environmental issues in Turkey}}

{{multiple image|perrow = 2 2|total_width=400| align = right

| image1 = Biodiversity Hotspots Map.jpg

| image2 = Uzungöl, Trabzon.jpg

| image3 = Cappadocia Aerial View Landscape.jpg

| image4 = Çıralı, Kemer cropped.jpg

| footer = Top left: Turkey encompasses rich biodiversity;{{harvnb|Kuzucuoğlu|2019|p=7}} it includes three biodiversity hotspot areas out of 36 in the world.{{cite journal |last1=Birben |first1=Üstüner |date=2019 |title=The Effectiveness of Protected Areas in Biodiversity Conservation: The Case of Turkey |journal=CERNE |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=424–438 |doi=10.1590/01047760201925042644 |quote=Turkey has 3 out of the 36 biodiversity hotspots on Earth: the Mediterranean, Caucasus, and Irano-Anatolian hotspots|doi-access=free | issn = 0104-7760 }}

Three examples in the Caucasus, Mediterranean, and Irano-Anatolian hotspot areas are shown (clockwise starting with top right). The Eastern Black Sea Region is home to mountainous terrain and lush forests{{harvnb|Kuzucuoğlu|Çiner|Kazancı|2019a|pp=45–46}} (Uzungöl in Trabzon is shown). Mediterranean Region is "characterized by high relief contrasts and the proximity of the sea"{{harvnb|Kuzucuoğlu|Çiner|Kazancı|2019a|p=66}} (Çıralı village in Antalya is shown). Landscapes in Central Anatolia Region was influenced by volcanic activity{{harvnb|Kuzucuoğlu|Çiner|Kazancı|2019a|p=96}} (Cappadocia in Central Anatolia{{harvnb|Çiner|Aydar|2019|p=535}} is shown).}}

Turkey's position at the crossroads of the land, sea and air routes between the three Old World continents and the variety of the habitats across its ecoregions have produced considerable species diversity and a vibrant ecosystem.{{cite web|title=Biodiversity in Turkey|url=http://iucn.org/about/union/secretariat/offices/europe/?9778/Biodiversity-in-Turkey|access-date=9 August 2014|date=6 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160407201045/http://iucn.org/about/union/secretariat/offices/europe/?9778%2FBiodiversity-in-Turkey|archive-date=7 April 2016}} Out of the 36 biodiversity hotspots in the world, Turkey includes 3 of them.{{cite journal |last1=Birben |first1=Üstüner |date=2019 |title=The Effectiveness of Protected Areas in Biodiversity Conservation: The Case of Turkey |journal=CERNE |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=424–438 |doi=10.1590/01047760201925042644 |quote=Turkey has 3 out of the 36 biodiversity hotspots on Earth: the Mediterranean, Caucasus, and Irano-Anatolian hotspots|doi-access=free | issn = 0104-7760 }} These are the Mediterranean, Irano-Anatolian, and Caucasus hotspots.

The forests of Turkey are home to the Turkey oak. The most commonly found species of the genus Platanus (plane) is the orientalis. The Turkish pine (Pinus brutia) is mostly found in Turkey and other east Mediterranean countries. Several wild species of tulip are native to Anatolia, and the flower was first introduced to Western Europe with species taken from the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.{{cite book|last=Blunt|first=Wilfrid|title=Tulipomania|page=7}}E.S. Forster (trans. et ed.), The Turkish Letters of Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq (Oxford, 1927).

There are 40 national parks, 189 nature parks, 31 nature preserve areas, 80 wildlife protection areas and 109 nature monuments in Turkey such as Gallipoli Peninsula Historical National Park, Mount Nemrut National Park, Ancient Troy National Park, Ölüdeniz Nature Park and Polonezköy Nature Park.{{cite web|title=Statistics|url=http://www.milliparklar.gov.tr/Anasayfa/istatistik.aspx?sflang=tr|website=milliparklar.gov.tr|publisher=Ministry of Forest and Water – General Directorare of Nature Conservation and National Parks|access-date=12 June 2014|archive-date=17 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151217050153/http://www.milliparklar.gov.tr/Anasayfa/istatistik.aspx?sflang=tr}} The Northern Anatolian conifer and deciduous forests is an ecoregion which covers most of the Pontic Mountains in northern Turkey, while the Caucasus mixed forests extend across the eastern end of the range. The region is home to Eurasian wildlife such as the Eurasian sparrowhawk, golden eagle, eastern imperial eagle, lesser spotted eagle, Caucasian black grouse, red-fronted serin, and wallcreeper.{{cite book|last=Couzens|first=Dominic|title=Top 100 Birding Sites of the World|publisher=University of California Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-520-25932-4|pages=73–75}}

The Anatolian leopard is still found in very small numbers in the northeastern and southeastern regions of Turkey.Can, O.E. (2004). [http://www1.nina.no/lcie_new/pdf/635012243306881534_COE%20LCs%20in%20Turkey%202004.pdf Status, conservation and management of large carnivores in Turkey]. Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats. Standing Committee, 24th meeting, 29 November-3 December 2004, Strasbourg.{{cite web|url=http://www.trthaber.com/haber/bilim-teknik/diyarbakirda-oldurulen-leopar-iran-parsi-cikti-109086.html|title=Diyarbakır'da öldürülen leopar İran Parsı çıktı|date=19 November 2013 |access-date=21 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161023123101/http://www.trthaber.com/haber/bilim-teknik/diyarbakirda-oldurulen-leopar-iran-parsi-cikti-109086.html|archive-date=23 October 2016}} The Eurasian lynx, the European wildcat and the caracal are other felid species which are found in the forests of Turkey. The Caspian tiger, now extinct, lived in the easternmost regions of Turkey until the latter half of the 20th century.Üstay, A.H. (1990). Hunting in Turkey. BBA, Istanbul. Renowned domestic animals from Ankara include the Angora cat, Angora rabbit and Angora goat; and from Van Province the Van cat. The national dog breeds are the Kangal (Anatolian Shepherd), Malaklı and Akbaş.{{cite web|title=Specific Animals of Turkey|url=http://www.gateofturkey.com/section/tr/741/5/turizm-nature-tourism-endemic-animals|website=gateofturkey.com|access-date=12 June 2014|archive-date=5 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305111002/http://www.gateofturkey.com/section/tr/741/5/turizm-nature-tourism-endemic-animals}}

{{Main|Climate of Turkey}}

{{See also|Climate change in Turkey}}

File:Koppen-Geiger Map TUR present.svg of Turkey for the 1980–2016 period{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/sdata.2018.214 |title=Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution |date=2018 |last1=Beck |first1=Hylke E. |last2=Zimmermann |first2=Niklaus E. |last3=McVicar |first3=Tim R. |last4=Vergopolan |first4=Noemi |last5=Berg |first5=Alexis |last6=Wood |first6=Eric F. |journal=Scientific Data |volume=5 |pmid=30375988 |pmc=6207062 |bibcode=2018NatSD...580214B }}]]

The coastal areas of Turkey bordering the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas have a temperate Mediterranean climate, with hot, dry summers and mild to cool, wet winters.{{cite web|title=Climate of Turkey|url=http://www.dmi.gov.tr/files/en-US/climateofturkey.pdf|publisher=General Directorate of Meteorology|access-date=24 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328192740/http://www.dmi.gov.tr/files/en-US/climateofturkey.pdf|archive-date=28 March 2014}} The coastal areas bordering the Black Sea have a temperate oceanic climate with warm, wet summers and cool to cold, wet winters. The Turkish Black Sea coast receives the most precipitation and is the only region of Turkey that receives high precipitation throughout the year. The eastern part of the Black Sea coast averages {{convert|2200|mm|in}} annually which is the highest precipitation in the country. The coastal areas bordering the Sea of Marmara, which connects the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea, have a transitional climate between a temperate Mediterranean climate and a temperate oceanic climate with warm to hot, moderately dry summers and cool to cold, wet winters.

File:Lake Marmara.webp has almost dried out due to climate change in Turkey that has resulted in the redirecting of water for irrigation and drinking purposes.{{cite web | title=Lake Marmara dries up, villagers call for action | website=Hürriyet Daily News | date=June 11, 2024 | url=https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/lake-marmara-dries-up-villagers-call-for-action-197286 | access-date=March 4, 2025}} |alt=dried cracked mud with sparse metre-high green plants]]

Snow falls on the coastal areas of the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea almost every winter but usually melts in no more than a few days. However, snow is rare in the coastal areas of the Aegean Sea and very rare in the coastal areas of the Mediterranean Sea. Winters on the Anatolian plateau are especially severe. Temperatures of {{convert|-30|to|-40|C|F}} do occur in northeastern Anatolia, and snow may lie on the ground for at least 120 days of the year, and during the entire year on the summits of the highest mountains. In central Anatolia the temperatures can drop below {{convert|-20|°C|°F|abbr=on}} with the mountains being even colder. Mountains close to the coast prevent Mediterranean influences from extending inland, giving the central Anatolian Plateau a continental climate with sharply contrasting seasons.

Due to socioeconomic, climatic, and geographic factors, Turkey is highly vulnerable to climate change.{{harvnb|World Bank Türkiye - Country Climate and Development Report|2022|p=7}} This applies to nine out of ten climate vulnerability dimensions, such as "average annual risk to wellbeing". OECD median is two out of ten. Inclusive and swift growth is needed for decreasing vulnerability.{{harvnb|World Bank Türkiye - Country Climate and Development Report|2022|p=28}}: "The first prerequisite for reducing vulnerability and impacts of climate change is rapid, robust, and inclusive growth" Turkey aims to achieve net zero emissions by 2053.{{harvnb|World Bank Türkiye - Country Climate and Development Report|2022|p=6}} Accomplishing climate goals would require large investments, but would also result in net economic benefits, broadly due to reduced imports of fuel and due to better health from lowering air pollution.{{harvnb|World Bank Türkiye - Country Climate and Development Report|2022|pp=9,51}}

{{Main|Economy of Turkey}}

{{See also|Tourism in Turkey}}

File:Türkiye-gdp-worldbank-constant-usd.png between 1960 and 2023 in 2015 constant US dollars{{cite web |author=World Bank and OECD (2025) – with minor processing by Our World in Data |date=24 January 2025 |title=Gross domestic product (GDP): In constant US$ – World Bank |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/gdp-worldbank-constant-usd?tab=chart&country=~TUR |website=Our World in Data |access-date=14 April 2025}}{{cite web |author=World Bank national accounts data, and OECD National Accounts data files |date=n.d. |title=GDP (constant 2015 US$) - Turkiye |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD?locations=TR |website=World Bank |access-date=14 April 2025}}]]

Turkey is an upper-middle-income country and an emerging market.{{cite web | url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2021/06/the-future-of-emerging-markets-duttagupta-and-pazarbasioglu.htm |last1=Duttagupta |first1=Rupa |last2=Pazarbasioglu |first2=Ceyla |title=Miles to Go: Emerging markets must balance overcoming the pandemic, returning to more normal policies, and rebuilding their economies | website =International Monetary Fund |access-date =5 May 2024

|url-status =live |archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20240505173301/https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2021/06/the-future-of-emerging-markets-duttagupta-and-pazarbasioglu.htm |archive-date =5 May 2024}} A founding member of the OECD and G20, it is the 16th-largest economy by nominal and the 12th-largest economy by PPP-adjusted GDP in the world.{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2024/October/weo-report?c=512,914,612,171,614,311,213,911,314,193,122,912,313,419,513,316,913,124,339,638,514,218,963,616,223,516,918,748,618,624,522,622,156,626,628,228,924,233,632,636,634,238,662,960,423,935,128,611,321,243,248,469,253,642,643,939,734,644,819,172,132,646,648,915,134,652,174,328,258,656,654,336,263,268,532,944,176,534,536,429,433,178,436,136,343,158,439,916,664,826,542,967,443,917,544,941,446,666,668,672,946,137,546,674,676,548,556,678,181,867,682,684,273,868,921,948,943,686,688,518,728,836,558,138,196,278,692,694,962,142,449,564,565,283,853,288,293,566,964,182,359,453,968,922,714,862,135,716,456,722,942,718,724,576,936,961,813,726,199,733,184,524,361,362,364,732,366,144,146,463,528,923,738,578,537,742,866,369,744,186,925,869,746,926,466,112,111,298,927,846,299,582,487,474,754,698,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2022&ey=2029&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook Database |date=October 2024 |website=International Monetary Fund}} It is classified among newly industrialized countries. Services sector accounts for the majority of the economy, whereas industry accounts for 32%.{{harvnb|OECD|2025|p=7}} Agriculture contributes about 7%.{{harvnb|OECD|2025|p=7}} According to IMF estimates, Turkey's GDP per capita by PPP is $42,451 in 2025, while its nominal GDP per capita is $16,709. Foreign direct investment in Turkey peaked at $22.05 billion in 2007 and dropped to $13.09 billion in 2022.{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/BX.KLT.DINV.CD.WD?locations=TR|title=Foreign direct investment, net inflows (BoP, current US$) – Turkey|publisher=The World Bank|access-date=10 August 2021}} Potential growth is weakened by long-lasting structural and macro obstacles, such as slow rates of productivity growth and high inflation.

Turkey has a diversified economy; main industries include automobiles, electronics, textiles, construction, steel, mining, and food processing.{{cite web| url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/turkey-turkiye/#economy| title=Turkey (Turkiye) - Economy| date=May 2024 |publisher=CIA World Factbook |access-date=9 May 2024}} It is a major agricultural producer.{{cite web |url=https://www.fao.org/turkiye/fao-in-turkiye/turkey-at-a-glance/en/ |title=FAO in Türkiye {{pipe}} Türkiye at a glance |website=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |access-date=17 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221220061208/https://www.fao.org/turkiye/fao-in-turkiye/turkey-at-a-glance/en/ |archive-date=20 December 2022}} Turkey ranks 8th in crude steel production, and 13th in motor vehicle production, ship building (by tonnage), and annual industrial robot installation in the world.

• {{cite web |url=https://worldsteel.org/data/annual-production-steel-data/?ind=P1_crude_steel_total_pub/CHN/IND | title=Total production of crude steel |website=The World Steel Association |date=22 March 2024 }}
• {{Cite web|title=2022 Production Statistics|url=https://www.oica.net/category/production-statistics/2022-statistics/|publisher=OICA|accessdate=18 April 2023|website=oica.net}}
• {{cite web |url=https://unctadstat.unctad.org/datacentre/dataviewer/US.ShipBuilding |title=Ships built by country of building, annual |date=8 November 2023 |publisher=United Nations Conference on Trade and Development |access-date=9 May 2024}}
• {{cite web| url=https://www.marinedealnews.com/in-world-ranking-we-are-6th-based-on-the-number-of-pieces-and-13th-based-on-tonnage |title='In world ranking, we are 6th based on the number of pieces, and 13th based on tonnage' |date=15 June 2022 |access-date=9 May 2024}}
• {{cite web| url=https://ifr.org/wr-industrial-robots/ |title=World Robotics - Industrial Robots |website=The International Federation of Robotics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240521174431/https://ifr.org/wr-industrial-robots/ |archive-date=21 May 2024}} Turkish automative companies include TEMSA, Otokar, BMC and Togg. Togg is the first all-electric vehicle company of Turkey. Arçelik, Vestel, and Beko are major manufacturers of consumer electronics.{{cite journal |doi=10.2139/ssrn.1274804 |title=Integration with the Global Economy: The Case of Turkish Automobile and Consumer Electronics Industries |date=2008 |last1=Taymaz |first1=Erol |last2=Yilmaz |first2=Kamil |hdl=10986/28034 |journal=SSRN|hdl-access=free}} Arçelik is one of the largest producers of household goods in the world.{{cite web |url=https://www.ft.com/content/256a6a6c-e355-44d3-b8b7-a6cc90996d3a |title=Beko owner warns of 'very tough' 2024 for Europe's home appliance market |publisher=Financial Times |date=31 October 2023 |access-date=10 May 2024 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240509230916/https://www.ft.com/content/256a6a6c-e355-44d3-b8b7-a6cc90996d3a |archive-date=9 May 2024}} In 2022, Turkey ranked second in the world in terms of the number of international contractors in the top 250 list.{{cite web |url=https://www.tmb.org.tr/files/doc/TCIM_01022023.pdf |title= Turkish International Contracting Services: (1972-2022) |website=Turkish Contractors Association |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240114161257/https://www.tmb.org.tr/files/doc/TCIM_01022023.pdf |archive-date=14 January 2024}} It is also the fifth largest in the world in terms of textile exports.{{cite web |url=https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/migration/tr/Sectoral_Roadmaps_Textile_Sector_in_Turkey-re2.pdf |title=Sectoral Roadmaps: Textile Sector in Turkey |website=United Nations Development Programme |year=2020}} Turkish Airlines is one of the largest airlines in the world.

File:Bodrum - 39976741843.jpg in Turkish Riviera. Bodrum peninsula is a high-end spot for vacationers.{{harvnb|Kuzucuoğlu|Çiner|Kazancı|2019a|p=62}}]]

Between 2007 and 2021, the share of population below the PPP-$6.85 per day international poverty threshold declined from 20% to 7.6%. In 2023, 13.9% of the population was below the national at-risk-of-poverty rate.{{cite web | url=https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=Poverty-and-Living-Conditions-Statistics-2023-53713&dil=2 | title=Poverty and Living Conditions Statistics, 2023 |publisher=Turkish Statistical Institute |website=www.tuik.gov.tr |date=30 January 2024 |access-date=5 May 2024}} In 2021, 34% of the population were at risk of poverty or social exclusion, using Eurostat definition.{{cite web |url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/ilc_peps01n/default/table?lang=en

|title=Persons at risk of poverty or social exclusion by age and sex

|date=2022

|publisher=Eurostat

|access-date=5 May 2024

|doi=10.2908/ILC_PEPS01N

|author1=Eurostat

}} Unemployment in Turkey was 10.4% in 2022.{{Cite web|title=Unemployment, total (% of total labor force) (national estimate) – Turkey {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.UEM.TOTL.NE.ZS?locations=TR|access-date=14 April 2021|website=data.worldbank.org}} In 2021, it was estimated that 47% of total disposable income was received by the top 20% of income earners, while the lowest 20% received only 6%.{{cite web|url=https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=Income-and-Living-Conditions-Survey-2021-45581&dil=2|date=6 May 2022|title=Income and Living Conditions Survey, 2021|author-link=Turkish Statistical Institute|publisher=Turkish Statistical Institute|access-date=6 January 2023}}

Tourism accounts for about 8% of Turkey's GDP.{{cite web |url=https://wttc.org/news-article/turkeys-travel-and-tourism-sector-to-grow-at-twice-the-rate-of-the-national-economy |title=Turkey's Travel & Tourism Sector to Grow at Twice the Rate of the National Economy |website=World Travel and Tourism Council |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240121043536/https://wttc.org/news-article/turkeys-travel-and-tourism-sector-to-grow-at-twice-the-rate-of-the-national-economy |archive-date=21 January 2024}} In 2022, Turkey ranked fifth in the world in the number of international tourist arrivals with 50.5 million foreign tourists.{{cite web|url=https://webunwto.s3.eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/2023-05/UNWTO_Barom23_02_May_EXCERPT_final.pdf?VersionId=gGmuSXlwfM1yoemsRrBI9ZJf.Vmc9gYD |title=International Tourism – 2023 starts on a strong note with the Middle East recovering 2019 levels in the first quarter|website=UNWTO|access-date=25 August 2023}} Turkey has 21 UNESCO World Heritage Sites and 84 World Heritage Sites in tentative list. Turkey is home to 519 Blue Flag beaches, third most in the world.{{cite web|url=https://www.blueflag.global/all-bf-sites|title=Blue Flag sites|website=Blue Flag}} According to Euromonitor International report, Istanbul is the most visited city in the world, with more than 20.2 million foreign visitors in 2023.{{cite web |title=2023's Top 100 City Destinations Ranking: Triumphs and Turmoil Uncovered |website=Euromonitor International |date=11 December 2023 |access-date=2 January 2024|url=https://www.euromonitor.com/article/2023s-top-100-city-destinations-ranking-triumphs-and-turmoil-uncovered}} Antalya has surpassed Paris and New York to become the fourth most visited city in the world, with more than 16.5 million foreign visitors.

{{Main|Energy in Turkey|Renewable energy in Turkey|Transport in Turkey}}

{{See also|Communications in Turkey|Water supply and sanitation in Turkey}}

File:Elazığ Keban Barajı.jpg in Elazığ Province on the Euphrates. In 2019, Turkey generated 29.2% of its electricity from hydroelectricity.{{harvnb|IEA|2021|p=187}}]]

Turkey is the 15th-largest electricity and 13th-largest renewable electricity producer in the world. Turkey's energy generation capacity increased significantly, with electricity generation from renewable sources tripling in the past decade.{{cite web |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/results/2019/04/12/30-years-of-world-bank-group-partnership-with-turkey-achieving-development-results-together |title=30 Years of World Bank Group Partnership with Turkey: Achieving Development Results Together |website=World Bank |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230508085807/https://www.worldbank.org/en/results/2019/04/12/30-years-of-world-bank-group-partnership-with-turkey-achieving-development-results-together |archive-date=8 May 2023}}{{harvnb|IEA|2021|p=3}} It produced 43.8% of its electricity from such sources in 2019.{{harvnb|IEA|2021|p=73}} Turkey is also the fourth-largest producer of geothermal power in the world.{{cite news|last=Richter|first=Alexander|url=https://www.thinkgeoenergy.com/the-top-10-geothermal-countries-2019-based-on-installed-generation-capacity-mwe/|title=The Top 10 Geothermal Countries 2019 – based on installed generation capacity (MWe)|publisher=Think GeoEnergy – Geothermal Energy News|date=27 January 2020|access-date=19 February 2021|archive-date=26 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126085813/https://www.thinkgeoenergy.com/the-top-10-geothermal-countries-2019-based-on-installed-generation-capacity-mwe/|url-status=live}} Turkey's first nuclear power station, Akkuyu, will increase diversification of its energy mix.{{harvnb|IEA|2021|p=11}} When it comes to total final consumption, fossil fuels still play a large role, accounting for 73%.{{harvnb|IEA|2021|pp=18–19}} A major reason of Turkey's greenhouse gas emissions is the large proportion of coal in the energy system.{{harvnb|IEA|2021|p=172}} As of 2017, while the government had invested in low carbon energy transition, fossil fuels were still subsidized.{{harvnb|Taranto|Saygın|2019|p=7}} By 2053, Turkey aims to have net zero emissions.

File: İstanbul_Havalimanı_Airport_2019_24.jpg has an annual passenger capacity of 90 million and is the world's largest terminal building under a single roof.]]

Turkey has made security of its energy supply a top priority, given its heavy reliance on gas and oil imports. Turkey's main energy supply sources are Russia, West Asia, and Central Asia. Gas production began in 2023 in the recently discovered Sakarya gas field. When fully operational, it will supply about 30% of the natural gas needed domestically.{{cite web |url=https://www.offshore-technology.com/news/tpao-production-sakarya/ |title=Turkey's TPAO begins gas production from Sakarya field in Black Sea |date=21 April 2023 |url-status=live |archive-date=10 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240310035925/https://www.offshore-technology.com/news/tpao-production-sakarya/}}{{cite web |url=https://www.offshore-technology.com/projects/sakarya-gas-field-development-black-sea-turkey/ |title=Sakarya Gas Field Development, Black Sea, Turkey |date=1 February 2023}} Turkey aims to become a hub for regional energy transportation.{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e21535|doi-access=free |title=Turkey's quest to become a regional energy hub: Challenges and opportunities |date=2023 |last1=Novikau |first1=Aliaksandr |last2=Muhasilović |first2=Jahja |journal=Heliyon |volume=9 |issue=11 |pages=e21535 |pmid=38027852 |pmc=10660518 |bibcode=2023Heliy...921535N }} Several oil and gas pipelines span the country, including the Blue Stream, TurkStream, and Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipelines.

As of 2023, Turkey has 3,726 kilometers of controlled-access highways and 29,373 kilometers of divided highways.{{harvnb|KGM|2023|pp=12, 14}} Multiple bridges and tunnels connect Asian and European sides of Turkey; the Çanakkale 1915 Bridge on the Dardanelles strait is the longest suspension bridge in the world.{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/60823822 |title=Turkey opens record breaking 1915 Canakkale Bridge |newspaper=BBC Newsround |date=22 March 2022 |url-status=live |archive-date=27 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220327010256/https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/60823822}} Marmaray and Eurasia tunnels under the Bosporus connect both sides of Istanbul.{{cite web|url=http://aa.com.tr/en/economy/istanbuls-13bn-eurasia-tunnel-prepares-to-open/709440|title=Istanbul's $1.3BN Eurasia Tunnel prepares to open|publisher=Anadolu Agency|date=19 December 2016}} The Osman Gazi Bridge connects the northern and southern shores of the Gulf of İzmit.

Turkish State Railways operates both conventional and high speed trains, with the government expanding both.{{cite news |url=https://www.trthaber.com/haber/ekonomi/turkiye-cumhuriyetin-100-yilinda-hizli-tren-aglariyla-oruluyor-806423.html |title=Türkiye, Cumhuriyet'in 100. Yılında hızlı tren ağlarıyla örülüyor |website=TRT Haber |date=25 October 2023 |url-status=live |archive-date=3 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231103231440/https://www.trthaber.com/haber/ekonomi/turkiye-cumhuriyetin-100-yilinda-hizli-tren-aglariyla-oruluyor-806423.html}} High-speed rail lines include the Ankara-Istanbul, Ankara-Konya, and Ankara-Sivas routes.{{cite web |url=https://www.tcddtasimacilik.gov.tr/seferler/yuksek-hizli-tren |title=Yüksek Hızlı Tren |website=TCDD Taşımacılık |access-date=14 May 2024}} Istanbul Metro is the largest subway network in the country with around 704 million annual ridership in 2019.{{cite news |url=https://www.metro.istanbul/Content/assets/uploaded/Y%C4%B1llara-G%C3%B6re-Hat-Bazl%C4%B1-Ayl%C4%B1k-Yolcu-Say%C4%B1lar%C4%B1.pdf |title=Istanbul Metro Passenger Statistics |newspaper=Istanbul Metro |language=tr |date=6 January 2020 |access-date=16 January 2020 |archive-date=27 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727060224/https://www.metro.istanbul/Content/assets/uploaded/Y%C4%B1llara-G%C3%B6re-Hat-Bazl%C4%B1-Ayl%C4%B1k-Yolcu-Say%C4%B1lar%C4%B1.pdf |url-status=dead }} There are 115 airports as of 2024.{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/turkey-turkiye/#transportation |title=Turkey (Turkiye) |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |access-date=14 May 2024}} Istanbul Airport is one of the top 10 busiest airports in the world. Turkey aims to become a transportation hub.{{cite news |url=https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-is-advancing-on-path-to-becoming-logistics-super-power-erdogan-172956 |title=Erdoğan reveals 2053 'Transport and Logistics Master Plan' |date=13 April 2022 |website=Hürriyet Daily News}}{{cite journal |last1=Atlı |first1=Altay |year=2018 |title=Turkey as a Eurasian Transport Hub: Prospects for Inter-Regional Partnership |url=https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/perception/issue/39593/468106 |journal=PERCEPTIONS: Journal of International Affairs |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=117–134}} It is part of various routes that connect Asia and Europe, including the Middle Corridor. In 2024, Turkey, Iraq, UAE, and Qatar signed an agreement to link Iraqi port facilities to Turkey via road and rail connections.{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/iraq-turkey-qatar-uae-sign-preliminary-deal-cooperate-development-road-project-2024-04-22/ |title=Iraq, Turkey, Qatar, UAE sign preliminary deal to cooperate on Development Road project |website=Reuters |date=22 April 2024}}

{{Main|Science and technology in Turkey}}

{{See also|Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey}}

File:TaiIDEF2015 (8).JPG, Göktürk-2 and Göktürk-3 are the Earth observation satellites of the Turkish Ministry of National Defense, while state-owned Türksat operates the Türksat series of communications satellites.]]

Turkey's spending on research and development as a share of GDP has risen from 0.47% in 2000 to 1.40% in 2021.{{cite web |url=https://data.oecd.org/rd/gross-domestic-spending-on-r-d.htm |doi=10.1787/d8b068b4-en |author=OECD |title=Gross domestic spending on R&D (indicator) |year=2024 |access-date=16 May 2024}} Turkey ranks 16th in the world in terms of article output in scientific and technical journals, and 35th in Nature Index.{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/IP.JRN.ARTC.SC?most_recent_value_desc=true | title=Scientific and technical journal articles |website=The World Bank |access-date=15 May 2024}}{{cite web |url=https://www.nature.com/nature-index/country-outputs/generate/all/global |title=Nature Index {{pipe}} Country/Territory tables |website=Nature |access-date=15 May 2024}} Turkish patent office ranks 21st worldwide in overall patent applications, and 3rd in industrial design applications. Vast majority of applicants to the Turkish patent office are Turkish residents. In all patent offices globally, Turkish residents rank 21st for overall patent applications.{{Cite web |ref={{harvid|WIPO Intellectual property statistical country profile 2022: Türkiye|2023}} |author=World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) |year=2023 |title=Intellectual property statistical country profile 2022: Türkiye |url=https://www.wipo.int/edocs/statistics-country-profile/en/tr.pdf |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328212456/https://www.wipo.int/edocs/statistics-country-profile/en/tr.pdf |url-status=live}} In 2024, Turkey ranked 37th in the world and 3rd among its upper-middle income group in the Global Innovation Index.{{harvnb|World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)|2024|p=18}}

TÜBİTAK is one of the main agencies for funding and carrying out research.{{cite web|url=https://tubitak.gov.tr/en/institutional/about-us/who-we-are |title=Who we are |publisher=TÜBİTAK |access-date=15 May 2024}}{{cite web |url=https://euraxess.ec.europa.eu/worldwide/north-america/news/country-profile-turkiye |title=EURAXESS {{pipe}} Country profile: Türkiye |website=The European Union |date=4 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240419174635/https://euraxess.ec.europa.eu/worldwide/north-america/news/country-profile-turkiye |archive-date=19 April 2024 |url-status=live}} Turkey's space program plans to develop a national satellite launch system, and to improve capabilities in space exploration, astronomy, and satellite communication. Under the Göktürk Program, Turkish Space Systems, Integration and Test Center was built.{{cite book |doi=10.1109/RAST.2015.7208318 |last1=Uygur |first1=A. B. |last2=Haktanir |first2=O. O. |last3=Yılmaz |first3=F. |last4=Işik |first4=H. G. |last5=Aşansü |first5= Z. |chapter=Turkey's new Assembly, Integration and Test (AIT) center and its comparison with AIT centers in Europe |pages=71–74 |isbn=978-1-4673-7760-7 |year=2015 |title=2015 7th International Conference on Recent Advances in Space Technologies (RAST)}} Turkey's first communication satellite manufactured domestically, Türksat 6A, will be launched in 2024.{{cite news |url=https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/production-process-of-turksat-6a-completed-minister-192933 |title=Production process of Türksat-6A completed: Minister |website=Hürriyet Daily News |date=29 April 2024 }} As part of a planned particle accelerator center, an electron accelerator called TARLA became operational in 2024.{{cite journal |doi=10.1088/1742-6596/347/1/012008 |title=The status and road map of Turkish Accelerator Center (TAC) |date=2012 |last1=Yavaş |first1=Ö. |journal=Journal of Physics: Conference Series |volume=347 |issue=1 |page=012008 |bibcode=2012JPhCS.347a2008Y |doi-access=free }}{{cite news |url=https://www.trthaber.com/haber/bilim-teknoloji/yerli-super-iletken-elektron-hizlandiricisi-devreye-alindi-856187.html |title=Yerli süper iletken elektron hızlandırıcısı devreye alındı |date=8 May 2024 |website=TRT Haber |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240511083602/https://www.trthaber.com/haber/bilim-teknoloji/yerli-super-iletken-elektron-hizlandiricisi-devreye-alindi-856187.html |archive-date=11 May 2024}} An Antarctic research station is planned on Horseshoe Island.{{cite web|url=https://polarjournal.ch/en/2021/02/25/turkey-plans-its-own-antarctic-station/|title=Turkey plans its own Antarctic station|access-date=3 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231101134048/https://polarjournal.ch/en/2021/02/25/turkey-plans-its-own-antarctic-station/ |archive-date=1 November 2023}}

Turkey is considered a significant power in unmanned aerial vehicles.{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/14751798.2022.2068562 |title=Turkey's rise as a drone power: Trial by fire |date=2022 |last1=Rossiter |first1=Ash |last2=Cannon |first2=Brendon J. |journal=Defense & Security Analysis |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=210–229 }} Aselsan, Turkish Aerospace Industries, Roketsan, and Asfat are among the top 100 defense companies in the world.{{cite news |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/turkiye/turkiyes-4-defense-firms-included-in-worlds-top-100-list/2963037 |title=Türkiye's 4 defense firms included in world's top 100 list |website=Anadolu Ajansı |date=7 August 2023}} Turkish defense companies spend a significant portion of their budgets for research and development.{{cite news |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/science-technology/turkish-defense-giants-devote-huge-budgets-to-rd/2417345 |website=Anadolu Ajansı |title=Turkish defense giants devote huge budgets to R&D |date=10 November 2021}} Aselsan also invests in research in quantum technology.{{cite news| url=https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/bilim-teknoloji/aselsanin-kuantum-calismalarinda-ilk-urunler-ortaya-cikti/3093412| title=ASELSAN'ın kuantum çalışmalarında ilk ürünler ortaya çıktı |date=27 December 2023 |website=Anadolu Agency}}

{{Main|Demographics of Turkey}}

{{see also|Turkish people}}

File:Modern Istanbul skyline.jpg is Turkey's largest city,{{cite web |date=6 February 2023 |title=The Results of Address Based Population Registration System, 2022 |url=https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=The-Results-of-Address-Based-Population-Registration-System-2022-49685&dil=2 |access-date=22 May 2023 |publisher=Turkish Statistical Institute}} and its economic and financial center.]]

According to the Address-Based Population Recording System, the country's population was 85,372,377 in 2023, excluding Syrians under temporary protection. 93% lived in province and district centers. People within the 15–64 and 0–14 age groups corresponded to 68.3% and 21.4% of the total population, respectively. Those aged 65 years or older made up 10.2%. Between 1950 and 2020, Turkey's population more than quadrupled from 20.9 million to 83.6 million;{{cite web|url=http://www.turkstat.gov.tr/PreTablo.do?tb_id=39&ust_id=11 |title=Population Statistics And Projections |publisher=Turkstat.gov.tr |access-date=24 July 2023}} however, the population growth rate was 0.1% in 2023. In 2023, the total fertility rate was 1.51 children per woman, below the replacement rate of 2.10 per woman.{{cite web |url=https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=Birth-Statistics-2023-53708 |title=Birth Statistics, 2023 |publisher=Turkish Statistical Institute |website=www.tuik.gov.tr |date=15 May 2024 |access-date=19 May 2024}} In a 2018 health survey, the ideal children number was 2.8 children per woman, rising to 3 per married woman.{{harvnb|Hacettepe University Institute of Population Studies|2019|p=72}}

{{see also|Turkish people|Minorities in Turkey|Languages of Turkey|Turkish language}}

File:Kurdish population by region (KONDA 2010).png by region{{cite web|title=Kürt Meselesi̇ni̇ Yeni̇den Düşünmek|url=http://www.konda.com.tr/tr/raporlar/2010_12_KONDA_Kurt_Meselesini_Yeniden_Dusunmek.pdf|publisher=KONDA|access-date=11 June 2013|pages=19–20|date=July 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160122110447/http://www.konda.com.tr/tr/raporlar/2010_12_KONDA_Kurt_Meselesini_Yeniden_Dusunmek.pdf|archive-date=22 January 2016|url-status=dead}}]]

Article 66 of the Turkish Constitution defines a Turk as anyone who is a citizen.{{Cite book|last=Bayir|first=Derya|title=Minorities and Nationalism in Turkish Law|date=22 April 2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-09579-8|pages=144–145}} It is estimated that there are at least 47 ethnic groups represented in Turkey.{{cite journal |doi=10.1017/S0020743800063819 |title=Ethnic Kurds in Turkey: A Demographic Study |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=517–541 |year=1996 |last1=Mutlu |first1=Servet |s2cid=154212694}} Reliable data on the ethnic mix of the population is not available because census figures do not include statistics on ethnicity after the 1965 Turkish census.{{Cite book|title=The other languages of Europe: Demographic, Sociolinguistic and Educational Perspectives|first=Guus|last=Extra|author2=Gorter, Durk |publisher=Multilingual Matters|year=2001|isbn=978-1-85359-509-7|url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=hvmy_skUPNYC |page=RA1-PA422}}}} According to the World Factbook, 70–75% of the country's citizens are ethnic Turks. Based on a survey, KONDA's estimation was 76% in 2006, with 78% of adult citizens self-identifying their ethnic background as Turk.{{harvnb|KONDA|2006|p=17}} In 2021, 77% of adult citizens identified as such in a survey.{{cite web |url=https://interaktif.konda.com.tr/rapor/if-turkey-were-100-people/10 |title=If Turkey Had 100 People |website=KONDA |access-date=7 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240307190745/https://interaktif.konda.com.tr/rapor/if-turkey-were-100-people/10 |archive-date=7 March 2024 |url-status=live}}

Kurds are the largest ethnic minority.{{harvnb|Kirişci|Winrow|1997|pp=119–121}} Their exact numbers remain disputed, with estimates ranging from 12 to 20% of the population.{{Cite book| publisher = Cambridge University Press| isbn = 978-1-139-45236-6| last = Migdal| first = Joel S.| title = Boundaries and Belonging: States and Societies in the Struggle to Shape Identities and Local Practices|year=2004|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pbmTC-Nm8nEC&pg=PA129 |page=129}} The Kurds make up a majority in the provinces of Ağrı, Batman, Bingöl, Bitlis, Diyarbakır, Hakkari, Iğdır, Mardin, Muş, Siirt, Şırnak, Tunceli and Van; a near majority in Şanlıurfa (47%); and a large minority in Kars (20%).{{cite book|last=Watts|first=Nicole F.|title=Activists in Office: Kurdish Politics and Protest in Turkey (Studies in Modernity and National Identity)|date=2010|publisher=University of Washington Press|isbn=978-0-295-99050-7|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yXWl40KJfKEC&dq=Kars+%28about+20+percent+Kurdish%29&pg=PA167 167]}} In addition, internal migration has resulted in Kurdish diaspora communities in all of the major cities in central and western Turkey. In Istanbul, there are an estimated three million Kurds, making it the city with the largest Kurdish population in the world.{{cite book|author=Amikam Nachmani|title=Turkey: Facing a New Millenniium: Coping With Intertwined Conflicts|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xxp61eBvGzMC&pg=PA90|access-date=5 May 2013|year=2003|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=978-0-7190-6370-1|pages=90–}} 19% of adult citizens identified as ethnic Kurds in a survey in 2021. Some people have multiple ethnic identities, such as both Turk and Kurd.{{harvnb|Kirişci|Winrow|1997|p=3}}{{harvnb|Heper|2007|p=54}} In 2006, an estimated 2.7 million ethnic Turks and Kurds were related from interethnic marriages.{{harvnb|KONDA|2006|p=18}}

File:Map-TurkicLanguages.png]]

According to the World Factbook, non-Kurdish ethnic minorities are 7–12% of the population. In 2006, KONDA estimated that non-Kurdish and non-Zaza ethnic minorities constituted 8.2% of the population; these were people that gave general descriptions such as Turkish citizen, people with other Turkic backgrounds, Arabs, and others. In 2021, 4% of adult citizens identified as non-ethnic Turk or non-ethnic Kurd in a survey. According to the Constitutional Court, there are only four officially recognized minorities in Turkey: the three non-Muslim minorities recognized in the Treaty of Lausanne (Armenians, Greeks, and Jews{{efn|Even though they are not explicitly mentioned in the Treaty of Lausanne.}}) and the Bulgarians.{{efn|The Bulgarian community in Turkey is now so small that this disposition is de facto not applied.{{Cite book |last=Bayır |first=Derya |title=Minorities and nationalism in Turkish law |date=2013 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing |isbn=978-1-4094-7254-4 |series=Cultural Diversity and Law|url=https://www.academia.edu/37557239| pages=88–90, 203–204}}{{Cite journal |last=Köksal |first=Yonca |date=2006 |title=Minority Policies in Bulgaria and Turkey: The Struggle to Define a Nation |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14683850601016390 |journal=Southeast European and Black Sea Studies|volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=501–521 |doi=10.1080/14683850601016390 |s2cid=153761516 |issn=1468-3857}}{{Cite journal |first=Kader |last=Özlem |date=2019 |title=An Evaluation on Istanbul's Bulgarians as the "Invisible Minority" of Turkey |url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=802933 |journal=Turan-Sam|volume=11 |issue=43 |pages=387–393 |issn=1308-8041}}}}{{Cite journal |last1=Toktaş |first1=Şule |last2=Araş |first2=Bulent |date=2009 |title=The EU and Minority Rights in Turkey |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25655744 |journal=Political Science Quarterly |volume=124 |issue=4 |pages=697–720 |doi=10.1002/j.1538-165X.2009.tb00664.x |jstor=25655744 |issn=0032-3195}}{{Citation |last=Yağmur |first=Kutlay |title=Turkish and other languages in Turkey |date=2001 |url=https://research.tilburguniversity.edu/en/publications/turkish-and-other-languages-in-turkey |work=The Other Languages of Europe |pages=407–427 |editor-last=Extra |editor-first=G. |access-date=6 October 2023 |place=Clevedon |publisher=Multilingual Matters |isbn=978-1-85359-510-3 |editor2-last=Gorter |editor2-first=D.|quote="Mother tongue" education is mostly limited to Turkish teaching in Turkey. No other language can be taught as a mother tongue other than Armenian, Greek, and Hebrew, as agreed in the Lausanne Treaty [...] Like Jews and Greeks, Armenians enjoy the privilege of an officially recognized minority status. [...] No language other than Turkish can be taught at schools or at cultural centers. Only Armenian, Greek, and Hebrew are exceptions to this constitutional rule.}}{{cite journal|first=Reyhan|last= Zetler|url=https://www.sagw.ch/fileadmin/redaktion_judaistik/dokumente/Judaistik/2014/III.%20R.%20Zetler%20-%20Bulletin%20SGJF%20Nr.%2023%20%282014%29.pdf |title=Turkish Jews between 1923 and 1933 – What Did the Turkish Policy between 1923 and 1933 Mean for the Turkish Jews?|journal=Bulletin der Schweizerischen Gesellschaft für Judaistische Forschung|issue= 23 |oclc=865002828|page=26|year=2014}} In 2013, the Ankara 13th Circuit Administrative Court ruled that the minority provisions of the Lausanne Treaty should also apply to Assyrians in Turkey and the Syriac language.Ankara 13th Circuit Administrative Court, 18 June 2013 (E. 2012/1746, K. 2013/952).{{Cite journal |last=Akbulut |first=Olgun |date=19 October 2023 |title=For Centenary of the Lausanne Treaty: Re-Interpretation and Re-Implementation of Linguistic Minority Rights of Lausanne |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/ijgr/aop/article-10.1163-15718115-bja10134/article-10.1163-15718115-bja10134.xml |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=-1 |issue=aop |pages=1–24 |doi=10.1163/15718115-bja10134 |s2cid=264412993 |issn=1385-4879}}{{Cite journal |last1=Erdem |first1=Fazıl Hüsnü |last2=Öngüç |first2=Bahar |date=30 June 2021 |title=Süryanıce Anadılınde Eğıtım Hakki: Sorunlar Ve Çözüm Önerılerı |url=https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/duhfd/issue/63313/959939 |journal=Dicle Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi |language=tr |volume=26 |issue=44 |pages=3–35 |issn=1300-2929}} Other unrecognized ethnic groups include Albanians, Bosniaks, Circassians, Georgians, Laz, Pomaks, and Roma.{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ffpPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA328 |title=Fathers Across Cultures: The Importance, Roles, and Diverse Practices of Dads: The Importance, Roles, and Diverse Practices of Dads|author=Jaipaul L. Roopnarine|year=2015|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-4408-3232-1|page=328|quote=Kurds are the largest ethnic minority group (about 20%), and Armenians, Greeks, Sephardic Jews,...}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.alaraby.co.uk/english/politics/2015/6/8/turkeys-ethnic-make-up-a-complex-melting-pot|title=Turkey's ethnic make-up: A complex melting pot|first=Abubakr|last=al-Shamahi|website=alaraby|date=8 June 2015 |access-date=3 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107013139/https://www.alaraby.co.uk/english/politics/2015/6/8/turkeys-ethnic-make-up-a-complex-melting-pot|archive-date=7 November 2017}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-ethnic-groups-of-turkey.html|title=The Ethnic Groups Of Turkey|website=WorldAtlas|date=18 July 2019}}

The official language is Turkish, which is the most widely spoken Turkic language in the world.{{cite book|last=Katzner|first=Kenneth|author-link=Kenneth Katzner|title=Languages of the World, Third Edition|publisher=Routledge|date=2002|isbn=978-0-415-25004-7}}{{cite web|title=Turkey Overview |date=19 June 2015 |url=http://minorityrights.org/4387/turkey/turkey-overview.html |publisher=minorityrights.org |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150909185440/http://www.minorityrights.org/4387/turkey/turkey-overview.html |archive-date= 9 September 2015}} It is spoken by 85%{{harvnb|KONDA|2006|p=19}}{{cite web|url=http://www.milliyet.com.tr/2007/03/22/guncel/agun.html |title=Türkiye'nin yüzde 85'i 'anadilim Türkçe' diyor|publisher=Milliyet.com.tr|access-date=4 November 2012}} to 90%{{harvnb|Kornfilt|2018|p=537}} of the population as a first language. Kurdish speakers are the largest linguistic minority. A survey estimated 13% of the population speak Kurdish or Zaza as a first language. Other minority languages include Arabic, Caucasian languages, and Gagauz. The linguistic rights of the officially recognized minorities are de jure recognized and protected for Armenian, Bulgarian, Greek, Hebrew,{{efn|The Turkish government considers that, for the purpose of the Treaty of Lausanne, the language of Turkish Jews is Hebrew, even though the mother tongue of Turkish Jews was not Hebrew but historically Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino) or other Jewish languages.}} and Syriac. There are multiple endangered languages in Turkey.

{{Largest cities in Turkey|class=info}}

{{Main|Immigration to Turkey}}

Excluding Syrians under temporary protection, there were 1,570,543 foreign citizens in Turkey in 2023. Millions of Kurds fled across the mountains to Turkey and the Kurdish areas of Iran during the Gulf War in 1991. Turkey's migrant crisis in the 2010s and early 2020s resulted in the influx of millions of refugees and immigrants.{{cite web|title=Trends in International Migrant Stock: The 2013 Revision|url=http://esa.un.org/unmigration/migrantstocks2013.htm?mtotals|website=esa.un.org|publisher=United Nations|access-date=14 August 2014|archive-date=10 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151210154150/http://esa.un.org/unmigration/migrantstocks2013.htm?mtotals|url-status=dead}} Turkey hosts the largest number of refugees in the world as of April 2020.{{Cite web |title=Syria Regional Refugee Response: Turkey |url=https://data2.unhcr.org/en/situations/syria/location/113 |access-date=21 April 2020 |publisher=unhcr.org}} The Disaster and Emergency Management Presidency manages the refugee crisis in Turkey. Before the start of the Syrian civil war in 2011, the estimated number of Arabs in Turkey varied from 1 million to more than 2 million.{{cite web |author=Luke Coffey |date=18 February 2016 |title=Turkey's demographic challenge |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2016/02/turkey-demographic-challenge-arabs-syria-refugees-isis-160218063810080.html |publisher=www.aljazeera.com}}

In November 2020, there were 3.6 million Syrian refugees in Turkey;{{cite web |url=https://data.unhcr.org/en/documents/details/83698 |title=UNHCR Turkey Operational Update November 2020 |date=15 December 2020 |website=UNHCR |access-date=10 March 2024 }} these included other ethnic groups of Syria, such as Syrian Kurds{{cite web |url=https://www.unhcr.org/news/stories/number-syrian-kurds-fleeing-turkey-nears-140000-humanitarian-needs-mount |title=Number of Syrian Kurds fleeing to Turkey nears 140,000; humanitarian needs mount |date=23 September 2014 |website=UNHCR |access-date=10 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231027202735/https://www.unhcr.org/news/stories/number-syrian-kurds-fleeing-turkey-nears-140000-humanitarian-needs-mount |archive-date=27 October 2023}} and Syrian Turkmens.{{cite news |last=Pamuk |first=Humeyra |date=29 January 2016 |title=Syrian Turkmens cross to Turkey, fleeing advances of pro-Assad forces |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-turkmens-idUSKCN0V720O/ |work=Reuters |access-date=10 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230715213553/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-turkmens-idUSKCN0V720O/ |archive-date=15 July 2023}} As of August 2023, the number of these refugees was estimated to be 3.3 million. The number of Syrians had decreased by about 200,000 people since the beginning of the year.{{cite web |title=Number of Syrians in Turkey July 2023 – Refugees Association |url=https://multeciler.org.tr/eng/number-of-syrians-in-turkey/ |website=multeciler.org.tr}} The government has granted citizenship to 238 thousand Syrians by November 2023.{{cite news |date=9 November 2023 |title=İçişleri Bakanı Yerlikaya, Türk vatandaşı olan Suriyelilerin sayısının 238 bine yaklaştığını açıkladı |url=https://www.bbc.com/turkce/articles/c1e29v09d3eo |work=BBC |access-date=10 March 2024}} As of May 2023, approximately 96,000 Ukrainian refugees of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine have sought refuge in Turkey.{{cite web |title=Uncertain Futures: Ukrainian Refugees in Turkey, One Year On |url=https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/uncertain-futures-ukrainian-refugees-turkey-one-year |website=pulitzercenter.org |access-date=11 May 2023}} In 2022, nearly 100,000 Russian citizens migrated to Turkey, becoming the first in the list of foreigners who moved to Turkey, meaning an increase of more than 218% from 2021.{{cite web |last1=Airport |first1=Turkish Airlines planes are parked at the new Istanbul |title=Russian migration to Turkey spikes by 218% in aftermath of Ukraine war – Al-Monitor: Independent, trusted coverage of the Middle East |url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2023/07/russian-migration-turkey-spikes-218-aftermath-ukraine-war |website=al-monitor.com|date=24 July 2023}}

{{Main|Religion in Turkey}}

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| image1 = Camlica Mosque Bosporus Istanbul.jpg

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| footer = Left: Çamlıca Mosque in Istanbul was designed by two female architects.{{cite web |url=https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/istanbuls-giant-mosque-to-be-women-friendly-architects-say-74329 |title=Istanbul's giant mosque to be 'women-friendly,' architects say |website=Hürriyet Daily News |date=14 November 2014}} Right: Mor Hananyo Monastery near Mardin. From 1293 to 1932, it was the headquarters of Syriac Orthodox Church.{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6534/ |title=Late Antique and Medieval Churches and Monasteries of Midyat and Surrounding Area (Tur 'Abdin) |website=UNESCO |date=15 April 2021}}{{cite book |last=Markessini |first=J. |title=Around the World of Orthodox Christianity – Five Hundred Million Strong: The Unifying Aesthetic Beauty |publisher=Dorrance Publishing Company |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-4349-1486-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eVkphDtrW3AC |access-date=25 October 2019|page=31}}

}}

Turkey is a secular state with no official state religion; the constitution provides for freedom of religion and conscience.{{cite web|author=Axel Tschentscher|url=http://servat.unibe.ch/icl/tu00000_.html|title=International Constitutional Law: Turkey Constitution|publisher=Servat.unibe.ch|access-date=1 November 2010}}{{cite web|url=http://www.hsfk.de/downloads/prif78.pdf |title=Turkey: Islam and Laicism Between the Interests of State, Politics, and Society |publisher=Peace Research Institute Frankfurt |access-date=19 October 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081028211305/http://www.hsfk.de/downloads/prif78.pdf |archive-date=28 October 2008}} According to the CIA World Factbook, Muslims constitute 99.8% of the population, most of them being Sunni. Based on a survey, KONDA's estimate for Muslims was 99.4% in 2006.{{harvnb|KONDA|2006|p=24}} According to Minority Rights Group International, estimates of share of Alevi are between 10% and 40% of the population.{{cite web|title=World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – Turkey: Alevis |url=http://www.refworld.org/docid/49749c9950.html|website=refworld.org|access-date=22 April 2015}} KONDA's estimate was 5% in 2006. 4% of adult citizens identified as Alevi in a survey in 2021, while 88% identified as Sunni.

The percentage of non-Muslims in modern-day Turkey was 19.1% in 1914, but fell to 2.5% in 1927.{{cite journal|last1=İçduygu|first1=Ahmet|last2=Toktaş|first2=Şule|last3=Ali Soner |first3=B. |s2cid=143541451 |title=The politics of population in a nation-building process: Emigration of non-Muslims from Turkey|journal=Ethnic and Racial Studies|url=https://www.academia.edu/761694|date=1 February 2008|volume=31|issue=2|pages=358–389|doi=10.1080/01419870701491937}} Currently, non-Muslims constitute 0.2% of the population according to the World Factbook. In 2006, KONDA's estimate was 0.18% for people with non-Islam religions. Some of the non-Muslim communities are Armenians, Assyrians, Bulgarian Orthodox, Catholics, Greeks, Jews, and Protestants.{{harvnb|Grigoriadis|2012|p=290}} Sources estimate that the Christian population in Turkey ranges between 180,000 and 320,000.{{Cite web |title=Türkiye farklı inançlara sağlanan ibadet yeri sayısında Batı'nın 5 kat önünde |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/ayasofya-camii/turkiye-farkli-inanclara-saglanan-ibadet-yeri-sayisinda-batinin-5-kat-onunde/1907134 |access-date=2024-08-23 |website=www.aa.com.tr}}{{cite web|url=https://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2011/12/Christianity-fullreport-web.pdf|title=Global Christianity - A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Christian Population|publisher=Pew Research Center|access-date=June 2, 2022|archive-date=February 1, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201151952/https://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2011/12/Christianity-fullreport-web.pdf|url-status=live}} Turkey has the largest Jewish community among the Muslim-majority countries.{{Cite book |last=DellaPergola|first=Sergio|url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030039066|title=The American Jewish Year Book, 2018|publisher=Dordrecht: Springer|year=2018|isbn=978-3-030-03906-6|editor-last=Dashefsky|editor-first=Arnold|volume=118|pages=361–452|chapter=World Jewish Population, 2018|editor-last2=Sheskin|editor-first2=Ira M.|chapter-url=https://www.jewishdatabank.org/content/upload/bjdb/2018-World_Jewish_Population_(AJYB,_DellaPergola)_DB_Final.pdf}} Currently, there are 439 churches and synagogues in Turkey.{{Cite web|url=https://www.indyturk.com/node/88486/haber/t%C3%BCrkiye%E2%80%99de-hristiyan-ve-yahudilere-ait-439-ibadethane-ve-24-dernek-var|title=Türkiye'de Hristiyan ve Yahudilere ait 439 ibadethane ve 24 dernek var|website=Independent Türkçe}}

In 2006, KONDA's estimate was 0.47% for those with no religion. According to KONDA, share of adult citizens who identified as unbeliever increased from 2% in 2011 to 6% in 2021. A 2020 Gezici Araştırma poll found that 28.5% of the Generation Z identify as irreligious.{{Cite web|url=https://www.sozcu.com.tr/2020/gundem/gezici-arastirma-merkezi-baskani-murat-gezici-sozcuye-acikladi-turkiyenin-kaderi-z-kusaginin-elinde-5867771/|title=Gezici Araştırma Merkezi Başkanı Murat Gezici SÖZCÜ'ye açıkladı: Türkiye'nin kaderi Z kuşağının elinde|website=sozcu.com.tr|date=11 June 2020}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.gercekgundem.com/siyaset/188215/gezici-arastirma-merkezi-baskani-murat-gezici-turkiyenin-kaderi-z-kusaginin-elinde|title=Gezici Araştırma Merkezi Başkanı Murat Gezici: Türkiye'nin kaderi Z kuşağının elinde|website=gercekgundem.com|date=11 June 2020}}

{{Main|Education in Turkey}}

File:Istanbul_asv2021-10_img10_Taşkışla.jpg is the world's third-oldest technical university.{{Cite web |title=World Oldest Universities |url=http://www.topuniversities.com/worlduniversityrankings/results/2007/overall_rankings/worlds_oldest_universities |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080115092116/http://www.topuniversities.com/worlduniversityrankings/results/2007/overall_rankings/worlds_oldest_universities |archivedate=15 January 2008}}]]

In the past 20 years, Turkey has improved quality of education and has made significant progress in increasing education access.{{harvnb|OECD Taking stock of education reforms for access and quality in Türkiye|2023|p=3}} From 2011 to 2021, improvements in education access include "one of the largest increases in educational attainment for 25-34 year-olds at upper secondary non-tertiary or tertiary education", and quadrupling of pre-school institutions.{{harvnb|OECD Taking stock of education reforms for access and quality in Türkiye|2023|p=35}} PISA results suggest improvements in education quality. There is still a gap with OECD countries. Significant challenges include differences in student outcomes from different schools, differences between rural and urban areas, pre-primary education access, and arrival of students who are Syrian refugees.

The Ministry of National Education is responsible for pre-tertiary education.{{cite web|title=Education in Turkey|url=http://www.wes.org/ewenr/12sept/feature.htm|publisher=World Education Services|access-date=12 June 2013}} Compulsory education is free at public schools and lasts 12 years, divided into three parts.{{cite web |title=Turkish Higher Education System |url=https://www.studyinturkiye.gov.tr/StudyinTurkey/ShowDetail?rID=Ec/rgHEN8Zg=&&cId=PE4Nr0mMoY4= |website=Study in Türkiye |access-date=21 May 2024}} There are 208 universities in Turkey. Students are placed to universities based on their YKS results and their preferences, by the Measuring, Selection and Placement Center.{{cite web |url=https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-education-systems/turkiye/bachelor |title=Eurydice {{pipe}} Türkiye |website=The European Union |date=27 November 2023}} All state and private universities are under the control of the Higher Education Board ({{langx|tr|Yükseköğretim Kurulu}}, YÖK). Since 2016, the president of Turkey directly appoints all rectors of all state and private universities.{{cite web|title=Turkish universities latest domino in Erdogan's path|url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2016/11/turkey-erdogan-took-full-control-of-universities.html|author=Mustafa Akyol|publisher=Al-Monitor|date=7 November 2016}}

According to the 2024 Times Higher Education ranking, the top universities were Koç University, Middle East Technical University, Sabancı University, and Istanbul Technical University.{{cite web |url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings/2024/world-ranking#!/length/25/locations/TUR/sort_by/rank/sort_order/asc/cols/stats |title=World University Rankings 2024 |website=Times Higher Education |date=25 September 2023 |access-date=22 May 2024}} According to Academic Ranking of World Universities, the top ones were Istanbul University, University of Health Sciences (Turkey), and Hacettepe University.{{cite web |url=https://www.shanghairanking.com/rankings/arwu/2023 |title=2023 Academic Ranking of World Universities |website=Shanghai Ranking |access-date=22 May 2024}} Turkey is a member of the Erasmus+ Programme.{{cite web |url=https://erasmus-plus.ec.europa.eu/programme-guide/part-a/eligible-countries |title=Erasmus+ EU programme for education, training, youth and sport {{pipe}} Eligible countries |website=The European Union |access-date=22 May 2024}} Turkey has become a hub for foreign students in recent years, with 795,962 foreign students in 2016.{{cite web|url=https://www.ntv.com.tr/egitim/turkiyedeki-yabanci-ogrenci-sayisi-795-bin-962ye-ulasti,OpnWuWDZLkyNsTNv5cZTpg|title=Türkiye'deki yabancı öğrenci sayısı 795 bin 962'ye ulaştı|access-date=5 January 2022}} In 2021 Türkiye Scholarships, a government-funded program, received 165,000 applications from prospective students in 178 countries.{{cite web|url=http://www.unze.ba/download/Turkey%20Scholarships.pdf |title=Türkıye Scholarships – Türkıye for Education |access-date=30 August 2013}}{{cite web|url=http://www.turkiyeburslari.gov.tr/index.php/en/sss-2 |title=Türkiye Scholarships-FAQ |access-date=30 August 2013}}{{cite web|url=https://turkeyscholarship.com/|title=Scholarships|website=Turkey Scholarship|access-date=7 January 2019}}

{{Main|Health care in Turkey}}

File:BaşakşehirCityHospital (1).jpg in Istanbul. It contains 2,068 seismic base isolation units to withstand earthquakes.{{cite web |url=https://camsakurasehir.saglik.gov.tr/TR-899525/basaksehir-cam-ve-sakura-sehir-hastanesinde-2-bin-68-sismik-izolator-var.html |title=Başakşehir Çam ve Sakura Şehir Hastanesi'nde 2 bin 68 sismik izolatör var |date=14 February 2023 |website=Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Sağlık Bakanlığı}}]]

The Ministry of Health has run a universal public healthcare system since 2003.{{cite journal |doi=10.1056/NEJMp1410433 |title=Transforming Turkey's Health System — Lessons for Universal Coverage |date=2015 |last1=Atun |first1=Rifat |journal=New England Journal of Medicine |volume=373 |issue=14 |pages=1285–1289 |pmid=26422719}} Known as Universal Health Insurance ({{lang|tr|Genel Sağlık Sigortası}}), it is funded by a tax surcharge on employers, currently at 5%. Public-sector funding covers approximately 75.2% of health expenditures. Despite the universal health care, total expenditure on health as a share of GDP in 2018 was the lowest among OECD countries at 6.3% of GDP, compared to the OECD average of 9.3%. There are many private hospitals in the country.{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/19371918.2020.1806167 |title=Turkish Health Policies: Past, Present, and Future |date=2020 |last1=Oguz |first1=Ahmet Bunyan |journal=Social Work in Public Health |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=456–472 |pmid=32811368 }} The government planned several hospital complexes, known as city hospitals, to be constructed since 2013. Turkey is one of the top 10 destinations for health tourism.{{cite news |url=https://www.trtworld.com/turkiye/turkiye-ranks-among-top-10-health-tourism-destinations-globally-17798805 |title=Türkiye ranks among top 10 health tourism destinations globally |website=TRT World |access-date=22 May 2024}}

Average life expectancy is 78.6 years (75.9 for males and 81.3 for females), compared with the EU average of 81 years. Turkey has high rates of obesity, with 29.5% of its adult population having a body mass index (BMI) value of 30 or above.{{cite web |title=WHO Mean Body Mass Index (BMI) |url=https://www.who.int/gho/ncd/risk_factors/bmi_text/en/ |publisher=World Health Organization |access-date=5 February 2019}} Air pollution is a major cause of early death.{{Cite journal|last1=Akyuz|first1=Ezgi|last2=Samavati|first2=Mehrdad|last3=Kaynak|first3=Burcak|date=14 August 2020|title=Spatial distribution of health risks associated with PM2.5 in Turkey and Iran using satellite and ground observations |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1309104220302312 |journal=Atmospheric Pollution Research|volume=11|issue=12|pages=2350–2360 |doi=10.1016/j.apr.2020.08.011|bibcode=2020AtmPR..11.2350A |s2cid=225477420|issn=1309-1042}}

{{Main|Culture of Turkey}}

{{see also|Arts in Turkey|Turkish folklore|Festivals in Turkey}}

In the 19th century, Turkish identity was debated in the Ottoman Empire, with three main views: Turkism, Islamism and Westernism.{{harvnb|Kaya|2004|pp=57–59}} In addition to Europe or Islam, Turkish culture was also influenced by Anatolia's native cultures.{{harvnb|Kaya|2004|p=58}} After the establishment of the republic, Kemalism emphasized Turkish culture, attempted to make "Islam a matter of personal conviction", and pursued modernization.{{harvnb|Kaya|2004|p=63}} Currently, Turkey has various local cultures. Things such as music, folk dance, or kebap variety may be used to identify a local area. Turkey also has a national culture, such as national sports leagues, music bands, film stars, and trends in fashion.{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=6}} Turkey is home to 21 UNESCO World Heritage sites and 31 UNESCO intangible cultural heritage inscriptions.{{cite web |url=https://www.unesco.org/en/countries/tr |title=Türkiye |date= |website=UNESCO |access-date=2 March 2024 |archive-date=2 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240302171641/https://www.unesco.org/en/countries/tr |url-status=live }}

{{Main|Turkish literature|Theatre of Turkey|Turkish art}}

File:Orhan Pamuk.jpg-laureate Turkish novelist Orhan Pamuk and his Turkish Angora cat at his personal writing space]]

File:Süreyya Opera House in Istanbul, Turkey.jpg is on the Asian side of Istanbul and Atatürk Cultural Center is the main opera house on the European side. Zorlu PSM is the city's largest performing arts theater and concert hall.]]

Turkish literature goes back more than a thousand years. The Seljuk and Ottoman periods include numerous works of literature and poetry. Turkic tales and poetry from Central Asia were also kept alive. Tales of Dede Korkut is an example of the oral narrative tradition. Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk, from the 11th century, contains Turkish linguistic information and poetry. Yunus Emre, influenced by Rumi, was one of the most important writers of Anatolian Turkish poetry. Ottoman Divan poetry used "refined diction" and complex vocabulary. It included Sufi mysticism, romanticism, and formal elements.{{harvnb|Halman|2012|pp=76–85}}

Beginning in the 19th century, Ottoman literature was influenced by the West. New genres, such as novels and journalistic style, were introduced. {{lang|tr|Aşk-ı Memnu}}, written by Halid Ziya Uşaklıgil, was the "first truly refined Turkish novel". Fatma Aliye Topuz, the first female Turkish novelist, wrote fiction. After the proclamation of the republic in 1923, Atatürk instituted reforms such as the language reform and alphabet reform. Since then, Turkish literature reflected the socioeconomic conditions in Turkey with increasing variety. "Village Novel" genre appeared in the mid-1950s, which talked about difficulties faced from poverty. An example is Memed, My Hawk by Yaşar Kemal, which was Turkey's first Nobel Prize in Literature nominee in 1973.{{cite news |date=27 February 2021 |title=Turkey commemorates master author Yaşar Kemal |url=https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-commemorates-master-author-yasar-kemal-162737 |work=Hürriyet Daily News}} Orhan Pamuk won the 2006 Nobel Prize in Literature.

Turkey has four "major theatrical traditions": "folk theatre, popular theatre, court theater, and Western theater." Turkish folk theatre goes back thousands of years and has survived among rural communities. Popular theatre includes plays by live actors, puppet and shadow plays, and storytelling performances. An example for shadow play is {{lang|tr|Karagöz and Hacivat}}. Court theatre was the refined version of popular theatre. Beginning in the 19th century, Western theatre tradition started appearing in Turkey. Following the establishment of Turkish Republic, a state conservatory and the State Theatre Company were formed.{{cite journal |last1=And |first1=M. |year=1983 |title=Theatre in Turkey |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/43385121 |journal=Turkish Studies Association Bulletin |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=20–31|jstor=43385121 }}

Turkey's visual arts scene can be categorized into two, as "decorative" and "fine" arts. Fine arts, or {{lang|tr|güzel sanatlar}}, includes sculpture and painting. Turkish artists in these areas have gained global recognition. Photography, fashion design, graphic arts, and graphic design are some of the other areas Turkish artists are known for in the world. The inaugural contemporary Turkish art sale by Sotheby's London was in 2009. Istanbul Modern and the Istanbul Biennial are examples of art galleries or exhibitions of contemporary Turkish art. Turkey has also seen a resurgence of traditional arts. This includes Ottoman-era traditional arts, such as ceramics and carpets. Textile and carpet design, glass and ceramics, calligraphy, paper marbling (ebru) are some of the art forms for which modern-day Turkish artists are recognized as leaders in the Islamic world.{{harvnb|Denny|2012|pp=94–95}}

{{Main|Turkish folk dance|Music of Turkey}}

File:Baris Manco.jpg was a Turkish rock musician and one of the founders of the Anatolian rock genre.]]

Although classifying genres of Turkish music can be problematic, three broad categories can be considered. These are "Turkish folk music", "Turkish art music", and multiple popular music styles. These Popular music styles include arabesque, pop, and Anatolian rock.{{harvnb|Stokes|2010|p=14}}

The resurging popularity of pop music gave rise to several international Turkish pop stars such as Ajda Pekkan, Sezen Aksu, Erol Evgin, MFÖ, Tarkan, Sertab Erener, Teoman, Kenan Doğulu, Levent Yüksel and Hande Yener.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}} Internationally acclaimed Turkish jazz and blues musicians and composers include Ahmet Ertegun.{{Cite web |title=Award Winning Legends |date=28 February 2018 |url=https://www.jazzdergisi.com/en/odullu-ustalar-ahmet-ertegun/}}

{{Main|Architecture of Turkey}}

{{See also|Ottoman architecture}}

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| caption1 = Built by Mimar Sinan, Selimiye Mosque in Edirne is an example of classical Ottoman architecture.

| caption2 = Tayyare Apartments in Istanbul, an example of the first national architectural movement

| caption3 = With its traditional Turkish houses, Odunpazarı district in Eskişehir is a tentative UNESCO World Heritage site.{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5733/ |title=Odunpazari Historical Urban Site |website=UNESCO |date=13 April 2012}}

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Turkey is home to numerous Neolithic settlements, such as Çatalhöyük.{{harvnb|Sagona|Zimansky|2015|pp=44–46; 82–86}} From the Bronze Age, important architectural remnants include Alaca Höyük and the 2nd layer of Troy. There are various examples of Ancient Greek and Ancient Roman architectures, especially in the Aegean region.{{harvnb|Matthews|2014|pp=9–13}} Byzantine architecture dates back to the 4th century AD. Its best example is Hagia Sophia. Byzantine architectural style continued to develop after the conquest of Istanbul, such as Byzantine Revival architecture.{{harvnb|Curl|Wilson|2021|loc=Byzantine architecture}} During Seljuk Sultanate of Rum and Turkish principalities period, a distinct architecture emerged, which incorporated Byzantine and Armenian architectures with architectural styles found in West Asia and Central Asia.{{harvnb|Bloom|Blair|2009|loc=Architecture {{pipe}} V. c. 900–c. 1250 {{pipe}} C. Anatolia}} Seljuk architecture often used stones and bricks, and produced numerous caravanserais, madrasas and mausoleums.{{harvnb|Curl|Wilson|2021|loc=Seljuk or Saljuk architecture}}

Ottoman architecture emerged in northwest Anatolia and Thrace. Early Ottoman architecture mixed "traditional Anatolian Islamic architecture with local building materials and techniques".{{harvnb|Bloom|Blair|2009|loc=Architecture {{pipe}} VI. c. 1250–c. 1500 {{pipe}} B. Anatolia {{pipe}} 2. Ottomans to 1453 }} Following the conquest of Istanbul, classical Ottoman architecture emerged in the 16th and 17th centuries.{{harvnb|Bloom|Blair|2009|loc=Architecture {{pipe}} VII. c. 1500–c. 1900 {{pipe}} A. Ottoman Empire}} The most important architect of the classical period is Mimar Sinan, whose major works include the Şehzade Mosque, Süleymaniye Mosque, and Selimiye Mosque. Beginning in the 18th century, Ottoman architecture was influenced by European elements, resulting in development of Ottoman baroque style.{{harvnb|Bloom|Blair|2009|loc=Architecture {{pipe}} VII. c. 1500–c. 1900 {{pipe}} A. Ottoman Empire {{pipe}} 2. Turkey}} European influence continued in the 19th century; examples include works of Balyan family such as neo-Baroque style Dolmabahçe Palace.{{harvnb|Bloom|Blair|2009|loc=Architecture {{pipe}} VII. c. 1500–c. 1900 {{pipe}} A. Ottoman Empire {{pipe}} 2. Turkey; Balyan [ Balian]}} The last period of Ottoman architecture consists of the First National Architectural Movement, including works of Vedat Tek and Mimar Kemaleddin.

Since 1918, Turkish architecture can be divided into three parts. From 1918 to 1950, the first one includes the First National Architectural Movement period, which transitioned into modernist architecture. Modernist and monumental buildings were preferred for public buildings, whereas "Turkish house" type vernacular architecture influenced private houses. From 1950 to 1980, the second part includes urbanization, modernization, and internationalization. For residential housing, "reinforced concrete, slab-block, medium-rise apartments" became prevalent. Since 1980, the third part is defined by consumer habits and international trends, such as shopping malls and office towers. Luxury residences with "Turkish house style" have been in demand.{{harvnb|Bozdogan|2009|loc=Turkey, since 1918}} In the 21st century, urban renewal projects have become a trend.{{harvnb|Bozdogan|Akcan|2013|p=284}} Resilience against natural disasters such as earthquakes is one of the main goals for urban renewal projects.{{harvnb|Tuğaç|2023|p=1469}}

Around one-third of Turkey's building stock, corresponding to 6.7 million units, were assessed risky and needing urban renewal.{{harvnb|Tuğaç|2023|p=1465}}

{{Main|Turkish cuisine}}

{{see also|Ottoman cuisine}}

File:Turkish coffee in Istanbul.jpg with Turkish delight. Turkish coffee is a UNESCO-listed intangible cultural heritage of Turks.{{cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/index.php?lg=en&pg=00011&RL=00645 |title= Turkish coffee culture and tradition|publisher=UNESCO |date=5 December 2013|access-date=18 August 2014}}{{cite news |last=Çakır Morin |first=Arzu |date=5 December 2013 |title=Türk kahvesi Unesco korumasında |language= tr |url=http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/kultur-sanat/25284675.asp |newspaper=Hürriyet |access-date=18 August 2014}}]]

Turkey has a diverse and rich cuisine, varying geographically.{{cite journal |last1=Yayla |first1=Önder |last2=Aktaş |first2=Semra Günay |year=2021 |title=Mise en place for gastronomy geography through food: Flavor regions in Turkey |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1878450X21000834 |journal=International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science |volume=26 |doi=10.1016/j.ijgfs.2021.100384 |access-date=2 March 2024 |archive-date=2 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240302171641/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1878450X21000834 |url-status=live }} Turkish cuisine has been influenced by Anatolian, Mediterranean, Iranian, Central Asian, and East Asian cuisines.{{harvnb|Algar|2014|loc=Turkey}} Turkish and Ottoman cuisine have also influenced others. Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk, from the 11th century, documents "the ancient lineage of much of present-day Turkish cuisine". Güveç, Bulgur, and Börek are some of the earliest recorded examples of Turkish cuisine. Even though kebab as a word comes from Persian, Turkic people had been familiar with using skewers to cook meat. Turkish cuisine can be distinguished by its various kinds of kebabs. Similarly, pilaf dishes were influenced by Turkish cuisine. Further information about cuisine during the Seljuk and Ottoman periods comes from the works of Rumi and Evliya Çelebi. The latter describes "food-related guilds of Istanbul".

Food staples in Turkey include bread and yogurt. Some of bread varieties are lavash and {{lang|tr|pide}} (a type of pita bread). Ayran is a drink made of yoghurt. In western parts of Turkey, olive oil is used. Grains include wheat, maize, barley, oats, and millet. Beans, chickpeas, nuts, aubergines, and lamb are some of the commonly used ingredients. Doner kebab, originally from Turkey, is marinated lamb slices cooked vertically.{{harvnb|Jaine|2014|loc=doner kebab}} Seafood includes anchovy and others. Dolma varieties and {{lang|tr|mantı}} are made by stuffing vegetables or pasta. Sarma is made by rolling edible leaf over the filling.{{harvnb|Perry|2014a|loc=dolma}} Yahni dishes are vegetable stews. Turkey is one of the countries with the meze tradition.{{harvnb|Davidson|Jaine|2014|loc=mezze}} Honey, pekmez, dried fruit, or fruit are used for sweetening. Filo is an originally Turkish dough that is used to make baklava.{{harvnb|Perry|2014b|loc=filo}}: "Although known to Europeans and N. Americans by a Greek name, the dough is clearly of Turkish origin." Turkish delight is a "delicate but gummy jelly".{{harvnb|Davidson|Jaine|2014|loc=Turkish delight}}

{{Main|Sport in Turkey}}

{{see also|Football in Turkey}}

File:AUT vs. TUR 2016-03-29 (001).jpg at UEFA Euro 2016]]

The most popular sport is association football.{{cite web|url=http://www.allaboutturkey.com/sports.htm|title=Sports in Turkey|author=Burak Sansal|publisher=allaboutturkey.com|access-date=13 December 2006|year=2006}} Galatasaray won the UEFA Cup and UEFA Super Cup in 2000.{{cite web|title=Galatasaray AŞ|url=https://www.uefa.com/nationalassociations/teams/50067--galatasaray/|website=UEFA|access-date=10 August 2014}} The Turkey national football team won the bronze medal at the 2002 FIFA World Cup, the 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup and UEFA Euro 2008.{{cite web|title=Historical Achievements.|url=http://www.tff.org/default.aspx?pageID=297|website=tff.org|access-date=10 August 2014}}

Other mainstream sports such as basketball and volleyball are also popular.{{cite web|url=http://en.espn.co.uk/basketball/sport/story/206057.html|title=Basketball Capitals: Cities in Focus – Istanbul|website=espn.co.uk|author=Ian Whittell|publisher=ESPN Sports Media Ltd.|access-date=22 December 2022}} The men's national basketball team and women's national basketball team have been successful. Anadolu Efes S.K. is the most successful Turkish basketball club in international competitions.{{cite web|url=http://en.efesbasket.org/the_clup/icerik.aspx?SectionId=103 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080503203721/http://en.efesbasket.org/the_clup/icerik.aspx?SectionId=103 |archive-date=3 May 2008 |title=Historic achievements of the Efes Pilsen Basketball Team |publisher=Anadolu Efes Spor Kulübü |access-date=9 February 2013}}{{cite web|url=http://en.efesbasket.org/Efes-Pilsen-History/Our-Successes.aspx |title=Anadolu Efes S.K.: Our successes |access-date=9 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324184003/http://en.efesbasket.org/Efes-Pilsen-History/Our-Successes.aspx |archive-date=24 March 2012}} Fenerbahçe reached the final of the EuroLeague in three consecutive seasons (2015–2016, 2016–2017 and 2017–2018), becoming the European champions in 2017.

File:Vakifbanksk2018cl.jpg is one of the best women's volleyball team in the world, having won the FIVB World Championship four times and the CEV Champions Cup six times.]]

The final of the 2013–14 EuroLeague Women basketball championship was played between two Turkish teams, Galatasaray and Fenerbahçe, and won by Galatasaray.{{cite web|title=Galatasaray Lift EuroLeague Women Title|url=http://www.fibaeurope.com/euroleaguewomen/cid_-tmRPCfrIrYRSO2M5V49E1.compID_jr6ZiXqeGhMBtfq1yxqV83.roundID_9680.season_2014.gameID_9752-16-A-1.html|website=fibaeurope.com|access-date=10 August 2014}} Fenerbahçe won the 2023 FIBA Europe SuperCup Women after two consecutive Euroleague wins in the 2022–23 and 2023–24 seasons.

The women's national volleyball team has won several medals.{{cite web|title=National Team's Activities|url=http://www.tvf.org.tr/icerik/36/|website=tvf.org.tr|access-date=10 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140829153101/http://www.tvf.org.tr/icerik/36/|archive-date=29 August 2014}} Women's volleyball clubs, namely VakıfBank S.K., Fenerbahçe and Eczacıbaşı, have won numerous European championship titles and medals.{{cite web|url=https://championsleague.cev.eu/en/match-centres/cev-champions-league-volley-2023/cev-champions-league-volley-2023-women/clvw-93-vakifbank-istanbul-v-eczacibasi-dynavit-istanbul/|title=2023 CEV Women's Champions League Super Final: VakifBank Istanbul – Ezcacibasi Dynavit Istanbul|website=championsleague.cev.eu|date=20 May 2023}}

The traditional national sport of Turkey has been yağlı güreş (oil wrestling) since Ottoman times.{{cite web|url=http://www.allaboutturkey.com/yagligures.htm|title=Oiled Wrestling|author=Burak Sansal|publisher=allaboutturkey.com|access-date=13 December 2006|year=2006}} Edirne Province has hosted the annual Kırkpınar oil wrestling tournament since 1361, making it the oldest continuously held sporting competition in the world.{{Cite web|url=https://www.dailysabah.com/sports/2018/07/13/historical-kirkpinar-oil-wrestling-festival-kicks-off-in-northwestern-turkey|title=Historical Kırkpınar oil wrestling festival kicks off in northwestern Turkey|website=Daily Sabah|date=13 July 2018}}{{cite web|url=http://www.kirkpinar.com/home.php?link=history&dil=en|title=Kırkpınar Oiled Wrestling Tournament: History|publisher=Kirkpinar.com|date=21 April 2007|access-date=1 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080801224941/http://www.kirkpinar.com/home.php?link=history&dil=en|archive-date=1 August 2008}} In the 19th and early 20th centuries, oil wrestling champions such as Koca Yusuf, Nurullah Hasan and Kızılcıklı Mahmut acquired international fame in Europe and North America by winning world heavyweight wrestling championship titles. International wrestling styles governed by FILA such as freestyle wrestling and Greco-Roman wrestling are also popular, with many European, World and Olympic championship titles won by Turkish wrestlers both individually and as a national team.{{cite web|first=Christiane |last=Gegner |url=https://www.iat.uni-leipzig.de/datenbanken/dbfoeldeak/start.php |title=FILA Wrestling Database |publisher=Iat.uni-leipzig.de |access-date=1 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090313024550/http://www.iat.uni-leipzig.de/datenbanken/dbwrest/start.php/ |archive-date=13 March 2009}}

{{Main|Media in Turkey}}

{{See also|Cinema of Turkey}}

Hundreds of television channels, thousands of local and national radio stations, several dozen newspapers, a productive and profitable national cinema and a rapid growth of broadband Internet use constitute a vibrant media industry in Turkey.{{cite web|title=The Political Economy of the Media in Turkey: A Sectoral Analysis |url=http://www.tesev.org.tr/Upload/Publication/67e244dd-5c21-4d34-8361-4c7f3d003140/11461ENGmedya2WEB21_09_11.pdf |website=tesev.org.tr |access-date=18 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120716153048/http://www.tesev.org.tr/Upload/Publication/67e244dd-5c21-4d34-8361-4c7f3d003140/11461ENGmedya2WEB21_09_11.pdf |archive-date=16 July 2012}}{{cite web|url=https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=45587&dil=2|title=Survey on Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Usage in Households and by Individuals, 2022|publisher=Turkish Statistical Institute|website=data.tuik.gov.tr|date=26 August 2022}} The majority of the TV audiences are shared among public broadcaster TRT and the network-style channels such as Kanal D, Show TV, ATV and Star TV. The broadcast media have a very high penetration as satellite dishes and cable systems are widely available.[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Turkey.pdf Turkey country profile]. Library of Congress Federal Research Division (January 2006). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. The Radio and Television Supreme Council (RTÜK) is the government body overseeing the broadcast media.{{cite web|url=https://www.rtuk.gov.tr/en/about-rtuk/5297/5083/about-rtuk.html|title=About RTÜK|publisher=The Radio and Television Supreme Council (RTÜK)|access-date=18 April 2020|archive-date=6 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806210918/https://www.rtuk.gov.tr/en/about-rtuk/5297/5083/about-rtuk.html}} By circulation, the most popular newspapers are Posta, Hürriyet, Sözcü, Sabah and Habertürk.{{cite web|url=http://www.gazeteciler.com/gazete-tirajlari.html|title=Gazete Tirajları 02.05.2016 – 08.05.2016|access-date=1 August 2016|work=Gazeteciler.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151219145010/http://www.gazeteciler.com/gazete-tirajlari.html|archive-date=19 December 2015}}

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Filiz Akın, Fatma Girik, Hülya Koçyiğit, and Türkan Şoray represent their period of Turkish cinema.{{harvnb|Akser|2018|p=156}} Turkish directors like Metin Erksan, Nuri Bilge Ceylan, Yılmaz Güney, Zeki Demirkubuz and Ferzan Özpetek won numerous international awards such as the {{Lang|fr|Palme d'Or|italic=no}} and Golden Bear.{{cite web |url=http://www.berlinale.de/en/archiv/jahresarchive/1964/03_preistr_ger_1964/03_Preistraeger_1964.html |title=Berlinale 1964: Prize Winners |access-date=20 February 2010 |work=berlinale.de |archive-date=19 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150319032841/http://www.berlinale.de/en/archiv/jahresarchive/1964/03_preistr_ger_1964/03_Preistraeger_1964.html}} Turkish television dramas are increasingly becoming popular beyond Turkey's borders and are among the country's most vital exports, both in terms of profit and public relations.{{cite web|author=Jenna Krajeski|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/turkey-diyarbakir-kurdish-roles-soap-opera-politics-ayrilik-olmasaydi|title=Turkey: Soap Operas and Politics|work=Pulitzer Center |access-date=15 January 2013|date=30 March 2012|archive-date=17 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117025311/http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/turkey-diyarbakir-kurdish-roles-soap-opera-politics-ayrilik-olmasaydi}} After sweeping the Middle East's television market over the past decade, Turkish shows have aired in more than a dozen South and Central American countries in 2016.{{cite web|url=http://www.ibtimes.com/telenovelas-turkish-dramas-why-turkeys-soap-operas-are-captivating-latin-america-2296321|title=Turkish Dramas Sweep Latin America|website=International Business Times|date=9 February 2016|access-date=1 October 2016}}{{Cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/heres-why-turkish-soaps-are-a-cultural-force-to-reckon-with/articleshow/57289530.cms|title=Here's why Turkish soaps are a cultural force to reckon with! – The Economic Times|website=The Economic Times|date=22 February 2017 |last1=Irani |first1=Delshad }} Turkey is today the world's second largest exporter of television series.{{Cite web|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-worlds-second-highest-tv-series-exporter-after-us.aspx?pageID=238&nID=73478&NewsCatID=345|title=Turkey world"s second highest TV series exporter after US – Business|website=Hürriyet Daily News |date=27 October 2014 |access-date=14 October 2017}}{{cite web|url=https://www.dailysabah.com/business/turkiye-marches-toward-600-million-in-worldwide-tv-series-sales/news|title=Türkiye marches toward $600 million in worldwide TV series sales|author=Betül Alakent|date=17 October 2022|website=dailysabah.com}}{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2019/sep/13/turkish-tv-magnificent-century-dizi-taking-over-world|title=How Turkish TV is taking over the world|author=Fatima Bhutto|date=13 September 2019|website=The Guardian}}

{{Portal|Turkey}}

• Outline of Turkey{{Clear}}

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|url=https://www.kgm.gov.tr/SiteCollectionDocuments/KGMdocuments/MerkezBirimler/Kurumsal/FaaliyetRaporu/2023Faaliyet.pdf |title=2023 Yılı Faaliyet Raporu |author=Karayolları Genel Müdürlüğü |website=Karayolları Genel Müdürlüğü}}

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• {{harvc |last1=Kuzucuoğlu |first1=Catherine |last2=Çiner |first2=Attila |last3=Kazancı |first3=Nizamettin |chapter=The Geomorphological Regions of Turkey |in1=Kuzucuoğlu |in2=Çiner |in3=Kazancı |year=2019 |pages=41–178 |anchor-year=2019a}} {{doi|10.1007/978-3-030-03515-0_4}}
• {{harvc |last1=Altunel |first1=Erhan |last2=D'Andria |first2=Francesco |chapter=Pamukkale Travertines: A Natural and Cultural Monument in the World Heritage List |in1=Kuzucuoğlu |in2=Çiner |in3=Kazancı |year=2019 |pages=219–229}} {{doi|10.1007/978-3-030-03515-0_8}}
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• {{harvc |last1=McMahon |first1=Gregory |last2=Steadman |first2=Sharon |chapter=Introduction: The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia |in1=McMahon |in2=Steadman |year=2012 |pages=3–12 |anchor-year=2012a}} {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0001}}
• {{harvc |last1=McMahon |first1=Gregory |chapter=The Land and Peoples of Anatolia through Ancient Eyes |in1=McMahon |in2=Steadman |year=2012 |pages=15–33}} {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0002}}
• {{harvc |last1=Matthews |first1=Roger |chapter=A History of the Preclassical Archaeology of Anatolia |in1=McMahon |in2=Steadman |year=2012 |pages=34–55}} {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0003}}
• {{harvc |last1=Steadman |first1=Sharon |chapter=The Early Bronze Age on the Plateau |in1=McMahon |in2=Steadman |year=2012 |pages=229–259}} {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0010}}
• {{harvc |last1=Michel |first1=Cécile |chapter=The Kārum Period on the Plateau |in1=McMahon |in2=Steadman |year=2012 |pages=313–336}} {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0013}}
• {{harvc |last1=Khatchadourian |first1=Lori |chapter=The Iron Age in Eastern Anatolia |in1=McMahon |in2=Steadman |year=2012 |pages=464–499}} {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0020}}
• {{harvc |last1=Greaves |first1=Alan M. |chapter=The Greeks in Western Anatolia |in1=McMahon |in2=Steadman |year=2012 |pages=500–514}} {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0021}}
• {{harvc |last1=Beckman |first1=Gary |chapter=The Hittite Language: Recovery and Grammatical Sketch |in1=McMahon |in2=Steadman |year=2012 |pages=517–533}} {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0022}}
• {{harvc |last1=Yakubovich |first1=Ilya |chapter=Luwian and the Luwians |in1=McMahon |in2=Steadman |year=2012 |pages=534–547}} {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0023}}
• {{harvc |last1=Zimansky |first1=Paul |chapter=Urartian and the Urartians |in1=McMahon |in2=Steadman |year=2012 |pages=548–559}} {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0024}}
• {{harvc |last1=Sams |first1=G. Kenneth |chapter=Anatolia: The First Millennium B.C.E. in Historical Context |in1=McMahon |in2=Steadman |year=2012 |pages=604–622}} {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0027}}
• {{harvc |last1=Melchert |first1=H. Craig |chapter=Indo-Europeans |in1=McMahon |in2=Steadman |year=2012 |pages=704–716}} {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0031}}
• {{harvc |last1=Jablonka |first1=Peter |chapter=Troy in Regional and International Context |in1=McMahon |in2=Steadman |year=2012 |pages=717–733}} {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0032}}
• {{harvc |last1=Harl |first1=Kenneth W. |chapter=The Greeks in Anatolia: From the Migrations to Alexander the Great |in1=McMahon |in2=Steadman |year=2012 |pages=752–774}} {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0034}}
• {{cite book |editor1-last=McNeill |editor1-first=J. R. |editor1-link=J. R. McNeill |editor2-last=Pomeranz |editor2-first=Kenneth |editor2-link=Kenneth Pomeranz |date=2015 |series=The Cambridge World History |volume=7 |title=Production, Destruction and Connection, 1750-Present, Part 1, Structures, Spaces, and Boundary Making |publisher=Cambridge University Press |issue=1 |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139196079 |isbn=978-1-108-40775-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SRL0CAAAQBAJ}}
• {{harvc |last1=Levene |first1=Mark |author1-link=Mark Levene |chapter=Genocide |pp=420–440 |in1=McNeill |in2=Pomeranz |year=2015 |author-link1=Mark Levene}}
• {{cite book |editor= Merriam-Webster, Inc |year=1997 |title=Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary |isbn=978-0-87779-546-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Co_VIPIJerIC |publisher=Merriam-Webster}}
• {{cite book | last1=Mitchell | first1=Stephen | title=Anatolia: Land, Men, and Gods in Asia Minor Volume I: The Celts and the Impact of Roman Rule |publisher=Clarendon Press |year=1995 | isbn=978-0-19-815029-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RpjunQEACAAJ |author-link1=Stephen Mitchell (historian)}}
• {{cite report |ref={{harvid|OECD Taking stock of education reforms for access and quality in Türkiye|2023}} |url=https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/docserver/5ea7657e-en.pdf?expires=1716318314&id=id&accname=guest&checksum=226A1C567787D096D48B8815985C91BE |title=Taking stock of education reforms for access and quality in Türkiye |author=OECD |year=2023 |doi=10.1787/5ea7657e-en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240521185110/https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/docserver/5ea7657e-en.pdf?expires=1716318314&id=id&accname=guest&checksum=226A1C567787D096D48B8815985C91BE |archive-date=21 May 2024 |url-status=live |series=OECD Education Policy Perspectives |volume=68 |publisher=OECD Publishing |location=Paris}}
• {{cite report |doi=10.1787/d01c660f-en |title=OECD Economic Surveys: Türkiye 2025 |year=2025 |isbn=978-92-64-38915-1 |author=OECD |publisher=OECD Publishing |location=Paris}}
• {{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-981-19-1208-5 |title=The Palgrave Handbook of Comparative Public Administration |date=2022 |isbn=978-981-19-1207-8 |editor-last1=Önder |editor-last2=Nyadera |editor-last3=Islam |editor-first1=Murat |editor-first2=Israel Nyaburi |editor-first3=Md. Nazmul |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan Singapore}}
• {{harvc |last1=Karabulut |first1=Niyazi |chapter=Republic of Turkey |in1=Önder |in2=Nyadera |in3=Islam |year=2022 }} {{doi|10.1007/978-981-19-1208-5_25}}
• {{cite book |last=Özbek |first=Çağlar |title=LGBT+ Studies in Turkey |publisher=Transnational Press London |year=2019 | isbn=978-1-912997-11-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7XyFDwAAQBAJ}}
• {{cite book |editor-last1=Özerdem |editor-first1=Alpaslan |editor-last2=Öztürk |editor-first2=Ahmet Erdi |year=2023 |title=A Companion to Modern Turkey's Centennial: Political, Sociological, Economic and Institutional Transformations since 1923 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-1-4744-9254-6 |doi=10.1515/9781474492546 }}
• {{harvc |last1=Hale |first1=William |chapter=Foreword |in1=Özerdem |in2=Öztürk |year=2023 |pages=xii–xv}}
• {{cite book | last1=Peacock | first1=A. C. S. | title=The Great Seljuk Empire | publisher=Edinburgh University Press | publication-place=Edinburgh | year=2015 | isbn=978-0-7486-3827-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hAndCQAAQBAJ |author-link1=A. C. S. Peacock}}
• {{cite encyclopedia|url= http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/forced-ethnic-migration/berna-pekesen-expulsion-and-emigration-of-the-muslims-from-the-balkans |title= Expulsion and Emigration of the Muslims from the Balkans |last= Pekesen |first= Berna |date= 7 March 2012 |encyclopedia=European History Online |publisher=Leibniz Institute of European History |access-date=20 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240220192047/http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/forced-ethnic-migration/berna-pekesen-expulsion-and-emigration-of-the-muslims-from-the-balkans |archive-date=20 February 2024|url-status=live}}
• {{cite report |ref={{harvid|ISMEP Guide Books 4|2014}} |year=2014 |title=Retrofitting and Reconstruction Works |series=ISMEP Guide Books |volume=4 |url=https://www.ipkb.gov.tr/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/ISMEP4_GUCLENDIRME_EN140214.pdf |access-date=23 April 2024}}
• {{cite book |last1=Sagona |first1=Antonio |last2=Zimansky |first2=Paul |title=Ancient Turkey |publisher=Routledge |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-134-44027-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SsLKBgAAQBAJ |doi=10.4324/9780203880463 |author-link1=Antonio Sagona}}
• {{cite book | last=Somel | first=S.A. | title=The A to Z of the Ottoman Empire | publisher=Scarecrow Press | series=The A to Z Guide Series | year=2010 | isbn=978-1-4617-3176-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UU8iCY0OZmcC}}
• {{cite book | last1=Stokes | first1=Martin | title=The Republic of Love: Cultural Intimacy in Turkish Popular Music |year=2010 |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |series=Chicago Studies in Ethnomusicology |isbn=978-0-226-77506-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uwnpAkCTo88C |author-link1=Martin Stokes}}
• {{cite report |url=https://shura.org.tr/en/energy-pricing-and-non-market-flows-in-turkeys-energy-sector/ |title=Energy pricing and non-market flows in Turkey's energy sector |last1=Taranto |first1=Yael |last2=Saygın |first2=Değer |others=Metin Koşar |year=2019 |url-status=live|archive-date=6 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806205126/https://www.shura.org.tr/energy_pricing_and_non-market_flows_in_turkeys_energy_sector-2/}}
• {{cite book | editor-last1=Tasar | editor-first1=Eren | editor-last2=Frank | editor-first2=Allen J. | editor-last3=Eden | editor-first3=Jeff | title=From the Khan's Oven: Studies on the History of Central Asian Religions in Honor of Devin Deweese | publisher=BRILL | year=2021 | isbn=978-90-04-47018-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4stKEAAAQBAJ |doi=10.1163/9789004471177}}
• {{harvc |last1=Golden |first1=Peter B. |chapter=Reflections on the Ethnonym Türk |in1=Tasar |in2=Frank |in3=Eden |year=2021 |pages=1–50 |author-link1=Peter Benjamin Golden}} {{doi|10.1163/9789004471177_002}}
• {{cite book |editor-last1=Tockner | editor-first1=Klement | editor-last2=Zarfl | editor-first2=Christiane | editor-last3=Robinson | editor-first3=Christopher T. |title=Rivers of Europe |edition=2nd |year=2022 |doi=10.1016/C2017-0-03745-X |isbn=978-0-08-102612-0 }}
• {{harvc |last1=Akbulut |first1=Nuray (Emir) |last2=Bayarı |first2=Serdar |last3=Akbulut |first3=Aydın |last4=Özyurt |first4=Naciye Nur |last5=Sahin |first5=Yalcın |chapter=Rivers of Turkey |in1=Tockner |in2=Zarfl |in3=Robinson |year=2022 |pages=853–882}} {{doi|10.1016/B978-0-08-102612-0.00021-3}}
• {{cite report |ref={{harvid|KONDA|2006}} |url=http://www.konda.com.tr/tr/raporlar/2006_09_KONDA_Toplumsal_Yapi.pdf |title=Toplumsal Yapı Araştırması 2006 |date=2006 |publisher=KONDA Research and Consultancy |access-date=21 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215004933/http://www.konda.com.tr/tr/raporlar/2006_09_KONDA_Toplumsal_Yapi.pdf |archive-date=15 February 2017}}
• {{cite book | last1=van den Hout | first1=Theo | title=The Elements of Hittite | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2011 | isbn=978-0-521-13300-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C |author-link1=Theo van den Hout}}
• {{Cite report |author=World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) |year=2024 |title=Global Innovation Index 2024: Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship |url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2024/assets/67729/2000%20Global%20Innovation%20Index%202024_WEB3lite.pdf |location=Geneva |publisher=WIPO |doi=10.34667/tind.50062 |author-link=World Intellectual Property Organization}}
• {{cite report |ref={{harvid|World Bank Türkiye - Country Climate and Development Report|2022}} |author=World Bank Group |url=http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099006106072221642/pdf/P177479041cc100c80bacc031005338a440.pdf | hdl=10986/37521 | title=Türkiye - Country Climate and Development Report | year=2022 |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=World Bank Group |access-date =5 May 2024 |url-status =live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240505172225/https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099006106072221642/pdf/P177479041cc100c80bacc031005338a440.pdf |archive-date =5 May 2024 |author-link=World Bank Group}}

{{refend}}

{{Sister project links|Turkey}}

General

• [https://data.oecd.org/turkey.htm OECD Data {{pipe}} Türkiye]
• {{OSM relation|174737}}

Tourism

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• [http://www.ekonomi.gov.tr/ Official website of the Ministry of Economy]

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