Bangladesh#History

{{Main|Names of Bengal}}

The etymology of Bangladesh ("Bengali country") can be traced to the early 20th century, when Bengali patriotic songs, such as Aaji Bangladesher Hridoy by Rabindranath Tagore and Namo Namo Namo Bangladesh Momo by Kazi Nazrul Islam, used the term in 1905 and 1932 respectively.{{cite web |url=http://www.geetabitan.com/lyrics/A/aaji-bangladesher-hridoy.html |title=Notation of song aaji bangladesher hridoy |access-date=10 September 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904011316/http://www.geetabitan.com/lyrics/A/aaji-bangladesher-hridoy.html |archive-date=4 September 2015}} Starting in the 1950s, Bengali nationalists used the term in political rallies in East Pakistan.

The term Bangla is a major name for both the Bengal region and the Bengali language. The origins of the term Bangla are unclear, with theories pointing to a Bronze Age proto-Dravidian tribe,{{cite web |url=http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+bd0014%29 |title=Bangladesh: early history, 1000 B.C.–A.D. 1202 |date=September 1988 |website=Bangladesh: A country study |publisher=Library of Congress |access-date=1 December 2014 |quote=Historians believe that Bengal, the area comprising present-day Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal, was settled in about 1000 B.C. by Dravidian-speaking peoples who were later known as the Bang. Their homeland bore various titles that reflected earlier tribal names, such as Vanga, Banga, Bangala, Bangal, and Bengal. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131207010051/http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+bd0014%29 |url-status=live |archive-date=7 December 2013 }} and the Iron Age Vanga Kingdom.{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Vanga|title=Vanga | ancient kingdom, India|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=24 April 2023|archive-date=30 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160730062030/https://www.britannica.com/place/Vanga|url-status=live}} The earliest known usage of the term is the Nesari plate in 805 AD. The term Vangala Desa is found in 11th-century South Indian records.{{cite book |last=Keay |first=John |author-link=John Keay |year=2000 |title=India: A History |publisher=Atlantic Monthly Press |page=220 |isbn=978-0-87113-800-2 |quote=In C1020 ... launched Rajendra's great northern escapade ... peoples he defeated have been tentatively identified ... 'Vangala-desa where the rain water never stopped' sounds like a fair description of Bengal in the monsoon.}}{{cite book |last=Sen |first=Sailendra Nath |year=1999 |orig-year=First published 1988 |title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA281 |publisher=New Age International |page=281 |isbn=978-81-224-1198-0 |access-date=25 July 2023 |archive-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116111745/https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA281 |url-status=live }} The term gained official status during the Sultanate of Bengal in the 14th century.{{cite book |last=Ahmed |first=Salahuddin |date=2004 |title=Bangladesh: Past and Present |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Szfqq7ruqWgC&pg=PA23 |publisher=APH Publishing |page=23 |isbn=978-81-7648-469-5 |access-date=14 May 2016 |archive-date=6 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230206161602/https://books.google.com/books?id=Szfqq7ruqWgC&pg=PA23 |url-status=live }}"But the most important development of this period was that the country for the first time received a name, ie Bangalah." [http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Islam,_Bengal Banglapedia: Islam, Bengal] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150723091245/http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Islam,_Bengal |date=23 July 2015 }} Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah proclaimed himself as the first "Shah of Bangala" in 1342. The word Bangāl became the most common name for the region during the Islamic period.{{Cite book |last=Sircar |first=D.C. |author-link=Dineshchandra Sircar |year=1971 |orig-year=First published 1960 |title=Studies in the Geography of Ancient and Medieval India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AqKw1Mn8WcwC |edition=2nd |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |page=135 |isbn=978-81-208-0690-0 |access-date=19 April 2016 |archive-date=6 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230206161603/https://books.google.com/books?id=AqKw1Mn8WcwC |url-status=live }} 16th-century historian Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak mentions in his Ain-i-Akbari that the addition of the suffix "al" came from the fact that the ancient rajahs of the land raised mounds of earth in lowlands at the foot of the hills which were called "al".Land of Two Rivers, Nitish Sengupta This is also mentioned in Ghulam Husain Salim's Riyaz-us-Salatin.[http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=07601010&ct=11 RIYAZU-S-SALĀTĪN: A History of Bengal] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141215055926/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=07601010&ct=11|date=15 December 2014}}, Ghulam Husain Salim, The Asiatic Society, Calcutta, 1902.

The Indo-Aryan suffix Desh is derived from the Sanskrit word deśha, which means "land" or "country". Hence, the name Bangladesh means "Land of Bengal" or "Country of Bengal".

{{Main|History of Bangladesh}}

The first great indigenous empire to cover the territory was the Mauryan Empire (ca. 320-180 B.C.). Following its decline, the kingdom of Samatata arose, which was a tributary state of the Gupta Empire (A.D. ca. 319-ca. 540). Harsha (A.D. 606–47) drew Samatata into its loosely administered political structure. Buddhist Pala Dynasty ruled the region from A.D. 750 to 1150. It was overthrown by the Hindu Sena dynasty, which ruled the territory until the Muslim conquests led by Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji of the Ghurid dynasty in 1204.{{cite book|chapter=EARLY HISTORY, 1000 B.C.-A.D. 1202|chapter-url=https://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/4.htm|editor1-last=Heitzman|editor1-first=James|editor2-last=Worden|editor2-first=Robert|title=Bangladesh: A Country Study|url=http://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/|publisher=Federal Research Division, Library of Congress|access-date=13 January 2025}}

{{main|Bengal Sultanate|Bengal Subah}}

File:Murshid Quli Jafar Khan.jpg, the first independent Nawab of Bengal]]

File:Siraj_ud-Daulah.jpg, the last independent Nawab of Bengal]]

Bengal was then incorporated into the Delhi Sultanate (A.D. 1206–1526).{{cite book|chapter=ISLAMIZATION OF BENGAL, 1202-1757|chapter-url=https://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/5.htm|editor1-last=Heitzman|editor1-first=James|editor2-last=Worden|editor2-first=Robert|title=Bangladesh: A Country Study|url=http://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/|publisher=Federal Research Division, Library of Congress|access-date=13 January 2025}} In 1341, the independent Bengal Sultanate was established by Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah. Amidst geographic expansion and economic prosperity, it was regarded by European and Chinese visitors as the "richest country to trade with".{{cite book|last=Nanda|first=J.N.|year=2005|title=Bengal: the unique state|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=978-81-8069-149-2}}{{rp|10}} The Mughal Empire conquered Bengal in 1576. By the 18th century, the Bengal Subah emerged as the wealthiest province of the empire and was described as the "Paradise of Countries" and the "breadbasket of India". Its citizens enjoyed some of the best standards of living in the world, as the region was a major global exporter and producer of cotton textiles (muslin in particular), silk and shipbuilding.{{cite book|first=Indrajit|last=Ray|year=2011|title=Bengal Industries and the British Industrial Revolution (1757–1857)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CHOrAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA7|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-82552-1|access-date=30 May 2019}}{{rp|174}} Following the decline of the Mughal Empire in the early 1700s, the region became a semi-independent state under the Nawabs of Bengal, founded by Murshid Quli Khan in 1717.

{{main|Bengal Presidency}}

In 1757, the state led by Siraj-ud-Daulah was defeated by the British East India Company in the Battle of Plassey—which was key in establishing colonial British rule over Bengal and the wider Indian subcontinent. Bengal played a crucial role in the Industrial Revolution at the expense of an extraordinary capital flight and deindustrialization following British colonial loot and the collapse of the Bengali textile industry.{{cite journal|last=Ray|first=Indrajit|title=Identifying the woes of the cotton textile industry in Bengal: tales of the nineteenth century|volume=62|number=4|pages=857–892|publisher=Wiley|journal=The Economic History Review|jstor=27771525|date=November 2009|doi=10.1111/j.1468-0289.2009.00444.x }}{{rp|7–10}} The catastrophic Great Bengal famine of 1770 caused over ten million deaths,{{cite journal|last=Ghose|first=Ajit Kumar|title=Food Supply and Starvation: A Study of Famines with Reference to the Indian Sub-Continent|volume=34|number=2|pages=368–389|jstor=2662775|publisher=Oxford University Press|journal=Oxford Economic Papers|year=1982|doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.oep.a041557 |pmid=11620403 }} killing one-third of the total population of the Bengal Presidency,{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6iNuAAAAMAAJ|last=Peers|first=Douglas M.|year=2006|title=India under colonial rule: 1700–1885|publisher=Pearson Education|isbn=978-0-582-31738-3}}{{rp|47}} and remains one of the deadliest man-made famines in history.

{{main|Dominion of Pakistan|East Bengal|East Pakistan}}

{{further|West Pakistan|Partition of Bengal (1947)|Partition of India}}

In the aftermath of direct British rule for nearly two centuries, the borders of modern Bangladesh were established with the partition of Bengal between India and Pakistan by the Radcliffe Line{{cite journal|last=Chatterji|first=Joya|title=The Fashioning of a Frontier: The Radcliffe Line and Bengal's Border Landscape, 1947-52|volume=33|number=1|year=1999|pages=185–242|publisher=Cambridge University Press|journal=Modern Asian Studies|doi=10.1017/S0026749X99003066 |jstor=313155}} during the partition of India on 15 August 1947, when the region became East Bengal as the eastern and most populous wing of the newly formed Dominion of Pakistan—alongside West Pakistan.{{cite book|chapter=PAKISTAN PERIOD, 1947-71|chapter-url=https://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/14.htm|editor1-last=Heitzman|editor1-first=James|editor2-last=Worden|editor2-first=Robert|title=Bangladesh: A Country Study|url=http://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/|publisher=Federal Research Division, Library of Congress|page=4|access-date=13 January 2025}} The western and eastern wings of the newly formed Pakistan were geographically separated by a distance of over 1,000 miles, which became the root cause of deep economic inequality.{{cite journal|last=Sobhan|first=Rehman|title=The Problem of Regional Imbalance in the Economic Development of Pakistan|journal=Asian Survey|volume=2|number=5|year=1962|pages=31–37|doi=10.2307/3023445 |jstor=3023445}} Khawaja Nazimuddin was East Bengal's first chief minister with Frederick Chalmers Bourne its governor. The All Pakistan Awami Muslim League was formed in 1949. In 1950, the East Bengal Legislative Assembly enacted land reform, abolishing the Permanent Settlement and the zamindari system.Baxter, p. 72 The Awami Muslim League was renamed as a more "secular" Awami League in 1953.{{cite book |author1=David S. Lewis |author2=Darren J. Sagar|title=Political Parties of Asia and the Pacific: A Reference Guide |url={{GBurl|id=S4uyAAAAIAAJ}}|year=1992|publisher=Longman|isbn=978-0-582-09811-4|page=36|access-date=30 July 2017}}"its present name in December 1953" The first constituent assembly was dissolved in 1954. The United Front coalition swept aside the Muslim League in a landslide victory in the 1954 East Bengali legislative election. The following year, East Bengal was renamed East Pakistan as part of the One Unit programme, and the province became a vital part of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization.

Amidst rising cultural and societal differences—the brutal government crackdown on the 1952 Bengali language movement to establish Bengali as the official language of Pakistan spurred Bengali nationalism and pro-democracy movements. Pakistan adopted a new constitution in 1956.{{cite book|chapter=The "Revolution" of Ayub Khan, 1958-66|chapter-url=https://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/15.htm|editor1-last=Heitzman|editor1-first=James|editor2-last=Worden|editor2-first=Robert|title=Bangladesh: A Country Study|url=http://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/|publisher=Federal Research Division, Library of Congress|page=4|access-date=13 January 2025}} The Pakistan Armed Forces imposed martial law in 1958, following a coup d'état, with Ayub Khan establishing a dictatorship for over a decade. A new constitution was introduced in 1962, replacing the parliamentary system with a presidential and gubernatorial system (based on electoral college selection) known as "Basic Democracy".{{cite journal|jstor=4323370|title=Pakistan's Basic Democracy|last1=Sayeed|first1=Khalid B.|journal=Middle East Journal|year=1961|volume=15|issue=3|pages=249–263}} In 1962, Dhaka became the seat of the National Assembly of Pakistan, a move seen as appeasing increased Bengali nationalism.{{cite book |last=Vale |first=Lawrence J. |year=2008 |title=Architecture, Power and National Identity |url={{GBurl|id=qWx9AwAAQBAJ|p=291}} |publisher=Routledge |edition=2nd |page=291 |isbn=978-1-134-72921-0 |access-date=14 May 2016}} In 1966, Awami League leader Sheikh Mujibur Rahman announced a six-point movement for a federal parliamentary democracy.

Ethnic, linguistic, and cultural discrimination was common in Pakistan's civil and military services, in which Bengalis were under-represented;{{Cite book |last1=Raic |first1=D |year=2002 |title=Statehood and the Law of Self-Determination |url={{GBurl|id=L7UOyPGYBkwC|p=336}} |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers |page=336 |isbn=978-90-411-1890-5 |access-date=20 January 2017}} leading to East Pakistan forging a distinct political identity.{{Cite book |last1=Thomas |first1=Raju G.C. |year=2003 |title=Yugoslavia Unraveled |url={{GBurl|id=9L6ZayN27PAC|p=322}} |publisher=Lexington Books |page=322 |isbn=978-0-7391-0757-7}} Authorities banned Bengali literature and music in the state media.{{cite news |author=Ahsan |first=Syed Badrul |author-link=Syed Badrul Ahsan |date=2 June 2010 |title=The sky, the mind, the ban culture |work=The Daily Star |type=Editorial |url=http://archive.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details.php?nid=140968 |url-status=live |access-date=11 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222114353/http://archive.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details.php?nid=140968 |archive-date=22 December 2015}} The Pakistani government practised extensive economic discrimination against East Pakistan, including the refusal for foreign aid allocation.{{cite book |last=Muscat |first=Robert J. |year=2015 |title=Investing in Peace: How Development Aid Can Prevent or Promote Conflict |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yZ5zCQAAQBAJ&pg=PT72 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-46729-8 |access-date=20 January 2017 |archive-date=4 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404212613/https://books.google.com/books?id=yZ5zCQAAQBAJ&pg=PT72 |url-status=live }} Despite generating 70% of Pakistan's export revenue with jute and tea, East Pakistan received much less government spending. Notable economists from East Pakistan, including Rehman Sobhan and Nurul Islam demanded a separate foreign exchange account for the eastern wing, also pointing to the existence of two different economies within Pakistan itself, dubbed the Two-Economies Theory.{{Cite news |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/the-two-economies-thesis-road-to-the-six-points-programme-29679 |title=The Two Economies thesis: Road to the Six Points Programme |first=Nurul |last=Islam |date=22 June 2014 |work=The Daily Star |access-date=5 April 2023 |archive-date=7 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221107182453/https://www.thedailystar.net/the-two-economies-thesis-road-to-the-six-points-programme-29679 |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |url=https://cpd.org.bd/from-two-economies-to-two-nations-my-journey-to-bangladesh/ |title=Two Economies to Two Nations: Rehman Sobhan's Journey to Bangladesh |work=CPD |date=30 August 2015 |access-date=5 April 2023 |archive-date=7 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221107182457/https://cpd.org.bd/from-two-economies-to-two-nations-my-journey-to-bangladesh/ |url-status=live }} The populist leader Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was arrested for treason in the Agartala Conspiracy Case and was released during the 1969 uprising in East Pakistan which resulted in Ayub Khan's resignation. General Yahya Khan assumed power, reintroducing martial law.

A cyclone devastated the coast of East Pakistan in 1970, killing an estimated 500,000 people,[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1483615/Bangladesh-cyclone-of-1991 Bangladesh cyclone of 1991] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090826071713/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1483615/Bangladesh-cyclone-of-1991 |date=26 August 2009}}. Britannica Online Encyclopedia. and the central government was criticised for its poor response.{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/16.htm|title=Bangladesh – Emerging Discontent, 1966–70|access-date=11 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110623150140/http://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/16.htm|archive-date=23 June 2011|url-status=live}} After the December 1970 elections, the Bengali-nationalist Awami League won 167 of 169 East Pakistani seats in the National Assembly. The League claimed the right to form a government and develop a new constitution but was strongly opposed by the Pakistani military and the Pakistan Peoples Party (led by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto).

The 7 March Speech of Mujib led to a non-cooperation movement. The autocratic Pakistani government then initiated Operation Searchlight on 25 March 1971 in response.{{cite journal|last=Bose|first=Sarmila|title=Anatomy of Violence: Analysis of Civil War in East Pakistan in 1971|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|volume=40|number=41|year=2005|pages=4463–4471|jstor=4417267}} Mujib signed the Proclamation of Independence on 26 March 1971, leading to the nine-month-long bloody liberation war, which led to a genocide,{{cite journal|last=Saikia|first=Yasmin|title=Beyond the Archive of Silence: Narratives of Violence of the 1971 Liberation War of Bangladesh|journal=History Workshop Journal|number=58|year=2004|volume=58 |pages=275–287|doi=10.1093/hwj/58.1.275 |jstor=25472765}} and the culmination of Bangladesh as a sovereign nation following Pakistani surrender on 16 December 1971.

The Constitution of Bangladesh was enacted on November 4, 1972.{{cite web|last1=Chakma|first1=Parbon|last2=Saumik|first2=Rafid Azad|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/law-our-rights/news/50-years-bangladesh-constitution-nutshell-3160281|title=50 Years of Bangladesh Constitution In a nutshell|work=The Daily Star|date=4 November 2022|access-date=13 January 2025}} Following independence, the Mujib-led government engaged in large-scale corruption and mismanagement, leading to nationwide lawlessness and economic devastation. Efforts to establish one-party socialism and a large famine in 1974 led to Mujib's assassination in 1975 following a significant decline in his popularity.{{cite book|chapter=Fall of the Bangabandhu, 1972-75|chapter-url=https://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/19.htm|editor1-last=Heitzman|editor1-first=James|editor2-last=Worden|editor2-first=Robert|title=Bangladesh: A Country Study|url=http://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/|publisher=Federal Research Division, Library of Congress|access-date=13 January 2025}}{{rp|131}} The presidency was then transferred to Ziaur Rahman, who re-established public order, industrialized agriculture, founded the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) and initiated the creation of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation.{{cite book|chapter=The Zia Regime and Its Aftermath, 1977-82|chapter-url=https://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/21.htm|editor1-last=Heitzman|editor1-first=James|editor2-last=Worden|editor2-first=Robert|title=Bangladesh: A Country Study|url=http://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/|publisher=Federal Research Division, Library of Congress|access-date=13 January 2025}} Following Rahman's assassination in 1981, the ensuing decade was a military dictatorship under Hussain Muhammad Ershad that saw infrastructural development, devolution reforms, privatization of nationalised industries and the declaration of Islam as the state religion in 1988.{{cite book|chapter=THE ERSHAD PERIOD: Achieving Stability, 1982-83|chapter-url=https://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/90.htm|editor1-last=Heitzman|editor1-first=James|editor2-last=Worden|editor2-first=Robert|title=Bangladesh: A Country Study|url=http://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/|publisher=Federal Research Division, Library of Congress|access-date=13 January 2025}}{{cite book|chapter=Emerging Opposition, 1983-86|chapter-url=https://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/91.htm|editor1-last=Heitzman|editor1-first=James|editor2-last=Worden|editor2-first=Robert|title=Bangladesh: A Country Study|url=https://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/|publisher=Federal Research Division, Library of Congress|access-date=13 January 2025}}{{cite book|chapter=Relaxation of Martial Law, 1986-87|chapter-url=https://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/92.htm|editor1-last=Heitzman|editor1-first=James|editor2-last=Worden|editor2-first=Robert|title=Bangladesh: A Country Study|url=http://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/|publisher=Federal Research Division, Library of Congress|access-date=13 January 2025}}{{cite book|chapter=More Opposition Pressure|chapter-url=https://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/93.htm|editor1-last=Heitzman|editor1-first=James|editor2-last=Worden|editor2-first=Robert|title=Bangladesh: A Country Study|url=http://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/|publisher=Federal Research Division, Library of Congress|access-date=13 January 2025}}

After the restoration of parliamentary democracy in 1991, power alternated between Khaleda Zia of the BNP and Sheikh Hasina of the Awami League, an era dubbed the "Battle of the Begums"—which defined Bangladesh's politics and history for next 34 years.{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-42999503|title=Bangladesh grows tired of the Battling Begums|last=Rowlatt|first=Justin|work=BBC News|publisher=BBC|date=11 February 2018|access-date =13 January 2025}}{{rp|130}} The return of the Awami League to power following a landslide victory in the 2008 general election{{cite web|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/a-13-2008-12-30-voa9/401556.html|title=Bangladesh's Sheikh Hasina Wins Landslide Election|date=1 November 2009|access-date=14 February 2025|work=Voice of America|last=Herman|first=Steve}} under Sheikh Hasina's leadership saw unprecedented economic progress alongside democratic backsliding, increasing authoritarianism, endemic corruption, and widespread human right abuses.{{cite web|last1=Ethirajan|first1=Anbarasan|last2=Wong|first2=Tessa|title=Sheikh Hasina: The pro-democracy icon who became an autocrat|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cg3ee303yxpo|date=6 August 2024|work=BBC News|publisher=BBC|access-date=15 January 2025}} Hasina won her second, third and fourth consecutive terms in the 2014, 2018 and the 2024 general elections—all of which were shams and neither free nor fair.{{cite web|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2014/01/06/world/asia/bangladesh-elections/index.html|title=Bangladesh ruling party wins elections marred by boycott, violence|date=6 January 2014|access-date=14 February 2025|work=CNN}}{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-46718393|title=Bangladesh election: PM Sheikh Hasina wins landslide in disputed vote|date=31 December 2018|access-date=14 February 2025|work=BBC News|publisher=BBC}}{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-67889387|title=Bangladesh election: PM Sheikh Hasina wins fourth term in controversial vote|date=8 January 2024|access-date=14 February 2025|work=BBC News|publisher=BBC|last1=Anbarasan|first1=Ethirajan|last2=Ng|first2=Kelly}} Following a student-led mass uprising against the authoritarian government, Hasina was forced to resign and flee to India on 5 August 2024.{{cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/8/5/bangladeshs-sheikh-hasina-forced-to-resign-what-happened-and-whats-next|title=Bangladesh's Sheikh Hasina forced to resign: What happened and what's next?|date=5 August 2024|access-date=14 February 2025|work=Al Jazeera}} An interim government was formed on 8 August 2024, with Nobel laureate Muhammad Yunus as the Chief Adviser.{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/clyg7we8xvno|title=Yunus sworn in as interim Bangladesh leader|last1=Hussain|first1=Samira|last2=Drury|first2=Flora|date=8 August 2024|access-date=14 February 2025|work=BBC News|publisher=BBC}}

Since the 1980s, driven by free market policies and economic liberalization measures, Bangladesh has achieved significant economic growth—emerging as one of the fastest-growing economies in the world, driven by its large textile industry, which is the second-largest in the world.{{cite journal|last1=Bashar|first1=Omar K M R|last2=Khan|first2=Habibullah|title=Liberalisation and Growth in Bangladesh: An Empirical Investigation|volume=32|number=1|date=March 2009|pages=61–76|jstor=40795710|journal=The Bangladesh Development Studies|publisher=Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies (BIDS)}} It has emerged as the second-largest economy in South Asia, surpassing the nominal GDP per capita of neighboring India.{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/bangladesh/bangladesh-ranked-41st-largest-economy-in-2019-all-over-the-world-study-1684078|title=Bangladesh 2nd largest economy in South Asia|work=The Daily Star|date=8 January 2019|access-date=13 January 2025}}{{cite web|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/10/20/india-falls-behind-bangladesh-gdp/|title=Angst and Denial in India as It's Now Officially Poorer Than Bangladesh|last=Babones|first=Salvatore|date=20 October 2020|access-date=13 January 2025|work=Foreign Policy}} Bangladesh has achieved remarkable feats in reducing its poverty rate, which has gone down from 80% in 1971,{{cite web|url=https://cri.org.bd/2021/03/26/what-milestones-have-bangladesh-crossed-in-50-years/|title=What milestones have Bangladesh crossed in 50 years|date=26 March 2021|access-date=1 October 2022}} to 44.2% in 1991,{{cite web|url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/results/2018/11/15/bangladesh-reducing-poverty-and-sharing-prosperity|title=Bangladesh: Reducing Poverty and Sharing Prosperity|publisher=World Bank|access-date=1 October 2022}} and all the way down to 18.7% in 2022.{{cite news|url=https://pip.worldbank.org/country-profiles/BGD|title=Country Profile - Poverty and Inequality Platform|work=World Bank|access-date=9 January 2025}} Its Human Development Index growth during the 21st century was surpassed only by China.{{cite web|url=https://bangladesh.un.org/en/256074-new-directions-human-development-bangladesh|title=New directions for human development in Bangladesh|date=17 December 2023|access-date=12 February 2025|publisher=United Nations}} As part of the green transition, Bangladesh's industrial sector emerged as a leader in building green factories, with the country having the largest number of certified green factories in the world.{{cite web|url=https://www.tbsnews.net/supplement/green-rmg-factories-how-bangladesh-became-global-champion-939426|title=Green RMG factories: How Bangladesh became a global champion|last=Uddin|first=Jasim|date=12 September 2024|access-date=13 January 2025|work=The Business Standard}} It has also given shelter to over a million Rohingya refugees fleeing the Rohingya genocide since 2017, which has strained its resources and highlighted its humanitarian commitments.{{cite web|url=https://www.unrefugees.org/news/rohingya-refugee-crisis-explained/|title=Rohingya Refugee Crisis Explained|date=22 August 2024|work=United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR)|access-date=13 January 2025}}

{{Main|Geography of Bangladesh}}

File:Map of Bangladesh-en.svg

Bangladesh is in South Asia on the Bay of Bengal. It is surrounded almost entirely by neighbouring India, and shares a small border with Myanmar to its southeast, though it lies very close to Nepal, Bhutan, and China. The country is divided into three regions. Most of the country is dominated by the fertile Ganges Delta, the largest river delta in the world.{{cite web |author1=Aditi Rajagopal|title=How the World's Largest Delta Might Slowly Go Under Water |url=https://www.discovery.com/nature/largest-delta-underwater|website=Discovery|date=8 February 2020|access-date=9 March 2020|archive-date=8 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200208052815/http://www.discovery.com/nature/largest-delta-underwater|url-status=live}} The northwest and central parts of the country are formed by the Madhupur and the Barind plateaus. The northeast and southeast are home to evergreen hill ranges.

The Ganges delta is formed by the confluence of the Ganges (local name Padma or Pôdda), Brahmaputra (Jamuna or Jomuna), and Meghna rivers and their tributaries. The Ganges unites with the Jamuna (main channel of the Brahmaputra) and later joins the Meghna, finally flowing into the Bay of Bengal. Bangladesh is called the "Land of Rivers",{{cite web |title=No Place Like Home – BANGLADESH: LAND OF RIVERS |url=https://ejfoundation.org/films/bangladesh-land-of-rivers |work=Environmental Justice Foundation |access-date=10 March 2020 |archive-date=30 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930051647/https://ejfoundation.org/films/bangladesh-land-of-rivers |url-status=live }} as it is home to over 57 trans-boundary rivers, the most of any nation-state. Water issues are politically complicated since Bangladesh is downstream of India.{{cite book |last=Suvedī |first=Sūryaprasāda |title=International watercourses law for the 21st century |publisher=Ashgate Publishing |year=2005 |pages=154–166 |isbn=978-0-7546-4527-6}}

Bangladesh is predominantly rich fertile flat land. Most of it is less than {{convert|12|m|ft|abbr=on}} above sea level, and it is estimated that about 10% of its land would be flooded if the sea level were to rise by {{convert|1|m|ft|abbr=on}}.{{cite journal |last=Ali |first=A. |title=Vulnerability of Bangladesh to climate change and sea level rise through tropical cyclones and storm surges |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00175563 |journal=Water, Air, & Soil Pollution |volume=92 |issue=1–2 |pages=171–179 |year=1996 |bibcode=1996WASP...92..171A |s2cid=93611792 |doi=10.1007/BF00175563 |access-date=1 February 2020 |archive-date=1 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201143058/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00175563 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }} 12% of the country is covered by hill systems. The country's haor wetlands are of significance to global environmental science. The highest point in Bangladesh is the Saka Haphong, located near the border with Myanmar, with an elevation of {{convert|1064|m|ft|abbr=on}}. Previously, either Keokradong or Tazing Dong were considered the highest.

In Bangladesh forest cover is around 14% of the total land area, equivalent to 1,883,400 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, down from 1,920,330 hectares (ha) in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 1,725,330 hectares (ha) and planted forest covered 158,070 hectares (ha). Of the naturally regenerating forest 0% was reported to be primary forest (consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity) and around 33% of the forest area was found within protected areas. For the year 2015, 100% of the forest area was reported to be under public ownership.{{Cite book |url=https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/a6e225da-4a31-4e06-818d-ca3aeadfd635/content |title=Terms and Definitions FRA 2025 Forest Resources Assessment, Working Paper 194 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |year=2023 |archive-date=11 September 2024 |access-date=19 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240911122341/https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/a6e225da-4a31-4e06-818d-ca3aeadfd635/content |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |title=Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020, Bangladesh |url=https://fra-data.fao.org/assessments/fra/2020/BGD/home/overview |website=Food Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |access-date=19 September 2024 |archive-date=19 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240919133606/https://fra-data.fao.org/assessments/fra/2020/BGD/home/overview/ |url-status=live }}

{{Main|Geography of Bangladesh#Climate|Climate change in Bangladesh}}

File:Aerosol pollution over Northern India, Bangladesh, and Bay of Bengal.jpg

Straddling the Tropic of Cancer, Bangladesh's climate is tropical, with a mild winter from October to March and a hot, humid summer from March to June. The country has never recorded an air temperature below {{convert|0|°C}}, with a record low of {{convert|1.1|°C}} in the northwest city of Dinajpur on 3 February 1905.{{cite web |url=http://kantaji.com/dinajpurmap.html |title=Map of Dinajpur |website=kantaji.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713134542/http://kantaji.com/dinajpurmap.html |archive-date=13 July 2011 |access-date=17 April 2015}} A warm and humid monsoon season lasts from June to October and supplies most of the country's rainfall. Natural calamities, such as floods, tropical cyclones, tornadoes, and tidal bores occur almost every year,{{cite book |last=Alexander |first=David E. |title= Natural Disasters |chapter-url= {{GBurl|id=gWHsuGTcF34C|p=532}}|year= 1999|publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers |isbn=978-0-412-04751-0 |page=532 |chapter=The Third World |orig-year=1993}} combined with the effects of deforestation, soil degradation and erosion. The cyclones of 1970 and 1991 were particularly devastating, the latter killing approximately 140,000 people."[https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2005-feb-27-adfg-bangla27-story.html Beset by Bay's Killer Storms, Bangladesh Prepares and Hopes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240902065034/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2005-feb-27-adfg-bangla27-story.html |date=2 September 2024 }} ". Los Angeles Times. 27 February 2005

In September 1998, Bangladesh saw the most severe flooding in modern history, after which two-thirds of the country went underwater, along with a death toll of 1,000.{{cite book |last=Haggett |first=Peter |title=Encyclopedia of World Geography |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IROIY4ONOSEC&pg=PA2634 |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-7614-7308-4 |oclc=46578454 |pages=2, 634 |chapter=The Indian Subcontinent |orig-year=2002 |access-date=25 July 2023 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328182107/https://books.google.com/books?id=IROIY4ONOSEC&pg=PA2634 |url-status=live }} As a result of various international and national level initiatives in disaster risk reduction, the human toll and economic damage from floods and cyclones have come down over the years.{{cite news |last=Raju |first=M. N. A. |title=Disaster Preparedness for Sustainable Development in Bangladesh |url=https://www.daily-sun.com/arcprint/details/294175/Disaster-Preparedness-for-Sustainable-Development-in-Bangladesh/2018-03-10 |work=Daily Sun |date=10 March 2018 |access-date=26 September 2019 |archive-date=24 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210724074442/https://www.daily-sun.com/arcprint/details/294175/Disaster-Preparedness-for-Sustainable-Development-in-Bangladesh/2018-03-10}} The 2007 South Asian floods ravaged areas across the country, leaving five million people displaced, with a death toll around 500.{{cite news |title=Bangladesh flood death toll nears 500, thousands ill |url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/DHA30252.htm |agency=Reuters |date=15 August 2007 |access-date=15 August 2007 |archive-date=5 February 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080205073714/http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/DHA30252.htm |url-status=live }}File:Flooding after 1991 cyclone.jpg, which killed around 140,000 people|199x199px]]

{{Main|Climate change in Bangladesh|}}

Bangladesh is recognised to be one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change.{{Cite journal |last1=Kulp |first1=Scott A. |last2=Strauss |first2=Benjamin H.|date=29 October 2019|title=New elevation data triple estimates of global vulnerability to sea-level rise and coastal flooding|journal=Nature Communications |volume=10 |issue=1 |page=4844 |bibcode=2019NatCo..10.4844K |doi=10.1038/s41467-019-12808-z |issn=2041-1723 |pmc=6820795 |pmid=31664024}}{{cite web |date=29 October 2019|title=Report: Flooded Future: Global vulnerability to sea level rise worse than previously understood |url=https://climatecentral.org/news/report-flooded-future-global-vulnerability-to-sea-level-rise-worse-than-previously-understood|access-date=3 November 2019|website=climatecentral.org|archive-date=2 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191102025006/https://climatecentral.org/news/report-flooded-future-global-vulnerability-to-sea-level-rise-worse-than-previously-understood}} Over the course of a century, 508 cyclones have affected the Bay of Bengal region, 17 percent of which are believed to have made landfall in Bangladesh.{{Cite book|last=Chaturvedi|first=Sanjay|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UB1qDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT67|title=Climate Change and the Bay of Bengal|date=29 April 2016|publisher=Flipside Digital Content Company Inc.|isbn=978-981-4762-01-4|access-date=25 July 2023|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328182105/https://books.google.com/books?id=UB1qDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT67#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}} Natural hazards that come from increased rainfall, rising sea levels, and tropical cyclones are expected to increase as the climate changes, each seriously affecting agriculture, water and food security, human health, and shelter.{{cite book |url=http://www.moef.gov.bd/moef.pdf|title=Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan, 2008 |publisher=Ministry of Environment and Forests Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh|year=2008|isbn=978-984-8574-25-6|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091007060017/http://www.moef.gov.bd/moef.pdf|archive-date=7 October 2009}} It is estimated that by 2050, a three-foot rise in sea levels will inundate some 20 percent of the land and displace more than 30 million people.{{cite web |last=Glennon |first=Robert|title=The Unfolding Tragedy of Climate Change in Bangladesh |url=https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/guest-blog/the-unfolding-tragedy-of-climate-change-in-bangladesh/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201040750/https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/guest-blog/the-unfolding-tragedy-of-climate-change-in-bangladesh/|archive-date=1 December 2017|access-date=23 November 2017}} To address the sea level rise threat in Bangladesh, the Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100 has been launched.{{cite web |url=https://www.dutchwatersector.com/news/bangladesh-delta-plan-2100 |title=Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100|publisher=The Dutch water sector|access-date=24 September 2019|date=20 May 2019|archive-date=13 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230513135800/https://www.dutchwatersector.com/news/bangladesh-delta-plan-2100|url-status=live}}{{cite web |url=https://www.gwp.org/globalassets/global/gwp-sas_images/gwp-sas-in-action/ldai/bdp-2100-ppt.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.gwp.org/globalassets/global/gwp-sas_images/gwp-sas-in-action/ldai/bdp-2100-ppt.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live|title=Bangladesh Delta Plan (BDP) 2100}}

{{Main|Fauna of Bangladesh}}

File:Bengal Tiger gets down in a shallow canal in Sundarban.jpg, the national animal, in the Sundarbans]]

Bangladesh is located in the Indomalayan realm, and lies within four terrestrial ecoregions: Lower Gangetic Plains moist deciduous forests, Mizoram–Manipur–Kachin rain forests, Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests, and Sundarbans mangroves.{{cite journal |last1=Dinerstein |first1=Eric |last2=Olson |first2=David |last3=Joshi |first3=Anup |last4=Vynne |first4=Carly |last5=Burgess |first5=Neil D. |last6=Wikramanayake |first6=Eric |last7=Hahn |first7=Nathan |last8=Palminteri |first8=Suzanne |last9=Hedao |first9=Prashant |last10=Noss |first10=Reed |last11=Hansen |first11=Matt |last12=Locke |first12=Harvey |last13=Ellis |first13=Erle C |last14=Jones |first14=Benjamin |last15=Barber |first15=Charles Victor |last16=Hayes |first16=Randy |last17=Kormos |first17=Cyril |last18=Martin |first18=Vance |last19=Crist |first19=Eileen |last20=Sechrest |first20=Wes |last21=Price |first21=Lori |last22=Baillie |first22=Jonathan E. M. |last23=Weeden |first23=Don |last24=Suckling |first24=Kierán |last25=Davis |first25=Crystal |last26=Sizer |first26=Nigel |last27=Moore |first27=Rebecca |last28=Thau |first28=David |last29=Birch |first29=Tanya |last30=Potapov |first30=Peter |last31=Turubanova |first31=Svetlana |last32=Tyukavina |first32=Alexandra |last33=de Souza |first33=Nadia |last34=Pintea |first34=Lilian |last35=Brito |first35=José C. |last36=Llewellyn |first36=Othman A. |last37=Miller |first37=Anthony G. |last38=Patzelt |first38=Annette |last39=Ghazanfar |first39=Shahina A. |last40=Timberlake |first40=Jonathan |last41=Klöser |first41=Heinz |last42=Shennan-Farpón |first42=Yara |last43=Kindt |first43=Roeland |last44=Lillesø |first44=Jens-Peter Barnekow |last45=van Breugel |first45=Paulo |last46=Graudal |first46=Lars |last47=Voge |first47=Maianna |last48=Al-Shammari |first48=Khalaf F. |last49=Saleem |first49=Muhammad|title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm |journal=BioScience|volume=67|issue=6|year=2017|pages=534–545 |issn=0006-3568|doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014|pmid=28608869 |pmc=5451287}} Its ecology includes a long sea coastline, numerous rivers and tributaries, lakes, wetlands, evergreen forests, semi evergreen forests, hill forests, moist deciduous forests, freshwater swamp forests and flat land with tall grass. The Bangladesh Plain is famous for its fertile alluvial soil which supports extensive cultivation. The country is dominated by lush vegetation, with villages often buried in groves of mango, jackfruit, bamboo, betel nut, coconut, and date palm.[http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/51736/Bangladesh/33426/Plant-and-animal-life Bangladesh | history – geography :: Plant and animal life] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203195926/http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/51736/Bangladesh/33426/Plant-and-animal-life|date=3 February 2014}}. Encyclopædia Britannica. The country has up to 6000 species of plant life, including 5000 flowering plants.{{cite web |url=http://www.bdhcdelhi.org/index.php/flora-fauna|title=Flora and Fauna – Bangladesh high commission in India |website=Bangladesh High Commission, New Delhi |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130820012655/http://www.bdhcdelhi.org/index.php/flora-fauna |archive-date=20 August 2013}} Water bodies and wetland systems provide a habitat for many aquatic plants. Water lilies and lotuses grow vividly during the monsoon season. The country has 50 wildlife sanctuaries.

Bangladesh is home to most of the Sundarbans, the world's largest mangrove forest, covering an area of {{convert|6000|km2}} in the southwest littoral region. It is divided into three protected sanctuaries: the South, East, and West zones. The forest is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The northeastern Sylhet region is home to haor wetlands, a unique ecosystem. It also includes tropical and subtropical coniferous forests, a freshwater swamp forest, and mixed deciduous forests. The southeastern Chittagong region covers evergreen and semi-evergreen hilly jungles. Central Bangladesh includes the plainland Sal forest running along with the districts of Gazipur, Tangail, and Mymensingh. St. Martin's Island is the only coral reef in the country.

Bangladesh has an abundance of wildlife in its forests, marshes, woodlands, and hills. The vast majority of animals dwell within a habitat of {{convert|150000|km2}}.{{cite news |author1=Soraya Auer |author2=Anika Hossain |date=7 July 2012 |title=Lost Wards of the State |url=http://archive.thedailystar.net/magazine/2012/07/01/cover.htm|work=The Daily Star|access-date=14 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150214120509/http://archive.thedailystar.net/magazine/2012/07/01/cover.htm |archive-date=14 February 2015 |url-status=live}} The Bengal tiger, clouded leopard, saltwater crocodile, black panther and fishing cat are among the chief predators in the Sundarbans.{{cite book|author=Peter Haggett|title=Encyclopedia of World Geography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IROIY4ONOSEC&pg=PA2620|year=2001|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|isbn=978-0-7614-7289-6|page=2620|access-date=20 January 2017|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328182110/https://books.google.com/books?id=IROIY4ONOSEC&pg=PA2620|url-status=live}} Northern and eastern Bangladesh is home to the Asian elephant, hoolock gibbon, Asian black bear and oriental pied hornbill.{{cite web |url=http://bearprojectbd.weebly.com/bears-in-bangladesh.html|title=Bears in Bangladesh|website=Bangladesh Bear Project|access-date=14 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150214061240/http://bearprojectbd.weebly.com/bears-in-bangladesh.html|archive-date=14 February 2015|url-status=live}} The chital deer are widely seen in southwestern woodlands. Other animals include the black giant squirrel, capped langur, Bengal fox, sambar deer, jungle cat, king cobra, wild boar, mongooses, pangolins, pythons and water monitors. Bangladesh has one of the largest populations of Irrawaddy and Ganges dolphins.{{cite web |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/03/090331-dolphins-found.html|title=6,000 Rare, Large River Dolphins Found in Bangladesh|work=National Geographic|date=March 2009|access-date=13 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141012093653/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/03/090331-dolphins-found.html|archive-date=12 October 2014}} The country has numerous species of amphibians (53), reptiles (139), marine reptiles (19) and marine mammals (5). It also has 628 species of birds.{{cite news |last1=Hossain |first1=Muhammad Selim |date=23 May 2009 |title=Conserving biodiversity must for survival |url=http://archive.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details.php?nid=89375 |work=The Daily Star |access-date=30 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150530100603/http://archive.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details.php?nid=89375 |archive-date=30 May 2015 |url-status=live}}

Several animals became extinct in Bangladesh during the last century, including the one-horned and two-horned rhinoceros and common peafowl. The human population is concentrated in urban areas, limiting deforestation to a certain extent. Rapid urban growth has threatened natural habitats. The country has widespread environmental issues; pollution of the Dhaleshwari River by the textile industry and shrimp cultivation in Chakaria Sundarbans have both been described by academics as ecocides.{{Citation |last1=Suny |first1=Rabby Us |title=Political Economy of River Ecocide in Bangladesh: A Study in the Context of Dhaleshwari River |date=20 June 2022 |url=https://www.worldscientific.com/doi/abs/10.1142/9789811263750_0005 |work=Politics of Climate Change |pages=83–103 |access-date=10 July 2023 |publisher=WORLD SCIENTIFIC |doi=10.1142/9789811263750_0005 |isbn=978-981-12-6374-3 |last2=Sarkar |first2=Oliver Tirtho |last3=Hasan |first3=Md Abid |archive-date=10 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230710162257/https://www.worldscientific.com/doi/abs/10.1142/9789811263750_0005 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal |last=Zaman |first=Samia |date=7 June 2023 |title=The Bangladesh Environmental Humanities Reader: by Samina Luthfa, Mohammad Tanzimuddin Khan, and Munasir Kamal, Lanham, Lexinton Books, 2022 ISBN 978-1-4985-9913-9 and 978-1-4985-9914-6 |journal=Environmental Politics |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=752–754 |doi=10.1080/09644016.2023.2192149 |s2cid=257785219 |issn=0964-4016|doi-access=free}} Although many areas are protected under law, some Bangladeshi wildlife is threatened by this growth. The Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act was enacted in 1995. The government has designated several regions as Ecologically Critical Areas, including wetlands, forests, and rivers. The Sundarbans tiger project and the Bangladesh Bear Project are among the key initiatives to strengthen conservation. It ratified the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity on 3 May 1994.{{cite web |url=http://www.cbd.int/countries/profile/default.shtml?country=bd|title=Bangladesh – Country Profile|website=cbd.int|access-date=16 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150217020013/http://www.cbd.int/countries/profile/default.shtml?country=bd|archive-date=17 February 2015|url-status=live}} {{As of|2014}}, the country was set to revise its National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan.

{{Main|Government of Bangladesh|Politics of Bangladesh}}

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| image1 = National Assembly of Bangladesh (10).jpg

| caption1 = The National Parliament building in Sher-e-Bangla Nagar, a neighborhood named after the first Prime Minister of Bengal.

| image2 = Bangabhaban, Dhaka April (33244270994).jpg

| caption2 = Bangabhaban (Translation: Bengal House) is the presidential palace of Bangladesh. It was originally a house for the Viceroy of India and the Governor of Bengal.

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Bangladesh, by constitution, is a unitary state and a de jure representative democracy with a Westminster-style parliamentary system that has universal suffrage.{{cite journal|last=Jahan|first=Rounaq|title=The Parliament of Bangladesh: Representation and Accountability|doi=10.1080/13572334.2014.975470|year=2014|pages=250–269|journal=The Journal of Legislative Studies|volume=21|issue=2}} The government can be divided into three pillars: the executive, the legislative and the judiciary—all function to ensure accountability, transparency and checks and balances of the government.{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/rising-stars/explained/news/explained-the-branches-bangladeshs-government-3512581|title=Explained: The branches of Bangladesh's government|work=The Daily Star|date=6 January 2024|access-date=20 January 2025|last=Siddiquee|first=Ayaan Shams}} Since its independence, the Awami League (AL) and the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) have remained two of the most powerful political parties in Bangladesh.{{cite journal|last=Shah|first=Aqil|title=Democracy Deadlocked in Bangladesh|journal=Current History|volume=115|number=780|year=2016|pages=130–135|doi=10.1525/curh.2016.115.780.130 |jstor=48614157}}

• The first pillar of the government is the executive organ, which is entrusted with the total administration of the country. Executive powers are largely vested in the Prime Minister, who is the head of government, and oversees the cabinet. The tenure of a parliamentary government is five years. Various ministers form the bulk of the executive organ, overseeing government departments and forming policies. The Civil Service assists the ministers in implementing the policies. All authorities unite to formulate policies, manage public services, and implement national development plans. The President is the ceremonial head of state, whose powers include signing bills passed by parliament into law and maintaining the government's stability and continuity; as well as fulfilling their duties as the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces{{cite web|url=http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-367/section-24615.html|title=61.Supreme command|work=Laws of Bangladesh|publisher=Legislative and Parliamentary Affairs Division|access-date=21 January 2025}} and the chancellor of all universities.{{cite web|url=http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-details-447.html|title=The Dhaka University Order, 1973 (President's Order).|work=Laws of Bangladesh|publisher=Legislative and Parliamentary Affairs Division|access-date=21 January 2025}}

• The second pillar of the government is the legislative organ, also known as the Jatiya Sangsad (House of the Nation).{{cite web|url=http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-367/section-24619.html|title=65. Establishment of Parliament|work=Laws of Bangladesh|publisher=Legislative and Parliamentary Affairs Division|access-date=21 January 2025}} Citizens across the country vote to elect the members of parliament (MPs). The unicameral parliament has 350 MPs, including 300 elected on the first past the post system and 50 appointed to reserved seats for women's empowerment.{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/news/bangladesh/news/women-mps-reserved-seats-how-empowered-are-they-really-3601271|title=Women MPs in reserved seats: How empowered are they really?|work=The Daily Star|date=4 May 2024|access-date=20 January 2025|last=Hasan|first=Rashidul}} Article 70 of the Constitution of Bangladesh forbids MPs from voting against their party.{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/backpage/article-70-constitution-its-safeguard-democracy-1581670|title=Article 70 of Constitution: It's a safeguard for democracy|work=The Daily Star|date=26 May 2018|access-date=20 January 2025}} The parliament is presided over by the Speaker, who is second in line to the president as per the constitution.{{cite web|url=http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-367/section-24603.html|title=54.Speaker to act as President during absence, etc.|work=Laws of Bangladesh|publisher=Legislative and Parliamentary Affairs Division|access-date=21 January 2025}}

• The third pillar of the government is the judiciary organ, which is in charge of interpreting the law, resolving conflicts, and maintaining justice across the nation. The Supreme Court is the highest court, separated into the Appellate Division and the High Court Division.{{cite web|url=http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-367/part-details-203.html|title=THE JUDICIARY|work=Laws of Bangladesh|publisher=Legislative and Parliamentary Affairs Division|access-date=21 January 2025}} It is led by the Chief Justice with the assistance of other justices. The judiciary has the power to assess a law's constitutionality and offer legal remedies. Protecting citizens' rights, making sure the law is applied fairly, and preserving the balance of power within the government are all made possible by the court. The courts have wide latitude in judicial review, and judicial precedent is supported by Article 111 of the constitution.{{cite web|url=http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-367/section-24668.html|title=111.Binding effect of Supreme Court judgments|work=Laws of Bangladesh|publisher=Legislative and Parliamentary Affairs Division|access-date=21 January 2025}} The judiciary includes district and metropolitan courts divided into civil and criminal courts. Due to a shortage of judges, the judiciary has a large backlog.{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/opinion/editorial/news/huge-case-backlog-only-hurting-citizens-3306391|title=Huge case backlog only hurting citizens|work=The Daily Star|date=28 April 2023|access-date=20 January 2025}}

{{Main|Administrative geography of Bangladesh}}

{{Further|Divisions of Bangladesh|Districts of Bangladesh|Upazilas of Bangladesh}}

{{Bangladesh Divisions Image Map}}

Bangladesh is divided into eight administrative divisions,{{cite web |url=http://www.bangladesh.gov.bd/site/view/division-list/List-of-Divisions|publisher=Bangladesh Government|title=National Web Portal of Bangladesh|date=15 September 2015|access-date=23 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923061605/http://www.bangladesh.gov.bd/site/view/division-list/List-of-Divisions|archive-date=23 September 2015|url-status=live}}{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Bangladesh|access-date=15 May 2007 |year=2007}}{{cite news |url=http://bdnews24.com/bangladesh/2010/01/25/rangpur-becomes-a-division |title=Rangpur becomes a divivion |work=bdnews24.com |date=25 January 2010 |access-date=6 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903184553/http://bdnews24.com/bangladesh/2010/01/25/rangpur-becomes-a-division |archive-date=3 September 2015 |url-status=live}} each named after their respective divisional headquarters: Barisal (officially Barishal{{cite news |url=https://bdnews24.com/bangladesh/2018/04/02/bangladesh-changes-english-spellings-of-five-districts|title=Bangladesh changes English spellings of five districts|work=bdnews24.com|date=2 April 2018|access-date=1 October 2019 |archive-date=15 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201215091950/https://bdnews24.com/bangladesh/2018/04/02/bangladesh-changes-english-spellings-of-five-districts|url-status=live}}), Chittagong (officially Chattogram), Dhaka, Khulna, Mymensingh, Rajshahi, Rangpur, and Sylhet.

Divisions are subdivided into districts (zila). There are 64 districts in Bangladesh, each further subdivided into upazila (subdistricts) or thana. The area within each police station, except for those in metropolitan areas, is divided into several unions, with each union consisting of multiple villages. In the metropolitan areas, police stations are divided into wards, further divided into mahallas.

There are no elected officials at the divisional or district levels, and the administration is composed only of government officials. Direct elections are held in each union (or ward) for a chairperson and several members. In 1997, a parliamentary act was passed to reserve three seats (out of 12) in every union for female candidates.Local Government Act, No. 20, 1997

{{Main|Foreign relations of Bangladesh}}

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| image1 = Diplomatic relations of Bangladesh.svg

| caption1 = Countries that share diplomatic relations with Bangladesh

| image2 = President Joe Biden meets with Muhammad Yunus (54021235154).jpg

| caption2 = U.S. President Joe Biden with Chief Adviser Muhammad Yunus at the Headquarters of the United Nations in New York City

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Bangladesh is considered a middle power in global politics.{{cite web |url=https://thediplomat.com/2021/12/bangladesh-at-50-on-the-path-to-becoming-a-middle-power/|title=Bangladesh at 50: On the Path to Becoming a Middle Power|work=The Diplomat|date=16 December 2021 |last=Hassan |first=Asif Muztaba|access-date=26 September 2022|archive-date=26 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220926153004/https://thediplomat.com/2021/12/bangladesh-at-50-on-the-path-to-becoming-a-middle-power/|url-status=live}} It plays an important role in the geopolitical affairs of the Indo-Pacific,{{cite web |url=https://www.nbr.org/publication/understanding-the-importance-of-bangladesh-in-the-bay-of-bengal-and-the-indo-pacific/|title=Understanding the Importance of Bangladesh in the Bay of Bengal and the Indo-Pacific |last=Karim |first=Tariq A.|date=21 May 2022|publisher=National Bureau of Asian Research|access-date=26 September 2022|archive-date=26 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220926153004/https://www.nbr.org/publication/understanding-the-importance-of-bangladesh-in-the-bay-of-bengal-and-the-indo-pacific/|url-status=live}} due to its strategic location between South and Southeast Asia.{{cite web |url=https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/156355/adbi-wp500.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/156355/adbi-wp500.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live|title=Connecting South Asia and Southeast Asia: A Bangladesh Country Study|date=September 2014|publisher=Asian Development Bank|access-date=26 September 2022|number=500 |last1=Rahman |first1=Mustafizur |last2=Moazzem |first2=Khondaker Golam |last3=Chowdhury |first3=Mehruna Islam |last4=Sehrin |first4=Farzana}} Bangladesh joined the Commonwealth of Nations in 1972 and the United Nations in 1974.{{cite web |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/backpage/news/bangladesh-enters-commonwealth-1894048 |title=Bangladesh enters Commonwealth |last=Sajen |first=Shamsuddoza|work=The Daily Star|date=18 April 2020 |access-date=26 September 2022|archive-date=26 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220926153013/https://www.thedailystar.net/backpage/news/bangladesh-enters-commonwealth-1894048|url-status=live}}{{cite web |url=https://news.un.org/en/audio/2014/09/592702|title=Bangladesh marks 40 years as Member State of the UN |publisher=United Nations|date=26 September 2014|access-date=26 September 2022 |last=Chaudhury |first=Dipanjan Roy|archive-date=26 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220926153010/https://news.un.org/en/audio/2014/09/592702|url-status=live}} It relies on multilateral diplomacy on issues like climate change, nuclear non-proliferation, trade policy and non-traditional security issues.{{cite web |url=https://rsis-ntsasia.org/roundtable-on-non-traditional-security-threats-in-the-indo-pacific-region/ | title=Roundtable on 'Non Traditional Security Threats in the Indo-Pacific Region' – NTS-Asia | date=30 August 2022 | access-date=28 September 2022 | archive-date=28 September 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928184723/https://rsis-ntsasia.org/roundtable-on-non-traditional-security-threats-in-the-indo-pacific-region/ | url-status=live }} Bangladesh pioneered the creation of SAARC, which has been the preeminent forum for regional diplomacy among the countries of the Indian subcontinent.{{cite web |url=https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/156717/adbi-dp78.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/156717/adbi-dp78.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live |last1=De |first1=Prabir |last2=Bhattacharyay |first2=Biswa N.|title=Prospects of India–Bangladesh Economic Cooperation: Implications for South Asian Regional Cooperation|publisher=Asian Development Bank|date=September 2007|access-date=27 September 2022}} It joined the OIC in 1974,{{cite web |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/backpage/news/bangladesh-example-religious-harmony-oic-2064177|title=Bangladesh an example of religious harmony: OIC|work=The Daily Star |date=21 March 2021|access-date=27 September 2022|archive-date=27 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927102404/https://www.thedailystar.net/backpage/news/bangladesh-example-religious-harmony-oic-2064177 |url-status=live}} and is a founding member of the Developing-8.{{cite web |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/news/bangladesh/news/bangladesh-receives-international-peace-award-d-8-founding-member-3085371|work=The Daily Star|date=1 August 2022|access-date=27 September 2022|title=Bangladesh receives "International Peace Award" as D-8 founding member|archive-date=27 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927102352/https://www.thedailystar.net/news/bangladesh/news/bangladesh-receives-international-peace-award-d-8-founding-member-3085371|url-status=live}} In recent years, Bangladesh has focused on promoting regional trade and transport links with support from the World Bank.{{cite web |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2022/06/28/regional-trade-and-connectivity-in-south-asia-gets-more-than-1-billion-boost-from-world-bank | title=Regional Trade and Connectivity in South Asia Gets More Than $1 Billion Boost from World Bank | access-date=28 September 2022 | archive-date=28 September 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928184718/https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2022/06/28/regional-trade-and-connectivity-in-south-asia-gets-more-than-1-billion-boost-from-world-bank | url-status=live }} Dhaka hosts the headquarters of BIMSTEC, an organisation that brings together countries dependent on the Bay of Bengal.

Relations with neighbouring Myanmar have been severely strained since 2016–2017, after over 700,000 Rohingya refugees illegally entered Bangladesh.{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2018/08/05/bangladesh-not-my-country/plight-rohingya-refugees-myanmar|title=Bangladesh Is Not My Country|publisher=Human Rights Watch|date=5 August 2018|access-date=27 September 2022|archive-date=27 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927102348/https://www.hrw.org/report/2018/08/05/bangladesh-not-my-country/plight-rohingya-refugees-myanmar|url-status=live}} The parliament, government, and civil society of Bangladesh have been at the forefront of international criticism against Myanmar for military operations against the Rohingya, and have demanded their right of return to Arakan.{{cite web |url=https://thediplomat.com/2022/02/bangladesh-and-myanmar-resume-talks-on-rohingya-repatriation/ | title=Bangladesh and Myanmar Resume Talks on Rohingya Repatriation | access-date=28 September 2022 | archive-date=28 September 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928184715/https://thediplomat.com/2022/02/bangladesh-and-myanmar-resume-talks-on-rohingya-repatriation/ | url-status=live }}{{cite web |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/8/17/rohingya-refugees-have-to-be-taken-back-bangladesh-pm-says|title=Bangladesh tells UN that Rohingya refugees must return to Myanmar|date=17 August 2022|work=Al Jazeera|access-date=27 September 2022|archive-date=26 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220926223428/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/8/17/rohingya-refugees-have-to-be-taken-back-bangladesh-pm-says|url-status=live}}

Bangladesh shares an important bilateral and economic relationship with its largest neighbour India,{{cite web |url=https://mea.gov.in/Portal/ForeignRelation/India_Bangladesh_MAR2021.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://mea.gov.in/Portal/ForeignRelation/India_Bangladesh_MAR2021.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live|title=India-Bangladesh Bilateral Relations|date=March 2021|publisher=Ministry of External Affairs (India)|access-date=27 September 2022}} which is often strained by water politics of the Ganges and the Teesta,{{cite web |url=https://climate-diplomacy.org/case-studies/india-and-bangladesh-conflict-over-ganges-river | title=India and Bangladesh Conflict over the Ganges River | Climate-Diplomacy | date=January 1957 | access-date=23 October 2022 | archive-date=23 October 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221023122123/https://climate-diplomacy.org/case-studies/india-and-bangladesh-conflict-over-ganges-river | url-status=live }}{{cite thesis |last=Karim |first=Sajid |date=November 2020 |title=Transboundary Water Cooperation between Bangladesh and India in the Ganges River Basin: Exploring a Benefit-sharing Approach |type=Master's |publisher=Uppsala University |url=http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1499222/FULLTEXT01.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1499222/FULLTEXT01.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live|access-date=27 September 2022}}{{cite web |url=https://thediplomat.com/2021/04/india-must-settle-the-teesta-river-dispute-with-bangladesh-for-lasting-gains/|title=India Must Settle the Teesta River Dispute With Bangladesh for Lasting Gains|work=The Diplomat|date=9 April 2021|access-date=27 September 2022 |last=Banerji |first=Anuttama|archive-date=27 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927102352/https://thediplomat.com/2021/04/india-must-settle-the-teesta-river-dispute-with-bangladesh-for-lasting-gains/|url-status=live}} and the border killings of Bangladeshi civilians.{{cite web |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/unlawful-killings-along-india-border-bangladeshi-families-seek-justice/2141343 |title='Unlawful killings' along India border: Bangladeshi families seek justice|work=Anadolu Agency|date=11 February 2021|access-date=27 September 2022 |last=Kamruzzaman |first=Md.|archive-date=27 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927102348/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/unlawful-killings-along-india-border-bangladeshi-families-seek-justice/2141343|url-status=live}}{{cite web |url=https://archive.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2020/12/22/bangladesh-sees-highest-border-deaths-in-10-years|title=Bangladesh sees highest border deaths in 10 years|date=22 December 2020 |last=Anik |first=Syed Samiul Basher|work=Dhaka Tribune|access-date=27 September 2022|archive-date=27 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927102351/https://archive.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2020/12/22/bangladesh-sees-highest-border-deaths-in-10-years|url-status=live}} Post-independent Bangladesh has continued to have a problematic relationship with Pakistan, mainly due to its denial of the 1971 Bangladesh genocide.{{cite web |url=https://www.dw.com/en/should-pakistan-apologize-to-bangladesh-for-the-1971-war/a-57051549|title=Should Pakistan apologize to Bangladesh for the 1971 war?|work=DW News|publisher=Deutsche Welle|date=30 March 2021|access-date=27 September 2022 |last=Janjua |first=Haroon|archive-date=27 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927102348/https://www.dw.com/en/should-pakistan-apologize-to-bangladesh-for-the-1971-war/a-57051549|url-status=live}} It maintains a warm relationship with China, which is its largest trading partner, and the largest arms supplier.{{cite web |url=https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/41935-decoding-china-bangladesh-relationship/|title=Decoding China-Bangladesh relationship |last=Bhattacharjee |first=Joyeeta|date=27 June 2018|access-date=27 September 2022|publisher=Observer Research Foundation|archive-date=27 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927102352/https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/41935-decoding-china-bangladesh-relationship/|url-status=live}} Japan is Bangladesh's largest economic aid provider, and the two maintain a strategic and economic partnership.{{cite web |url=https://thediplomat.com/2022/02/50-years-of-japan-bangladesh-ties-from-economic-to-strategic-partnership/|title=50 Years of Japan-Bangladesh Ties: From Economic to Strategic Partnership|work=The Diplomat|date=10 February 2022 |last=Shazzad |first=Hussain|access-date=26 September 2022|archive-date=26 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220926153002/https://thediplomat.com/2022/02/50-years-of-japan-bangladesh-ties-from-economic-to-strategic-partnership/|url-status=live}} Political relations with Middle Eastern countries are robust.{{cite web |url=https://saudigazette.com.sa/article/38010 | title=Bangladesh and Saudi Arabia have extremely cordial relations – Rizvi | date=27 March 2013 | access-date=28 September 2022 | archive-date=28 September 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928184720/https://saudigazette.com.sa/article/38010 | url-status=live }} Bangladesh receives 59% of its remittances from the Middle East,{{cite web |url=https://www.tbsnews.net/thoughts/middle-east-dual-shock-spillover-bangladeshs-remittance-108325 | title=Middle East dual shock spillover on Bangladesh's remittance | date=19 July 2020 | access-date=28 September 2022 | archive-date=28 September 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928184724/https://www.tbsnews.net/thoughts/middle-east-dual-shock-spillover-bangladeshs-remittance-108325 | url-status=live }} despite poor working conditions affecting over four million Bangladeshi workers.{{cite web |url=https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2022/06/29/experts-middle-east-remains-key-to-bangladeshs-fortunes-in-a-changing-world|title=Experts: Middle East remains key to Bangladesh's fortunes in a changing world|date=29 June 2022|work=Dhaka Tribune|access-date=27 September 2022|archive-date=27 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927102351/https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2022/06/29/experts-middle-east-remains-key-to-bangladeshs-fortunes-in-a-changing-world|url-status=live}} Bangladesh plays a major role in global climate diplomacy as a leader of the Climate Vulnerable Forum.{{cite web |url=https://study.soas.ac.uk/cop26-bangladesh-climate-diplomacy/ | title=COP26 and Bangladesh: Time to Consolidate Climate Diplomacy | date=11 October 2021 | access-date=28 September 2022 | archive-date=28 September 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928184721/https://study.soas.ac.uk/cop26-bangladesh-climate-diplomacy/ | url-status=live }}

{{Main|Bangladesh Armed Forces}}

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| image1 = Bangladeshi soldiers on a BTR-80 APC.jpg

| caption1 = Bangladesh Army personnel on a BTR-80.

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| caption2 = Bangladesh Navy Frigate, BNS Bangabandhu.

| image3 = Mikoyan MiG-29-Chengdu F-7.jpg

| caption3 = Mig-29 and F-7, Fighter aircraft’s of Bangladesh Air Force.

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The Bangladesh Armed Forces have inherited the institutional framework of the British military and the British Indian Army.{{cite web |url=http://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/p33231/mobile/ch07.html|title=The Military and Democracy in Bangladesh|website=press-files.anu.edu.au|access-date=19 September 2017|archive-date=10 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010141253/http://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/p33231/mobile/ch07.html|url-status=live}} In 2024, the active personnel strength of the Bangladesh Armed Forces was around 230,000,*{{cite book| title=The Military Balance 2018 |author1=International Institute for Strategic Studies |author-link1=International Institute for Strategic Studies| date=14 February 2018| publisher=Routledge| isbn=978-1-85743-955-7| ref=IISS2018}} including the Air Force (21,000) and the Navy (27,000).Including service and civilian personnel. See [https://web.archive.org/web/20120112044228/http://www.bangladeshnavy.org/glance.html Bangladesh Navy]. Retrieved 17 July 2007. In addition to traditional defence roles, the military has supported civil authorities in disaster relief and provided internal security during periods of political unrest. For many years, Bangladesh has been the world's largest contributor to UN peacekeeping forces.{{Cite web |date=4 April 2023 |title=Contribution of Uniformed Personnel to UN by Country and Personnel Type |url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/sites/default/files/01_contributions_to_un_peacekeeping_operations_by_country_and_post_59_february_23.pdf.pdf |access-date=12 May 2023 |publisher=United Nations|archive-date=12 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230512143419/https://peacekeeping.un.org/sites/default/files/01_contributions_to_un_peacekeeping_operations_by_country_and_post_59_february_23.pdf.pdf |url-status=live }} The military budget of Bangladesh accounts for 1.3% of GDP, amounting to US$4.3 billion in 2021.{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/MS.MIL.XPND.GD.ZS?locations=BD |title=Military expenditure (% of GDP) – Bangladesh |website=World Bank |access-date=7 February 2022 |archive-date=7 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220207232946/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/MS.MIL.XPND.GD.ZS?locations=BD |url-status=live }}{{cite news |last=Alif |first=Abdullah |date=11 June 2020 |title=Budget FY21: Military spending increases by Tk2,327 crore |url=https://archive.dhakatribune.com/business/economy/2020/06/11/military-spending-increases-by-tk2-327-crore |work=Dhaka Trbiune |access-date=7 February 2022 |archive-date=7 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220207231443/https://archive.dhakatribune.com/business/economy/2020/06/11/military-spending-increases-by-tk2-327-crore |url-status=live }}

The Bangladesh Navy, one of the largest in the Bay of Bengal, includes a fleet of frigates, submarines, corvettes, and other vessels. The Bangladesh Air Force has a small fleet of multi-role combat aircraft. Most of Bangladesh's military equipment comes from China.{{cite news |last=Balachandran |first=P.K. |date=12 April 2017 |title=Rivals India and China woo Bangladesh with aid totalling $46 b |url=http://www.ft.lk/article/609166/Rivals-India-and-China-woo-Bangladesh-with-aid-totalling---46-b |work=Daily FT |access-date=27 July 2017 |archive-date=28 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170728123712/http://www.ft.lk/article/609166/Rivals-India-and-China-woo-Bangladesh-with-aid-totalling---46-b |url-status=live }} In recent years, Bangladesh and India have increased joint military exercises, high-level visits of military leaders, counter-terrorism cooperation and intelligence sharing. Bangladesh is vital to ensuring stability and security in northeast India.{{cite web |url=https://www.orfonline.org/research/migration-river-management-radicalisation-66008/ |title=Migration, river management, radicalisation: What does the future hold for India-Bangladesh relations? |last=Bhattacharjee |first=Joyeeta |date=May 2020 |website=Observer Research Foundation |access-date=7 February 2022 |archive-date=7 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220207231444/https://www.orfonline.org/research/migration-river-management-radicalisation-66008/ |url-status=live }}{{cite web |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/news-detail-206537 |title=Bangladesh and India's Northeast: A security perspective |work=The Daily Star |date=15 October 2011 |access-date=14 February 2022 |archive-date=8 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220208025833/https://www.thedailystar.net/news-detail-206537 |url-status=live }}

Bangladesh's strategic importance in the eastern subcontinent hinges on its proximity to China, its frontier with Burma, the separation of mainland and northeast India, and its maritime territory in the Bay of Bengal.{{cite web |author=Anu Anwar, Michael Kugelman |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/12/01/us-bangladesh-relations-dhaka-india-china-bri/ |title=The U.S. Should Deepen Ties With Bangladesh |publisher=Foreignpolicy.com |date=1 December 2021 |access-date=14 February 2022 |archive-date=7 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220207162327/https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/12/01/us-bangladesh-relations-dhaka-india-china-bri/ |url-status=live }} In 2002, Bangladesh and China signed a Defence Cooperation Agreement.{{cite journal |last=Kinne |first=Brandon J. |date=15 August 2018 |title=Defense Cooperation Agreements and the Emergence of a Global Security Network |journal=International Organization |volume=72 |issue=4 |pages=799–837 |doi=10.1017/S0020818318000218 |s2cid=158722872 |doi-access=free }} The United States has pursued negotiations with Bangladesh on a Status of Forces Agreement, an Acquisition and Cross-Servicing Agreement and a General Security of Military Information Agreement.{{cite journal |last=Paul |first=Bimal Kanti |date=2005 |title=Bangladeshi American Response to the 1998 Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA): An Assessment |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-9272.2005.00494.x?journalCode=rtpg20 |journal=The Professional Geographer |volume=57 |issue=4 |pages=495–505 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9272.2005.00494.x |bibcode=2005ProfG..57..495P |s2cid=129498633 |access-date=7 February 2022 |archive-date=7 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220207162327/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-9272.2005.00494.x?journalCode=rtpg20 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}{{cite web |last=Ashraf |first=Nazmul |url=https://gulfnews.com/uae/us-keen-on-military-ties-with-dhaka-1.386026 |title=U.S. keen on military ties with Dhaka | Uae |work=Gulf News |date=11 May 2002 |access-date=14 February 2022 |archive-date=7 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220207162344/https://gulfnews.com/uae/us-keen-on-military-ties-with-dhaka-1.386026 |url-status=live }}{{cite news |title=US wants 2 defence deals with Bangladesh |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/frontpage/us-wants-2-defence-deals-bangladesh-1815466 |work=The Daily Star |date=18 October 2019 |access-date=7 February 2022 |archive-date=7 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220207162327/https://www.thedailystar.net/frontpage/us-wants-2-defence-deals-bangladesh-1815466 |url-status=live }} In 2019, Bangladesh ratified the UN Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.{{cite news |title=Bangladesh ratifies nuclear weapons prohibition treaty |url=https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/government-affairs/2019/09/28/bangladesh-ratifies-nuclear-weapons-prohibition-treaty |work=Dhaka Tribune |date=28 September 2020 |access-date=15 August 2020 |archive-date=20 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920163951/https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/government-affairs/2019/09/28/bangladesh-ratifies-nuclear-weapons-prohibition-treaty |url-status=live }}

{{main|List of non-governmental organisations in Bangladesh}}

Since the colonial period, Bangladesh has had a prominent civil society. There are various special interest groups, including non-governmental organisations, human rights organisations, professional associations, chambers of commerce, employers' associations, and trade unions.{{cite web |url=https://www.bti-project.org/en/reports/country-reports/detail/itc/BGD/ |title=Detail|website=bti-project.org|access-date=15 August 2019|archive-date=26 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190626213607/https://www.bti-project.org/en/reports/country-reports/detail/itc/BGD/}} The National Human Rights Commission of Bangladesh was set up in 2007. Notable human rights organisations and initiatives include the Centre for Law and Mediation, Odhikar, the Alliance for Bangladesh Worker Safety, the Bangladesh Environmental Lawyers Association, the Bangladesh Hindu Buddhist Christian Unity Council and the War Crimes Fact Finding Committee. The world's largest international NGO BRAC is based in Bangladesh. There have been concerns regarding the shrinking space for independent civil society in recent years.{{cite web |url=https://netra.news/2021/the-rise-and-fade-of-ngos-2357 |title=The rise and fade of NGOs?|date=26 October 2021|access-date=8 January 2022|archive-date=8 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108042353/https://netra.news/2021/the-rise-and-fade-of-ngos-2357}}{{cite web |url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/internationaldevelopment/2021/10/25/bangladeshs-ngos-at-50-a-conversation-between-david-lewis-and-naomi-hossain/ |title=Bangladesh's NGOs at 50: a conversation between David Lewis and Naomi Hossain|work=LSE International Development |date=25 October 2021 |access-date=8 January 2022|archive-date=8 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108042356/https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/internationaldevelopment/2021/10/25/bangladeshs-ngos-at-50-a-conversation-between-david-lewis-and-naomi-hossain/|url-status=live}}{{Cite news |url=https://www.dhakatribune.com/op-ed/2021/12/30/is-our-civil-society-dead|title=Is our civil society dead?|work=Dhaka Tribune |access-date=8 January 2022|archive-date=8 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108225153/https://www.dhakatribune.com/op-ed/2021/12/30/is-our-civil-society-dead|url-status=live}}

{{Main|Human rights in Bangladesh}}

File:R.A.B.jpg (RAB) have been widely accused of extrajudicial killings, enforced disappearances and human right abuses. The United States Department of the Treasury sanctioned RAB in 2021.{{cite web|url=https://www.dw.com/en/death-squad-inside-bangladeshs-rapid-action-battalion/a-65209010|last1=Caurla|first1=Christian|last2=Islam|first2=Arafatul|last3=Conrad|first3=Naomi|last4=Schülke|first4=Birgitta|title='Death squad': Inside Bangladesh's Rapid Action Battalion|work=DW News|date=3 April 2023|access-date=21 January 2025}}]]

Torture is banned by the Constitution of Bangladesh,{{cite web |url=http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-367/section-24583.html|title=The Constitution of the People's Republic of Bangladesh | 35. Protection in respect of trial and punishment|website=bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd|access-date=8 January 2022|archive-date=8 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108042355/http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-367/section-24583.html|url-status=live}} but is rampantly used by Bangladesh's security forces. Bangladesh joined the Convention against Torture in 1998 and it enacted its first anti-torture law, the Torture and Custodial Death (Prevention) Act, in 2013. The first conviction under this law was announced in 2020.{{cite web |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/law-our-rights/news/jonnys-custodial-death-case-lessons-learned-the-verdict-1969413|title=Jonny's custodial death case: Lessons learned from the verdict |first=Ali |last=Mashraf|date=29 September 2020|work=The Daily Star|access-date=8 January 2022|archive-date=8 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108042350/https://www.thedailystar.net/law-our-rights/news/jonnys-custodial-death-case-lessons-learned-the-verdict-1969413|url-status=live}} Amnesty International Prisoners of Conscience from Bangladesh have included Saber Hossain Chowdhury and Shahidul Alam.{{cite web |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa13/9065/2018/en/|title=Bangladesh: Prisoner of conscience faces prolonged detention: Shahidul Alam|date=11 September 2018|publisher=Amnesty International|access-date=8 January 2022|archive-date=8 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108042350/https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa13/9065/2018/en/|url-status=live}}{{cite press release |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/asa130022003en.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.amnesty.org/en/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/asa130022003en.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live |title=Bangladesh: Senior Awami League politician in danger of torture |date=9 January 2003 |publisher=Amnesty International}} The widely criticized Digital Security Act was repealed and replaced by the Cyber Security Act in 2023.{{Cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/8/7/bangladesh-to-tone-down-draconian-digital-security-law|title=Bangladesh to tone down 'draconian' digital security law|first=Faisal|last=Mahmud|publisher=Al Jazeera|access-date=26 February 2024|archive-date=2 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240902065035/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/8/7/bangladesh-to-tone-down-draconian-digital-security-law|url-status=live}} The repeal was welcomed by the International Press Institute.{{cite web | url=https://ipi.media/bangladesh-ipi-welcomes-repeal-and-replacement-of-digital-security-act/#:~:text=This%20month%2C%20in%20response%20to,according%20to%20The%20Business%20Standard | title=Bangladesh: IPI welcomes repeal and replacement of Digital Security Act | date=18 August 2023 | access-date=26 February 2024 | archive-date=26 February 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240226201510/https://ipi.media/bangladesh-ipi-welcomes-repeal-and-replacement-of-digital-security-act/#:~:text=This%20month%2C%20in%20response%20to,according%20to%20The%20Business%20Standard | url-status=live }}

On International Human Rights Day in December 2021, the United States Department of the Treasury announced sanctions on commanders of the Rapid Action Battalion for extrajudicial killings, torture, and other human rights abuses.{{cite web |url=https://home.treasury.gov/news/press-releases/jy0526 |title=Treasury Sanctions Perpetrators of Serious Human Rights Abuse on International Human Rights Day|website=United States Department of the Treasury|access-date=8 January 2022|archive-date=26 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230226182610/https://home.treasury.gov/news/press-releases/jy0526|url-status=live}} Freedom House has criticised the government for human rights abuses, the crackdown on the opposition, mass media, and civil society through politicized enforcement.{{cite web |url=https://freedomhouse.org/country/bangladesh |title=Bangladesh: Country Profile |website=Freedom House |date=30 March 2022|access-date=18 February 2015|archive-date=12 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212185912/https://freedomhouse.org/country/bangladesh|url-status=live}} Bangladesh is ranked "partly free" in Freedom House's Freedom in the World report,[https://freedomhouse.org/country/bangladesh Bangladesh] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212185912/https://freedomhouse.org/country/bangladesh |date=12 February 2015 }}. Freedom House. Retrieved 27 April 2015. but its press freedom has deteriorated from "free" to "not free" in recent years due to increasing pressure from the government.{{cite web |url=https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2016/bangladesh |title=Bangladesh – Country report – Freedom in the World – 2016|website=Freedom House|access-date=12 May 2016|date=27 January 2016 |archive-date=10 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610020814/https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2016/bangladesh}} According to the British Economist Intelligence Unit, the country has a hybrid regime: the third of four rankings in its Democracy Index.{{cite news |url=http://www.sudestada.com.uy/Content/Articles/421a313a-d58f-462e-9b24-2504a37f6b56/Democracy-index-2014.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.sudestada.com.uy/Content/Articles/421a313a-d58f-462e-9b24-2504a37f6b56/Democracy-index-2014.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live |title=Democracy Index 2014: Democracy and its discontents |newspaper=The Economist |via=Sudestada.com.uy}} Bangladesh was ranked 96th among 163 countries in the 2022 Global Peace Index.{{cite web |url=https://www.visionofhumanity.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/GPI-2022-web.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.visionofhumanity.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/GPI-2022-web.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live |title=Global Peace Index 2022 |publisher=Institute for Economics & Peace |date=June 2022 |access-date=16 June 2022 |pages=10–11}} According to National Human Rights Commission, 70% of alleged human-rights violations are committed by law-enforcement agencies.{{cite web |url= http://www.dandc.eu/en/article/bangladeshs-crisis-civil-liberties-and-human-rights |title= Clashing ideologies |author= Ridwanul Hoque |date= 5 August 2015 |publisher= D+C, development and cooperation |access-date= 21 December 2015 |archive-date= 22 December 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151222125141/http://www.dandc.eu/en/article/bangladeshs-crisis-civil-liberties-and-human-rights |url-status= live }}

LGBT rights are frowned upon among social conservatives.{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/01/18/lgbt-activists-are-using-visual-arts-change-hearts-and-minds-bangladesh|last=Knight|first=Kyle|title=LGBT Activists Are Using Visual Arts to Change Hearts and Minds in Bangladesh|date=18 January 2019|publisher=Human Rights Watch|access-date=3 October 2022|archive-date=3 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221003175319/https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/01/18/lgbt-activists-are-using-visual-arts-change-hearts-and-minds-bangladesh|url-status=live}} Homosexuality is affected by Section 377 of the Penal Code of Bangladesh, which was originally enacted by the British colonial government.{{Cite news |author=Ashif Islam Shaon |date=27 April 2016 |title=Where does Bangladesh stand on homosexuality issue? |url=http://archive.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2016/apr/27/where-does-bangladesh-stand-homosexuality-issue |work=Dhaka Tribune |access-date=30 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170605155955/http://archive.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2016/apr/27/where-does-bangladesh-stand-homosexuality-issue |archive-date=5 June 2017}}{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/bangladesh-authorities-arrest-27-men-gay-homosexuality-muslim-country-islam-police-charge-a7744366.html|title=Bangladesh authorities arrest 27 men on suspicion of being gay|work=The Independent|date=19 May 2017|access-date=21 June 2019|archive-date=21 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190321164257/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/bangladesh-authorities-arrest-27-men-gay-homosexuality-muslim-country-islam-police-charge-a7744366.html|url-status=live}} The government only recognises the transgender and intersex community known as the Hijra.{{Cite web|url=https://www.iri.org/resources/iri-conducts-innovative-mixed-method-lgbti-study-in-bangladesh/|title=Understanding the Lives of Bangladesh's LGBTI Community|date=8 April 2021|website=International Republican Institute|access-date=26 February 2024|archive-date=8 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240308183530/https://www.iri.org/resources/iri-conducts-innovative-mixed-method-lgbti-study-in-bangladesh/|url-status=live}}{{Cite magazine|url=https://thediplomat.com/2018/01/bangladesh-adds-third-gender-option-to-voter-forms/|title=Bangladesh Adds Third Gender Option to Voter Forms|last=Shakil Bin Mushtaq|magazine=The Diplomat|access-date=15 August 2019|archive-date=2 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240902065035/https://thediplomat.com/2018/01/bangladesh-adds-third-gender-option-to-voter-forms/|url-status=live}} According to the 2023 Global Slavery Index, an estimated 1.2 million people were enslaved in Bangladesh {{as of|2021|lc=y}}, which is among the highest in the world.{{cite web|url=https://www.walkfree.org/global-slavery-index/country-studies/bangladesh/|title=Modern slavery in Bangladesh|publisher=Walk Free|location=Perth, Western Australia|access-date=21 January 2025}}

{{Main|Corruption in Bangladesh}}

Like many developing countries, institutional corruption is an issue of concern for Bangladesh. Bangladesh was ranked 146th among 180 countries on Transparency International's 2018 Corruption Perceptions Index.{{cite web |url=https://www.transparency.org/cpi2018/results|title=Corruption Perceptions Index 2018 – Transparency International|publisher=Transparency International|access-date=29 January 2017|archive-date=30 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190130053429/https://www.transparency.org/cpi2018/results}} Land administration was the sector with the most bribery in 2015,[https://www.ti-bangladesh.org/beta3/images/2016/es_nhhs_16_en.pdf Corruption in Service Sectors: National Household Survey 2015] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170107003918/https://www.ti-bangladesh.org/beta3/images/2016/es_nhhs_16_en.pdf |date=7 January 2017 }}, Transparency International Bangladesh, Dhaka, 2016, p. 1 followed by education,[https://www.ti-bangladesh.org/beta3/images/2016/es_nhhs_16_en.pdf Corruption in Service Sectors: National Household Survey 2015] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170107003918/https://www.ti-bangladesh.org/beta3/images/2016/es_nhhs_16_en.pdf |date=7 January 2017 }}, Transparency International Bangladesh, Dhaka, 2016, p. 12 police[https://www.ti-bangladesh.org/beta3/images/2016/es_nhhs_16_en.pdf Corruption in Service Sectors: National Household Survey 2015] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170107003918/https://www.ti-bangladesh.org/beta3/images/2016/es_nhhs_16_en.pdf |date=7 January 2017 }}, Transparency International Bangladesh, Dhaka, 2016, p. 21 and water supply.[https://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/bribe/2009/08/bangladesh-a-dirty-deal-back-fires.html The Business of Bribes: Bangladesh: The Blowback of Corruption] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809062926/http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/bribe/2009/08/bangladesh-a-dirty-deal-back-fires.html |date=9 August 2017 }}, Public Broadcasting Services, Arlington, Virginia, 2009 The Anti Corruption Commission was formed in 2004, and it was active during the 2006–08 Bangladeshi political crisis, indicting many leading politicians, bureaucrats and businessmen for graft.{{cite web|url=http://www.u4.no/publications/overview-of-corruption-and-anti-corruption-in-bangladesh/|title=Overview of corruption and anti-corruption in Bangladesh|website=U4|access-date=9 December 2015|archive-date=8 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151108140729/http://www.u4.no/publications/overview-of-corruption-and-anti-corruption-in-bangladesh/|url-status=live}}{{cite news |title=ACC largely ineffective |url=http://www.thedailystar.net/acc-largely-ineffective-25194 |work=The Daily Star |date=21 May 2014 |access-date=1 June 2016 |archive-date=29 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729013717/https://www.thedailystar.net/acc-largely-ineffective-25194 |url-status=live }}{{cite web |url=http://govpoliju.com/anti-corruption-commission-and-political-government-an-evaluation-of-awami-league-regime-2009-2012/|title=Anti Corruption Commission and Political Government: An Evaluation of Awami League Regime (2009–2012) {{!}} Government and Politics, JU|website=govpoliju.com|access-date=1 June 2016|archive-date=18 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181118035306/http://govpoliju.com/anti-corruption-commission-and-political-government-an-evaluation-of-awami-league-regime-2009-2012/}}

{{Main|Economy of Bangladesh}}

{{Further|List of companies of Bangladesh}}

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| caption2 = The Padma Bridge, opened in 2022, is a road-rail bridge which spans the Padma River

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Bangladesh's lower-middle income mixed-market economy is among the fastest growing economies in the world.{{cite web|last=Ahmed|first=Zobaer|url=https://www.dw.com/en/bangladesh-economy-50-years-on/a-57015896|title=Bangladesh at 50: From 'basket case' to rising economic star|access-date=30 September 2022|work=DW News|publisher=Deutsche Welle|date=16 December 2021}}{{cite web|url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2023/01/22/a-journey-together-bangladesh-and-world-bank-celebrate-historic-partnership|title=A Journey Together: Bangladesh and World Bank Celebrate Historic Partnership|work=World Bank|date=22 January 2023|access-date=9 January 2025|quote="Bangladesh has made enormous strides in the past 50 years – from one of the poorest nations at birth, it is now one of the fastest-growing economies."}} A rapidly developing country, it has the world's 36th-largest economy by nominal terms, and the 24th-largest by PPP. Bangladesh has a labor force of 71.4 million,{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.TOTL.IN?locations=BD|title=Labor force, total - Bangladesh|work=World Bank|access-date=30 September 2022}} which is the world's seventh-largest; with an unemployment rate of 5.1% {{as of|2023|lc=y}}.{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.UEM.TOTL.ZS?locations=BD|title=Unemployment, total (% of total labor force) (modeled ILO estimate) - Bangladesh|work=World Bank|access-date=30 September 2022}} Its foreign exchange reserves, although depleting,{{cite web|url=https://en.prothomalo.com/business/local/s3knbstt64|title=Respite from fall in forex reserves, dollar market stable|work=Prothom Alo|date=19 October 2024|last=Sakib|first=Shanaullah|access-date=9 January 2025}} remain the second-highest in South Asia, after India. Bangladesh's large diaspora contributed roughly $27 billion in remittances in 2024.{{cite news|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/business/economy/news/remittance-hit-all-time-high-2024-3789871|title=Remittance hit all-time high in 2024|last=Hasan|first=Md Mehedi|work=The Daily Star|date=2 January 2025|access-date=9 January 2025}} The Bangladeshi taka is the national currency.

{{As of|2023}}, the large service sector accounts for about 51.5% of total GDP, followed by the industrial sector (34.6%), while the agriculture sector is by far the smallest, making up only 11% of total GDP; despite being the largest employment sector, providing roughly half of the total workforce.{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/news/bangladesh/news/labour-force-survey-2022-agriculture-still-main-job-generator-3283936|title=Labour Force Survey 2022: Agriculture still main job generator|last=Byron|first=Rejaul Karim|work=The Daily Star|date=30 March 2023|access-date=11 January 2025}} Over 84% of the export earnings come from the textile industry.{{cite web|url=https://www.weforum.org/stories/2024/02/how-bangladesh-offers-lessons-for-sustainable-industrialization-in-africa/|last=Akinrebiyo|first=Femi|title=Bangladesh's leap from poverty to textile powerhouse offers lessons for countries in Africa|date=16 February 2024|work=World Economic Forum|access-date=11 January 2025|quote="Right now, though, 84% of Bangladeshi export revenues come from apparel alone."}} Bangladesh is the second-leading garments exporter in the world, and plays a crucial role in the global fast fashion industry, exporting to various Western fashion brands.{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cd6ye3e8x9po|title=Fast fashion drove Bangladesh - now its troubled economy needs more|work=BBC News|date=7 September 2024|access-date=16 January 2025|last=Imandar|first=Nikhil|publisher=BBC}} It is also a major producer of jute,{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/opinion/views/news/symbol-our-degradation-3624216|title=A symbol of our degradation|work=The Daily Star|date=2 June 2024|last=Choudhury|first=Serajul Islam|access-date=9 January 2025}} rice,{{cite news|url=https://en.prothomalo.com/bangladesh/bw4ldbvrb4|title=Rice production rising high in Bangladesh|last=Mahmud|first=Iftekhar|work=Prothom Alo|date=17 June 2023|access-date=9 January 2025}} fish,{{cite news|url=https://en.prothomalo.com/bangladesh/good-day-bangladesh/sk7ow1u6en|title=Bangladesh globally second in freshwater fish production|last=Mahmud|first=Iftekhar|work=The Daily Star|date=10 June 2024|access-date=9 January 2025}} tea,{{cite news|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/business/economy/news/long-term-plan-behind-high-tea-production-3399926|title=Long-term plan behind high tea production|last1=Chowdhury|first1=Dwoha|last2=Halder|first2=Sukanta|work=The Daily Star|date=22 August 2023|access-date=9 January 2025}} and flowers.{{Cite web|url=https://www.tbsnews.net/thoughts/floriculture-lucrative-sector-bangladesh-131728|title=Floriculture: A lucrative sector in Bangladesh|date=12 September 2020|website=The Business Standard|access-date=1 October 2022|archive-date=1 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001203926/https://www.tbsnews.net/thoughts/floriculture-lucrative-sector-bangladesh-131728|url-status=live}} Other major industries include shipbuilding, pharmaceuticals, steel, electronics and leather goods.{{cite journal|last1=Ahaduzzaman|last2=Sarkar|first2=Prottasha|last3=Anjum|first3=Aniqa|last4=Khan|first4=Easir A.|title=Overview of Major Industries in Bangladesh|date=7 December 2017|journal=Journal of Chemical Engineering|volume=30|number=1|doi=10.3329/jce.v30i1.34798|pages=51–58|doi-access=free}} China is the largest trading partner of Bangladesh, accounting for 15% of the total trade, followed by India; which accounts for 8% of the total trade.{{cite web|last=Haroon|first=Jasim Uddin|date=11 December 2024|work=The Financial Express|url=https://today.thefinancialexpress.com.bd/last-page/china-bangladeshs-top-trading-partner-in-fy24-1733855492|title=China Bangladesh's top trading partner in FY24|access-date=11 January 2025}}

The private sector accounts for 80% of GDP compared to the dwindling role of state-owned companies.{{Cite web|url=https://www.tbsnews.net/supplement/public-sector-needs-keep-pace-private-sector-359749|title=Public sector needs to keep pace with private sector|date=20 January 2022|website=The Business Standard|access-date=1 October 2022|archive-date=6 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221006222805/https://www.tbsnews.net/supplement/public-sector-needs-keep-pace-private-sector-359749|url-status=live}} Bangladesh's economy is dominated by family-owned conglomerates and small and medium-sized businesses. Some of the largest publicly traded companies in Bangladesh include BEXIMCO, BRAC Bank, BSRM, GPH Ispat, Grameenphone, Summit Group, and Square Pharmaceuticals.{{Cite web |url=https://www.dse.com.bd/dse30_share.php|title=DS30 Index | Dhaka Stock Exchange|website=dse.com.bd}} The Dhaka and Chittagong Stock Exchanges are the country's twin capital markets.{{cite web|url=https://www.tbsnews.net/features/panorama/tale-two-capital-markets-883756|title=A tale of two capital markets|work=The Business Standard|date=25 June 2024|last=Islam|first=Shadique Mahbub|access-date=9 January 2025}} Its telecommunications industry is one of the world's fastest growing, with 188.78 million cellphone subscribers at the end of November 2024.{{cite web|title=Mobile Phone Subscribers in Bangladesh|url=https://www.amtob.org.bd/home/industrystatics|access-date=9 January 2025|work=AMTOB}} Political instability,{{cite web|url=https://www.eiu.com/n/infrastructure-enhancements-will-underpin-growth-in-dhaka/|title=Infrastructure enhancements will underpin growth in Dhaka|date=30 September 2020|access-date=12 January 2025|work=Economist Intelligence Unit}} high inflation,{{cite web|last=Ahmed|first=Shakil|date=20 October 2024|title=Why is it taking so long to stabilise the economy?|access-date=12 January 2025|work=The Daily Star|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/opinion/views/news/how-do-we-overcome-our-corruption-crisis-3731226}} endemic corruption,{{cite web|last=Ahmed|first=Sadiq|date=22 May 2024|title=Why is it taking so long to stabilise the economy?|access-date=12 January 2025|work=The Daily Star|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/opinion/views/news/why-it-taking-so-long-stabilise-the-economy-3615381}} insufficient power supplies,{{cite web|last1=Rahman|first1=Asifur|last2=Karmaker|first2=Konkon|date=11 September 2024|title=Power supply may not improve anytime soon|access-date=12 January 2025|work=The Daily Star|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/opinion/views/news/how-do-we-overcome-our-corruption-crisis-3731226}} and slow implementation of reforms are major challenges to economic growth.

{{main|Electricity sector in Bangladesh}}

{{Further|Energy policy of Bangladesh|Bangladesh Power Development Board|Natural gas and petroleum in Bangladesh|Petrobangla}}

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| caption2 = Wind turbines on Kutubdia Island

}}

Bangladesh, a country experiencing daily blackouts several times a day in 2009, achieved 100% electrification by 2022.{{cite web|url=https://www.tbsnews.net/economy/how-100-electrification-changed-rural-game-384954|title=How 100% electrification changed the rural game|date=14 March 2022|website=The Business Standard|access-date=1 October 2022|archive-date=4 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004183507/https://www.tbsnews.net/economy/how-100-electrification-changed-rural-game-384954|url-status=live}}{{cite web |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/news/bangladesh/news/electricity-now-every-house-2987601 |title=Electricity now in every house |work=The Daily Star |date=22 March 2022 |access-date=2 October 2022 |archive-date=30 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221130005200/https://www.thedailystar.net/news/bangladesh/news/electricity-now-every-house-2987601 |url-status=live }} It is gradually transitioning to a green economy and has the largest off-grid solar power programme in the world, benefiting 20 million people.{{cite web|url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2021/04/07/bangladesh-solar-home-systems-provide-clean-energy-for-20-million-people|title=Bangladesh Solar Home Systems Provide Clean Energy for 20 million People|website=World Bank|access-date=1 October 2022|archive-date=1 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001203911/https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2021/04/07/bangladesh-solar-home-systems-provide-clean-energy-for-20-million-people|url-status=live}} An electric car called the Palki is being developed for production in the country.{{cite web |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/tech-startup/news/palki-affordable-locally-assembled-electric-vehicle-its-way-3103341 |title=Palki: An affordable locally assembled Electric Vehicle on its way |work=The Daily Star |date=26 August 2022 |access-date=2 October 2022 |archive-date=2 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240902065543/https://www.thedailystar.net/tech-startup/news/palki-affordable-locally-assembled-electric-vehicle-its-way-3103341 |url-status=live }} Biogas is being used to produce organic fertilizer.{{cite web |last=Mang |first=Heinz-Peter |title=Situation Analysis of Agro-Industrial Biogas Plants in Bangladesh |url=https://reeep.sreda.gov.bd/projects/2017-02-Situation-Analysis-of-Agro-Industrial-Biogas-Plants-In-Bangladesh_HPMang.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220618191038/https://reeep.sreda.gov.bd/projects/2017-02-Situation-Analysis-of-Agro-Industrial-Biogas-Plants-In-Bangladesh_HPMang.pdf |archive-date=18 June 2022 |url-status=live |access-date=12 October 2022 |website=sreeda.gov.bd}} The under-construction Rooppur Nuclear Power Plant, under-construction with assistance from the Russian company Rosatom, will be the first operational nuclear power plant in the country. Its first unit, out of the two total units, is expected to go into operation in 2025.{{Cite web|author=Mohiuddin|title=Rooppur nuclear power plant: Power generation deferred|work=Prothom Alo|date=19 May 2024|url=https://en.prothomalo.com/bangladesh/mens8s0lt0 |access-date=8 January 2025}}

Bangladesh continues to have huge untapped reserves of natural gas, particularly in its maritime territory.{{cite web |url=http://www.geoexpro.com/articles/2021/12/natural-gas-underexplored-in-bangladesh|title=Natural Gas – Underexplored in Bangladesh?|date=15 December 2021|website=GEO ExPro|access-date=3 October 2022|archive-date=3 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221003114124/https://www.geoexpro.com/articles/2021/12/natural-gas-underexplored-in-bangladesh}}{{cite web |url=https://thediplomat.com/2014/11/bangladesh-asias-new-energy-superpower/#:~:text=With%20its%20new%20territory%2C%20Bangladesh%27s,the%20end%20of%20the%20year. |title=Bangladesh: Asia's New Energy Superpower? |access-date=3 October 2022 |archive-date=29 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161229123448/https://thediplomat.com/2014/11/bangladesh-asias-new-energy-superpower/#:~:text=With%20its%20new%20territory%2C%20Bangladesh%27s,the%20end%20of%20the%20year. |url-status=live }} A lack of exploration and decreasing proven reserves have forced Bangladesh to import LNG from abroad.{{Cite web|url=https://www.tbsnews.net/bangladesh/energy/imported-lng-be-24-times-more-expensive-local-gas-cpd-370075|title=Imported LNG to be 24 times more expensive than local gas: CPD|date=13 February 2022|website=The Business Standard|access-date=3 October 2022|archive-date=3 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221003114118/https://www.tbsnews.net/bangladesh/energy/imported-lng-be-24-times-more-expensive-local-gas-cpd-370075|url-status=live}}{{Cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/bangladesh-lng-power-idINL1N2Z10R7|title=Bangladesh halts expensive spot LNG imports despite load-shedding|work=Reuters|date=20 July 2022}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/views/opinion/news/let-us-not-become-dependent-lng-import-2925721|title=Let us not become dependent on LNG import|first=Badrul|last=Imam|date=26 December 2021|work=The Daily Star|access-date=3 October 2022|archive-date=3 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221003114121/https://www.thedailystar.net/views/opinion/news/let-us-not-become-dependent-lng-import-2925721|url-status=live}} Gas shortages were further exacerbated by the Russian invasion of Ukraine.{{Cite news|url=https://www.ft.com/content/a9b8d051-a126-469c-b1ad-b0d29a8d53eb|title=Bangladesh is being 'killed by economic conditions elsewhere in the world'|newspaper=Financial Times|location=London|date=24 August 2022|access-date=1 October 2022|archive-date=26 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221126085309/https://www.ft.com/content/a9b8d051-a126-469c-b1ad-b0d29a8d53eb|url-status=live}} Bangladesh stopped buying spot price LNG temporarily in July 2022, despite constant load-shedding, due to a steep price hike in the global market.{{cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/markets/commodities/bangladesh-halts-expensive-spot-lng-imports-despite-load-shedding-idUSL1N2Z10R7/|title=Bangladesh halts expensive spot LNG imports despite load-shedding|work=Reuters|date=20 July 2022|access-date=8 January 2025}} It restarted buying spot price LNG once again in February 2023 as prices eased.{{cite web|last1=Paul|first1=Ruma|last2=Chow|first2=Emily|url=https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/bangladesh-restart-spot-lng-buying-prices-ease-sources-2023-02-01/|title=Bangladesh to restart spot LNG buying as prices ease - sources|work=Reuters|date=1 February 2023|access-date=8 January 2025}}

While government-owned companies in Bangladesh generate nearly half of Bangladesh's electricity, privately owned companies like the Summit Group and Orion Group are playing an increasingly important role in both generating electricity, and supplying machinery, reactors, and equipment.{{Cite web|url=https://www.ge.com/news/press-releases/summit-signs-22-year-ppa-upcoming-583-mw-gas-power-plant-ge-co-develop-plant|title=Summit signs 22-year PPA for upcoming 583 MW gas power plant; GE to co-develop plant in Bangladesh|website=GE News|access-date=23 October 2022|archive-date=23 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221023153618/https://www.ge.com/news/press-releases/summit-signs-22-year-ppa-upcoming-583-mw-gas-power-plant-ge-co-develop-plant|url-status=live}} Bangladesh increased electricity production from 5 gigawatts in 2009 to 25.5 gigawatts in 2022. It plans to produce 50 gigawatts by 2041. U.S. companies like Chevron and General Electric supply around 55% of Bangladesh's domestic natural gas production and are among the largest investors in power projects. 80% of Bangladesh's installed gas-fired power generation capacity comes from turbines manufactured in the United States.{{cite web | url=https://www.trade.gov/country-commercial-guides/bangladesh-power-and-energy | title=Bangladesh – Power and Energy | date=20 July 2022 | access-date=5 October 2022 | archive-date=5 October 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221005062425/https://www.trade.gov/country-commercial-guides/bangladesh-power-and-energy | url-status=live }}

{{main|Tourism in Bangladesh}}

File:Save the sundarbans 20.jpg is the largest mangrove forest in the world]]

The tourism industry is expanding, contributing some 3.02% of total GDP.{{cite web|last1=Byron|first1=Rejaul Karim|first2=Mahmudul|last2=Hasan|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/business/economy/industries/tourism/news/tourisms-share-302pc-gdp-2904556|title=Tourism's share 3.02% in GDP|work=The Daily Star|date=28 November 2021|access-date=30 September 2022}} Bangladesh's international tourism receipts in 2019 amounted to $391 million.{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ST.INT.RCPT.CD?locations=BD|title=International tourism, receipts (current US$) - Bangladesh|work=World Bank|access-date=30 September 2022}} The country has three UNESCO World Heritage Sites (the Mosque City, the Buddhist Vihara and the Sundarbans) and seven tentative-list sites.{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/state=bd|title=Tentative Lists|access-date=6 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120806231331/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/state=bd|archive-date=6 August 2012|url-status=live}} The World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) reported in 2019 that the travel and tourism industry in Bangladesh directly generated 1,180,500 jobs in 2018 or 1.9% of the country's total employment.{{cite web |url=http://reports.weforum.org/pdf/ttci-2019/WEF_TTCI_2019_Profile_BGD.pdf |title=Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Index 2019 edition: Bangladesh |website=World Travel and Tourism Council|access-date=18 December 2019}} According to the same report, Bangladesh experiences around 125,000 international tourist arrivals per year. Domestic spending generated 97.7 percent of direct travel and tourism gross domestic product (GDP) in 2012.{{cite web |url=http://www.wttc.org/site_media/uploads/downloads/bangladesh2013.pdf |title=Travel & Tourism Economic Impact 2013: Bangladesh |website=World Travel and Tourism Council |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131007183403/http://www.wttc.org/site_media/uploads/downloads/bangladesh2013.pdf |archive-date=7 October 2013}}

{{Main|Demographics of Bangladesh}}

{{Further|Bengalis}}

{{Historical populations

|source = World Bank{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?locations=BD|work=World Bank|title=Population, total - Bangladesh|access-date=19 January 2025}}

|title = Population (millions)

|percentages = pagr

|1960 |51,828,660

|1971 |70,276,758

|1980 |88,016,432

|1990 |111,633,717

|2000 |134,544,304

|2010 |152,201,981

|2023 |171,466,990

}}

Bangladesh had a recorded population of 169.8 million in the 2022 census, which rose to 171.4 million {{as of|2023|lc=y}}. It is the eighth-most-populous country in the world, the fifth-most populous country in Asia, and the most densely populated large country in the world, with a headline population density of 1,265 people/km² {{as of|2020|lc=y}}.{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EN.POP.DNST?locations=BD|title=Population density (people per sq. km of land area) – Bangladesh|work=World Bank|access-date=4 October 2022}} Bangladesh's total fertility rate (TFR), once among the highest in the world, has experienced a dramatic decline, from 5.5 in 1985 to 3.7 in 1995, down to 1.9 in 2022,{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.TFRT.IN?locations=BD|title=Fertility rate, total (births per woman) – Bangladesh|work=World Bank|access-date=4 October 2022}} which is below the sub-replacement fertility of 2.1.{{cite journal |last1=Bora |first1=Jayanta Kumar |last2=Saikia |first2=Nandita |last3=Kebede |first3=Endale Birhanu |last4=Lutz |first4=Wolfgang|title=Revisiting the causes of fertility decline in Bangladesh: the relative importance of female education and family planning programs|date=21 January 2022|journal=Asian Population Studies|volume=19 |publisher=Routledge|doi=10.1080/17441730.2022.2028253|pages=81–104|s2cid=246183181 |doi-access=free}} Most of the population live in rural areas, with only 40% of the population living in urban areas {{as of|2023|lc=y}}.{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS?locations=BD|title=Urban population (% of total population) – Bangladesh|work=World Bank|access-date=4 October 2022}} Bangladesh has a median age of roughly 28 years, with 26% of the total population aged 14 or younger,{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.0014.TO.ZS?locations=BD|title=Population ages 0–14 (% of total population) – Bangladesh|work=World Bank|access-date=4 October 2022}} and merely 6% aged 65 and above {{as of|2023|lc=y}}.{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.65UP.TO.ZS?locations=BD|title=Population ages 65 and above (% of total population) – Bangladesh|work=World Bank|access-date=4 October 2022}}

Bangladesh is an ethnically and culturally homogeneous society, as Bengalis form 99% of the population. The Adivasi population includes the Chakmas, Marmas, Santhals, Mros, Tanchangyas, Bawms, Tripuris, Khasis, Khumis, Kukis, Garos, and Bisnupriya Manipuris. The Chittagong Hill Tracts region experienced unrest and an insurgency from 1975 to 1997 in an autonomy movement by its indigenous people. Although a peace accord was signed in 1997, the region remains militarised.{{cite journal |last=Rashiduzzaman |first=M |year=1998 |title=Bangladesh's Chittagong Hill Tracts Peace Accord: Institutional Features and Strategic Concerns |journal=Asian Survey |volume=38 |issue=7 |pages=653–70 |doi=10.2307/2645754 |jstor=2645754}} Urdu-speaking stranded Pakistanis were given citizenship by the Supreme Court in 2008.{{cite web|url=https://www.unhcr.org/news/stories/how-bangladesh-court-ruling-changed-lives-more-300000-stateless-people|title=How a Bangladesh court ruling changed the lives of more than 300,000 stateless people|last1=Shadman|first1=Onchita|last2=Schönbauer|first2=Roland|date=23 February 2015|access-date=27 January 2025}} Bangladesh also hosts over 700,000 Rohingya refugees since 2017, giving it one of the largest refugee populations in the world.

{{Further|List of cities and towns in Bangladesh}}

Bangladesh's capital Dhaka and the largest city and is overseen by two city corporations that manage between them the northern and southern parts of the city. There are 12 city corporations which hold mayoral elections: Dhaka South, Dhaka North, Chittagong, Comilla, Khulna, Mymensingh, Sylhet, Rajshahi, Barisal, Rangpur, Gazipur and Narayanganj. There are, however, eight divisions in total. They are: Dhaka, Chittagong, Sylhet, Rangpur, Rajshahi, Khulna, Mymensingh and Barishal. Mayors are elected for five-year terms. Altogether there are 506 urban centres in Bangladesh which 43 cities have a population of more than 100,000.

{{Largest cities

| country = Bangladesh

| stat_ref = [http://bbs.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/bbs.portal.gov.bd/page/b343a8b4_956b_45ca_872f_4cf9b2f1a6e0/2022-07-28-14-31-b21f81d1c15171f1770c661020381666.pdf]

| list_by_pop =

| div_name = Country

| div_link = Bangladesh

| city_1 = Dhaka| pop_1 = 10,278,882| img_1 = 2.শাপলা চত্বর.jpg

| city_2 = Chittagong | pop_2 = 3,227,246 | img_2 = Shah Amanat 763.jpg

| city_3 = Gazipur| pop_3 = 2,674,697| img_3 = Halls and student center (front view), Islamic University of Technology.jpg

| city_4 = Narayanganj| pop_4 = 967,724| img_4 = Hajiganj Fort.jpg

| city_5 = Khulna| pop_5 = 718,735

| city_6 = Rangpur, Bangladesh{{!}}Rangpur| pop_6 = 708,384

| city_7 = Mymensingh| pop_7 = 576,722

| city_8 = Rajshahi| pop_8 = 552,791

| city_9 = Sylhet| pop_9 = 532,426

| city_10 = Cumilla| pop_10 = 439,414

}}

{{Main|Languages of Bangladesh}}

File:Shaheed Minar, Dhaka, Bangladesh.jpg, a national monument in Dhaka established to commemorate the martyrs of the 1952 Bengali Language Movement, is a symbol of Bengali nationalism.]]

The official and predominant language of Bangladesh is Bengali, which is spoken by more than 99% of the population as their native language.{{Cite book|title=Population and Housing Census 2022: Report on Socio-Economic and Demographic Survey 2023 |url=http://nsds.bbs.gov.bd/storage/files/1/SEDS_2023_Report.pdf|date=June 2024|publisher=Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics|page=xx|isbn=978-984-35-2977-0|access-date=9 June 2024|archive-date=9 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240609144133/http://nsds.bbs.gov.bd/storage/files/1/SEDS_2023_Report.pdf|url-status=dead}}{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Rahim|first1=Enayetur|editor1-last=Heitzman|editor1-first=James|editor2-last=Worden|editor2-first=Robert L.|title=Ethnicity and Linguistic Diversity|encyclopedia=Bangladesh: a country study|year=1989|access-date=24 September 2022|url=http://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/29.htm|publisher=Federal Research Division, Library of Congress|page=59|oclc=49223313}} Bengali is described as a dialect continuum where there are various dialects spoken throughout the country. There is a diglossia in which much of the population can understand or speak in Standard Colloquial Bengali, and in their regional dialect or language.{{cite news|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/supplements/amar-ekushey-2018/amago-bhasha-1537534|title=Amago Basha|last=Khan|first=Sameer Ud Dowla|date=21 February 2018|access-date=24 September 2022|work=The Daily Star}} These include Chittagonian which is spoken in the southeastern region of Chittagong,{{Cite book |last=Masica |first=Colin |author-link=Colin Masica |year=1991 |title=The Indo-Aryan Languages |place= Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=16}} "The dialect of Chittagong, in southeast Bangladesh, is different enough to be considered a separate language." Noakhali spoken in the southern district of Noakhali{{citation|author=Sarwar, Fatina|title=Noakhali Dialect: Its Prospect of Standardization}}{{cite journal|last=Rashel|first=Md. Mostafa|title=Phonological Analysis of Chatkhil Dialect in Noakhali District, Bangladesh|journal=Theory and Practice in Language Studies|volume=1|issue=9|date=September 2011|pages=1051–1061|doi=10.4304/tpls.1.9.1051-1061|url=http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/tpls/vol01/09/09.html/|archive-date=15 June 2022|access-date=6 January 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220615203456/http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/tpls/vol01/09/09.html|url-status=dead}} and Sylheti spoken in the northeastern region of Sylhet.

English plays an important role in Bangladesh's judicial and educational affairs, due to the country's history as part of the British Empire. It is widely spoken and commonly understood, and is taught as a compulsory subject in all schools, colleges and universities, while the English-medium educational system is widely attended.{{cite journal|last1=Rahman|first1=Mohammad Mosiur|last2=Islam|first2=Mohammad Shaiful|last3=Karim|first3=Abdul|last4=Chowdhury|first4=Takad Ahmed|last5=Rahman|first5=Muhammad Mushfiqur|last6=Ibna Seraj|first6=Prodhan Mahbub|last7=Mehar Singh|first7=Manjet Kaur|title=English language teaching in Bangladesh today: Issues, outcomes, and implications|date=5 June 2019|journal=Language Testing in Asia|volume=9|number=9|doi=10.1186/s40468-019-0085-8|s2cid=189801612|doi-access=free}}

Tribal languages, although increasingly endangered, include the Chakma language, another native Eastern Indo-Aryan language, spoken by the Chakma people.{{cite web|last=Chakma|first=Sujana|title=Chakma language : survival from being extinct in Bangladesh|publisher=BRAC University|url=https://dspace.bracu.ac.bd/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10361/3983/09203017.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=|date=11 December 2014|access-date=6 January 2025}} Others are Garo, Meitei, Kokborok and Rakhine. Among the Austroasiatic languages, the most spoken is the Santali language, native to the Santal people.{{cite web|last1=Seung|first1=Kim|last2=Kim|first2=Amy|title=The Santali cluster in Bangladesh: a sociolinguistic survey|year=2010|url=https://www.sil.org/system/files/reapdata/85/39/32/85393268857150358467007206894440229270/silesr2010_006.pdf|issue=2010–006|publisher=SIL International|series=Survey Report|access-date=24 September 2022}} The stranded Pakistanis and some sections of the Old Dhakaites often use Urdu as their native tongue. Still, the usage of the latter remains highly reproached.{{cite web|last=Ashrafi|first=Shah Tazria |title=How the Urdu language and literature slipped into darkness in Bangladesh|url=https://www.trtworld.com/opinion/how-the-urdu-language-and-literature-slipped-into-darkness-in-bangladesh-43391|work=TRT World|date=19 January 2021|type=Opinion|access-date=24 September 2022}}

{{Main|Religion in Bangladesh}}

{{bar box

|title=Religions in Bangladesh (2022 census){{cite web |title=Population and Housing Census 2022: Preliminary Report |url=https://sid.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/sid.portal.gov.bd/publications/01ad1ffe_cfef_4811_af97_594b6c64d7c3/PHC_Preliminary_Report_(English)_August_2022.pdf |publisher=Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics |page=16 |date=August 2022 |access-date=25 September 2024}}

|titlebar=#Fcd116

|left1=Religion

|right1=Percent

|float=right

|bars=

{{bar percent|Muslims|green|91.04}}

{{bar percent|Hindus|darkorange|7.94}}

{{bar percent|Buddhism|yellow|0.60}}

{{bar percent|Christians|darkblue|0.31}}

{{bar percent|Others|red|0.11}}

}}

Islam is the state religion of Bangladesh.{{cite web |title=The Constitution of the People's Republic of Bangladesh (part I) |url=http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-367/section-24549.html |url-status= |access-date=12 January 2025 |website=Laws of Bangladesh}} However, the constitution also upholds secularism and ensures equal rights for all religions.{{cite web |title=The Constitution of the People's Republic of Bangladesh (part II) |url=http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-367/section-24560.html |url-status= |access-date=12 January 2025 |website=Laws of Bangladesh}} Every citizen has the freedom to practice any religion.

Islam the largest religion across the country, being followed by about 91.1% of the population. The vast majority of Bangladeshi citizens are Bengali Muslims, adhering to Sunni Islam. The country is the third-most populous Muslim-majority state in the world and has the fourth-largest overall Muslim population.{{cite web |url=http://features.pewforum.org/muslim-population/?sort=Pop2010 |title=Muslim Population by Country |publisher=Pew Research |date=27 January 2011 |access-date=23 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130726201620/http://features.pewforum.org/muslim-population/?sort=Pop2010 |archive-date=26 July 2013 |url-status=live}}

Bengali Hindus form the country's second-largest religious minority and the third-largest Hindu community in the world. According to the 2022 census Hindus form 7.95% of the total population. In the 2011 census, Hindus formed 8.54% of the population.

Buddhism is the third-most followed religion, adhered to by merely 0.6% of the population. Bangladeshi Buddhists are concentrated among the tribal ethnic groups in the Chittagong Hill Tracts and by the Bengali Buddhist minority across coastal Chittagong, who mostly follow the Theravada school.

Christianity is the fourth-largest religion at 0.3%, followed mainly by a small Bengali Christian minority. 0.1% of the population practices other religions such as Animism or is irreligious.{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/bangladesh/|title=2022 Report on International Religious Freedom: Bangladesh|work=United States Department of State|access-date=8 January 2025}}

{{Main|Education in Bangladesh}}

{{multiple image

| perrow = 1

| total_width = 220

| image_style = border:none;

| align = right

| image1 = Bangladesh Literacy Rate (2022, Total).svg

| caption1 = The literacy rate of the districts of Bangladesh

| image2 = Curzon Hall - Northern Facade - University of Dhaka - Dhaka 2015-05-31 1992.JPG

| caption2 = Curzon Hall of the University of Dhaka

}}

The constitution states that all children shall receive free and compulsory education.{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the People's Republic of Bangladesh: Article 17 (Free and compulsory education)|url=http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-367/section-24565.html|website=Legislative and Parliamentary Affairs Division, Ministry of Law, Justice and Parliamentary Affairs|access-date=27 January 2025}} Education in Bangladesh is overseen by the Ministry of Education. The Ministry of Primary and Mass Education is responsible for implementing policy for primary education and state-funded schools at a local level. Primary and secondary education is compulsory, and is financed by the state and free of charge in public schools. Bangladesh has a literacy rate of 76% as of 2021: 79% for males and 71.9% for females.{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ADT.LITR.ZS?locations=BD|title=Literacy rate, adult total (% of people ages 15 and above) - Bangladesh|work=World Bank|access-date=9 February 2025}}{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ADT.LITR.MA.ZS?locations=BD|title=Literacy rate, adult male (% of males ages 15 and above) - Bangladesh|work=World Bank|access-date=9 February 2025}}{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ADT.LITR.FE.ZS?locations=BD|title=Literacy rate, adult female (% of females ages 15 and above) - Bangladesh|work=World Bank|access-date=9 February 2025}} Its educational system is three-tiered and heavily subsidised, with the government operating many schools at the primary, secondary and higher secondary levels and subsidising many private schools. However, government expenditure in education remains among the lowest in the world, at only 1.8% of the total GDP.{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.XPD.TOTL.GD.ZS?locations=BD|title=Government expenditure on education, total (% of GDP) - Bangladesh|work=World Bank|access-date=12 January 2025}}

The education system is divided into five levels: primary (first to fifth grade), junior secondary (sixth to eighth grade), secondary (ninth and tenth grade), higher secondary (11th and 12th grade), and tertiary which is university level.{{cite book |author=T. Neville Postlethwaite |title=The Encyclopedia of Comparative Education and National Systems of Education |publisher=Pergamon Press |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-08-030853-1 |page=130}} Primary level students have to pass the Primary Education Completion (PEC) exam to proceed to junior secondary. The junior secondary students then give the Junior School Certificate (JSC) exam to get enrolled in ninth grade, while tenth-grade students have to pass the Secondary School Certificate (SSC) exam to proceed to eleventh grade. Lastly, students have to pass the Higher Secondary Certificate (HSC) exam at grade twelve to apply for higher education or universities.{{Cite journal |last1=Mamun |first1=Mohammed A. |last2=Griffiths |first2=Mark D. |date=2022 |title=Young Teenage Suicides in Bangladesh—Are Mandatory Junior School Certificate Exams to Blame? |journal=International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction|volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=1627–1631 |doi=10.1007/s11469-020-00275-3 |s2cid=216076151 |issn=1557-1874|doi-access=free}}

Universities are three general types: public (government-owned and funded by the University Grants Commission), private (privately owned universities) and international (operated and funded by international organisations). The country has 55 public,{{cite web|url=http://www.ugc-universities.gov.bd/public-universities|title=List of Public Universities|publisher=University Grants Commission of Bangladesh|access-date=9 February 2025}} 115 private{{cite web|url=http://www.ugc-universities.gov.bd/private-universities|title=List of Private Universities|publisher=University Grants Commission of Bangladesh|access-date=9 February 2025}} and 2 international universities.{{cite web|url=http://www.ugc-universities.gov.bd/international-universities|title=List of International Universities|publisher=University Grants Commission of Bangladesh|access-date=9 February 2025}} National University is the third-largest university in the world by enrolment.{{cite web|url=https://www.tbsnews.net/thoughts/why-campus-programmes-matter-national-university-982726|title=Why on-campus programmes matter for National University|work=The Business Standard|date=2 November 2024|last=Hossain|first=Shaikh Shohag}} The University of Dhaka, established in 1921, is the oldest public university.{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/youth/education/campus/news/the-conception-and-birth-dhaka-university-2121841|title=The conception and birth of Dhaka University|date=2 July 2021|access-date=9 February 2025|work=The Daily Star|last=Mujib|first=Rasheek Tabassum}} BUET is the premiere university for engineering education. The University of Chittagong, established in 1966, has the largest campus.{{cite web|url=https://archive.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/education/2017/10/19/chittagong-university-model-campus-tourism/|title=Chittagong University: A model of campus tourism|last=Mahmud|first=Tarek|date=19 October 2017|work=Dhaka Tribune|access-date=4 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221007152843/https://archive.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/education/2017/10/19/chittagong-university-model-campus-tourism|archive-date=7 October 2022}} BUP is the largest public university affiliated with the armed forces.{{Cite web|date=8 April 2009|title=Bangladesh University of Professionals Act, 2009 (Act No. 30 of 2009)|url=http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-details-1016.html?lang=en|access-date=5 September 2021|website=www.bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd}} Dhaka College, established in 1841, is among the oldest educational institutes in the Indian subcontinent.{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/weekend-read/news/dhakas-educational-heritage-3414361|title=Dhaka's educational heritage|work=The Daily Star|date=9 September 2023|last1=Nand|first1=Dipan|last2=Rahaman|first2=Arafat|access-date=9 February 2025}} Medical education is provided by 39 government, 6 armed force and 68 private medical colleges. All medical colleges are affiliated with the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.{{cite web|url=https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/365640/three-more-medical-colleges-renamed-by-health|title=Three more medical colleges renamed by Health Ministry|date=19 November 2024|access-date=9 February 2025|work=Dhaka Tribune}}

{{Main|Health in Bangladesh}}

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| image1 = Life expectancy by WBG -Bangladesh.png

| caption1 = Historical development of life expectancy in Bangladesh, displaying significant strides since independence

| image2 = Child mortality rate in Bangladesh.png

| caption2 = Historical development of child mortality in Bangladesh since 1990, showing a significant decrease

| image3 = A community health worker conducting a survey in the Korail slum, Bangladesh (8630810827).jpg

| caption3 = A community health worker conducting a survey in a slum of the capital city, Dhaka

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Bangladesh, by the constitution, guarantees healthcare services as a fundamental right to all of its citizens.{{cite web|url=https://mof.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/mof.portal.gov.bd/budget_mof/b3342588_2e85_4fcb_95af_dddfdea4851b/G-1_04_127_Health%20Services_English.pdf|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://mof.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/mof.portal.gov.bd/budget_mof/b3342588_2e85_4fcb_95af_dddfdea4851b/G-1_04_127_Health%20Services_English.pdf|archive-date=9 October 2022|url-status=live|title=Chapter-5 {{!}} Health Services Division|publisher=Ministry of Finance (Bangladesh)|access-date=1 October 2022}} The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare is the largest institutional healthcare provider in Bangladesh,{{cite book|editor-last1=Naheed|editor-first1=Aliya|editor-last2=Hort|editor-first2=Krishna|last1=Ahmed|first1=Syed Masud|last2=Alam|first2=Bushra Binte|last3=Anwar|first3=Iqbal|last4=Begum|first4=Tahmina|last5=Huque|first5=Rumana|last6=AM Khan|first6=Jahangir|last7=Nababan|first7=Herfina|last8=Osman|first8=Ferdaus Arfina|title=Bangladesh Health System Review|volume=5|number=3|year=2015|publisher=World Health Organization|isbn=978-92-9061-705-1|url=https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/208214/9789290617051_eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y|access-date=1 October 2022}} and contains two divisions: Health Service Division and Medical Education And Family Welfare Division.{{cite web|url=https://www.newagebd.net/article/11610/onelink.to/articlelist/323/Cartoon|title=Health Ministry split into 2 divisions|work=New Age|date=20 March 2017|access-date=1 October 2022}} However, healthcare facilities in Bangladesh are considered less than adequate, although they have improved as the economy has grown and poverty levels have decreased significantly. Bangladesh faces a severe health workforce crisis, as formally trained providers make up a small percentage of the total health workforce.{{cite journal|last1=Ahmed|first1=Syed Masud|last2=Hossain|first2=Md Awlad|last3=Chowdhury|first3=Ahmed Mushtaque Raja|last4=Bhuiya|first4=Abbas Uddin|title=The health workforce crisis in Bangladesh: shortage, inappropriate skill-mix, and inequitable distribution|date=22 January 2011|journal=Human Resources for Health|publisher=BioMed Central|volume=9|number=3|page=3|pmid=21255446|doi=10.1186/1478-4491-9-3|pmc=3037300|doi-access=free}} Significant deficiencies in the treatment practices of village doctors persist, with widespread harmful and inappropriate drug prescribing.{{cite journal |last1=Mahmood|first1=Shehrin S.|last2=Iqbal|first2=Mohammad|last3=Hanifi|first3=S M A|last4=Wahed|first4=Tania|last5=Bhuiya|first5=Abbas|title=Are 'Village Doctors' in Bangladesh a curse or a blessing?|date=6 July 2010|doi=10.1186/1472-698X-10-18|volume=10|number=18|pmid=20602805|journal=BMC International Health and Human Rights|page=18|publisher=BioMed Central|pmc=2910021|doi-access=free}}

Bangladesh's poor healthcare system suffers from severe underfunding from the government. {{As of|2021}}, some 2.36% of total GDP was attributed to healthcare,{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.XPD.CHEX.GD.ZS?locations=BD|title=Current health expenditure (% of GDP) – Bangladesh|work=World Bank|access-date=1 October 2022}} and domestic general government spending on healthcare was 16.88% of the total budget,{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.XPD.GHED.CH.ZS?locations=BD|title=Domestic general government health expenditure (% of current health expenditure) – Bangladesh|work=World Bank|access-date=1 October 2022}} while out-of-pocket expenditures made up the vast majority of the total budget, totalling roughly 73%.{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.XPD.OOPC.CH.ZS?locations=BD|title=Out-of-pocket expenditure (% of current health expenditure) – Bangladesh|work=World Bank|access-date=1 October 2022}} Domestic private health expenditure was about 75.48% of the total healthcare expenditure.{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.XPD.PVTD.CH.ZS?locations=BD|title=Domestic private health expenditure (% of current health expenditure) – Bangladesh|work=World Bank|access-date=4 October 2022}} There were only 5.3 doctors per 10,000 people, and about six physicians{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.MED.PHYS.ZS?locations=BD|title=Physicians (per 1,000 people) – Bangladesh|work=World Bank|access-date=1 October 2022}} and six nurses per 1,000 people,{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.MED.NUMW.P3?locations=BD|title=Nurses and midwives (per 1,000 people) - Bangladesh|work=World Bank|access-date=7 January 2025}} while the number of hospital beds is 9 per 1,000.{{cite journal|last1=Islam|first1=Md. Taimur|last2=Talukder|first2=Anup Kumar|last3=Siddiqui|first3=Md. Nurealam|last4=Islam|first4=Tofazzal|title=Tackling the COVID-19 pandemic: The Bangladesh perspective|journal=Journal of Public Health Research|doi=10.4081/jphr.2020.1794|date=14 October 2020|volume=9|number=4|pages=jphr.2020.1794|pmid=33117758|pmc=7582102}}{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.MED.BEDS.ZS?locations=BD|title=Hospital beds (per 1,000 people) – Bangladesh|work=World Bank|access-date=1 October 2022}} The specialist surgical workforce was only 3 per 100,000 people,{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.MED.SAOP.P5?locations=BD|title=Specialist surgical workforce (per 100,000 population) - Bangladesh|work=World Bank|access-date=7 January 2025}} and there were about 5 community health workers per 1,000 people.{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.MED.CMHW.P3?locations=BD|title=Community health workers (per 1,000 people) - Bangladesh|work=World Bank|access-date=7 January 2025}}

Roughly 60% of the population had access to drinking water in 2022.{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.H2O.SMDW.ZS?locations=BD|title=People using safely managed drinking water services (% of population) - Bangladesh|work=World Bank|access-date=7 January 2025}} In 2002, it was estimated that half of the drinking water was polluted with arsenic, exceeding levels of 10 micrograms per litre.{{cite web|url=https://www.euronews.com/green/2024/01/18/half-of-bangladeshi-drinking-water-is-polluted-with-arsenic-and-climate-change-is-making-i|title=Half of Bangladeshi drinking water is polluted with arsenic - and climate change is making it worse|work=Euronews|date=18 January 2024|access-date=7 January 2025}} Bangladesh is crippled with one of the worst air qualities in the world, mostly concentrated in the densely populated urban areas, especially the capital Dhaka and its metropolitan area.{{cite web|url=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/energysource/bangladeshs-air-quality-is-among-the-worlds-worst-what-can-be-done/|title=Bangladesh's air quality is among the world's worst. What can be done?|date=25 June 2024|access-date=7 January 2025|work=Atlantic Council|last1=Webster|first1=Joseph|last2=Sinha|first2=Natalie|last3=Meadows|first3=Sarah}} The World Bank estimated that roughly 80,000-90,000 deaths occurred in Bangladesh due to the drastic effects of air pollution in 2019. It was second-leading cause of death and disability, costing the country roughly 4-4.4% percent of its total GDP.{{cite web|url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2022/12/03/high-air-pollution-level-is-creating-physical-and-mental-health-hazards-in-bangladesh-world-bank|title=High Air Pollution Level is Creating Physical and Mental Health Hazards in Bangladesh: World Bank|work=World Bank|date=4 December 2022|access-date=7 January 2025}}

{{As of|2022}}, the overall life expectancy in Bangladesh at birth was 74 years (72 years for males and 76 years for females).{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN?locations=BD|title=Life expectancy at birth, total (years) – Bangladesh|work=World Bank|access-date=1 October 2022}} It has a comparably high infant mortality rate (24 per 1,000 live births) and child mortality rate (29 per 1,000 live births).{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.IMRT.IN?locations=BD|title=Mortality rate, infant (per 1,000 live births) – Bangladesh|work=World Bank|access-date=1 October 2022}}{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.DYN.MORT?locations=BD|title=Mortality rate, under-5 (per 1,000 live births) – Bangladesh|work=World Bank|access-date=1 October 2022}} {{As of|2020}}, maternal mortality remains high, clocking at 123 per 100,000 live births.{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.MMRT?locations=BD|title=Maternal mortality ratio (modeled estimate, per 100,000 live births) – Bangladesh|work=World Bank|access-date=1 October 2022}} Bangladesh is a key source market for medical tourism for various countries, mainly India,{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/business/tourism/bangladesh-key-source-market-medical-tourism-1571314|title=Bangladesh a key source market for medical tourism|work=The Daily Star|date=4 May 2018|access-date=4 October 2022}} due to its citizens dissatisfaction and distrust over their own healthcare system.{{cite journal|last1=Andaleeb|first1=Syed Saad|last2=Siddiqui|first2=Nazlee |first3=Shahjahan |last3=Khandakar|title=Patient satisfaction with health services in Bangladesh|volume=22|number=4|date=July 2007 |pages=263–273|doi=10.1093/heapol/czm017 |journal=Health Policy and Planning|publisher=Oxford University Press|pmid=17545252|doi-access=free}}

The main causes of death are coronary artery disease, stroke, and chronic respiratory disease; comprising 62% and 60% of all adult male and female deaths, respectively.{{cite journal|last1=Shawon|first1=Md. Toufiq Hassan|last2=Ashrafi|first2=Shah Ali Akbar|last3=Azad|first3=Abul Kalam|last4=Firth|first4=Sonja M.|last5=Chowdhury|first5=Hafizur|last6=Mswia|first6=Robert G.|last7=Adair|first7=Tim|last8=Riley|first8=Ian|last9=Abouzahr|first9=Carla|last10=Lopez|first10=Alan D.|title=Routine mortality surveillance to identify the cause of death pattern for out-of-hospital adult (aged 12+ years) deaths in Bangladesh: introduction of automated verbal autopsy|date=12 March 2021|journal=BMC Public Health|publisher=BioMed Central|volume=21|number=491|page=491|doi=10.1186/s12889-021-10468-7|pmid=33706739|pmc=7952220|doi-access=free}} Malnutrition is a major and persistent problem in Bangladesh, mainly affecting the rural regions, more than half of the population suffers from it. Severe acute malnutrition affects 450,000 children, while nearly 2 million children have moderate acute malnutrition. For children under the age of five, 52% are affected by anaemia, 41% are stunted, 16% are wasted, and 36% are underweight. A quarter of women are underweight and around 15% have short stature, while over half also suffer from anaemia.{{cite web|url=https://www.icddrb.org/news-and-events/press-corner/media-resources/malnutrition|title=Malnutrition|publisher=International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (ICDDR,B)|access-date=1 October 2022|archive-date=1 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001130754/https://www.icddrb.org/news-and-events/press-corner/media-resources/malnutrition|url-status=dead}} Bangladesh was ranked 84th out of the 127 countries listed in the 2024 Global Hunger Index.{{Cite web|title=Global Hunger Index Scores by 2024 GHI Rank|url=https://www.globalhungerindex.org/ranking.html|access-date=2024-12-11|website=Global Hunger Index (GHI)}}

{{Main|Culture of Bangladesh}}

{{Further|Culture of Bengal|Museums in Bangladesh|List of libraries in Bangladesh}}

{{Main|Public holidays in Bangladesh|List of festivals in Bangladesh}}

Traditional festivals include Pahela Baishakh (Bengali New Year), which is the major festival of Bengali culture; with widespread festivities.{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/shout/news/the-universal-appeal-pahela-baishakh-2077693|title=The Universal Appeal of Pahela Baishakh|work=The Daily Star|date=14 April 2021|access-date=16 January 2025|last=Islam|first=Hiya}} Pohela Falgun coincides with Valentine's Day, and is celebrated with a display of music, dance and other cultural activities.{{cite web|url=https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/dhaka/373684/du-celebrates-pohela-falgun-with-spring-festival|title=DU celebrates Pohela Falgun with spring festival|work=Dhaka Tribune|date=14 February 2025|access-date=15 February 2025}} Other festivals include Nabonno and Poush Parbon, which celebrate new harvests of crops.{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/nobanno-the-old-bangla-new-year-49964|title=Nobanno: The Old Bangla New Year|work=The Daily Star|date=13 November 2014|access-date=16 January 2025|last=Chowdhury|first=Asrar}} Shakrain is an annual celebration, observed by flying kites, occurring at the end of Poush, the ninth month of the Bengali calendar. The festival coincides with Makar Sankranti celebrated in India and Nepal.{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/news-detail-170574|title=Shakrain festival|work=The Daily Star|date=19 January 2011|access-date=16 January 2025}}

File:Jatiyo Sritisoudho.jpg]]

Among religious festivals, the two biggest festivals of the Muslim majority are Eid al-Fitr, which marks the end of the month of Ramadan—and Eid al-Adha, which is the festival of sacrifice.{{cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/7/31/what-is-eid-al-adha-and-how-is-it-celebrated|title=What is Eid al-Adha and how is it celebrated?|work=Al Jazeera|date=31 July 2020|access-date=16 January 2025}} Both Eids are celebrated with the longest streak of national holidays.{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/news/bangladesh/governance/news/five-day-eid-vacation-two-day-holiday-durga-puja-3729086|title=Five-day Eid vacation, two-day holiday for Durga puja|work=The Daily Star|date=17 October 2024|access-date=16 January 2025}} Other Muslim festivals include Mawlid (Eid-e-Milad Un Nabi),{{cite news|last=Zamir|first=Muhammad|title=Various dimensions of Mawlid or Milad-un-nabi|url=https://thefinancialexpress.com.bd/views/various-dimensions-of-mawlid-or-milad-un-nabi|access-date=15 January 2025|work=The Financial Express|date=15 September 2024}} Ashura on the tenth day of Muharram,{{cite web|url=https://www.tbsnews.net/bangladesh/ashura-being-observed-bangladesh-673434|title=Ashura being observed in Bangladesh|work=The Business Standard|date=29 July 2023|access-date=16 January 2025}} Chaand Raat,{{cite news|title=A reminiscent tour of Chaand Raat through the decades|url=https://thefinancialexpress.com.bd/lifestyle/culture/a-reminiscent-tour-of-chaand-raat-through-the-decades|access-date=15 January 2025|work=The Financial Express|date=10 April 2024}} and Shab-e-Barat.{{cite news|title=Shab-e-Barat to be observed on March 29|url=https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2021/03/14/shab-e-barat-to-be-observed-on-march-29|access-date=15 January 2025|work=Dhaka Tribune|date=14 March 2021}} The most celebrated Hindu festival is Durga Puja.{{cite web|last=Zand|first=Sahar|url=https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20241008-bangladeshs-devoted-idol-creators|title=The 'god makers': Bangladesh's devoted idol creators|work=BBC News|publisher=BBC|date=9 October 2024|access-date=16 January 2025}} Other major Hindu festivals include Krishna Janmashtami and Ratha Yatra.{{cite web|url=https://en.prothomalo.com/bangladesh/dxpkrv51ga|title=Janmashtami today|work=Prothom Alo|date=26 August 2024|access-date=16 January 2025}}{{cite news|title=Ratha Yatra festival begins across Bangladesh|url=https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/351359/ratha-yatra-festival-begins-across-bangladesh|access-date=15 January 2025|work=Dhaka Tribune|date=7 July 2024}} The biggest festival of the Buddhists across the country is Buddha Purnima, which marks the birth of Gautama Buddha.{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/news/bangladesh/news/buddha-purnima-today-3615671|title=Buddha Purnima today|work=The Daily Star|date=22 May 2024|access-date=16 January 2025}} Among Christians, Christmas is the most widely celebrated.{{cite web|last1=Islam|first1=Tousef|last2=Gomez|first2=Rexy Jason|url=https://www.tbsnews.net/features/christmas-bangladesh-transposing-jingle-bells-memories-764026|title=Buddha Purnima today|work=The Business Standard|date=25 December 2023|access-date=16 January 2025}}

Patriotic national festivals include the Language Movement Day, which is celebrated on 21 February in remembrance of the martyrs of the 1952 Bengali language movement.{{cite web|last=Rahman|first=Mohammad Afzalur|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/supplements/amar-ekushe-2024/news/how-ekushey-was-commemorated-during-the-pakistan-period-3549101|title=How Ekushey was commemorated during the Pakistan period|work=The Daily Star|date=21 February 2024|access-date=16 January 2025}} It was declared as International Mother Language Day by UNESCO in 1999.{{cite web|url=https://www.unesco.org/en/days/mother-language|title=International Mother Language Day|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=15 January 2025}} Independence Day is celebrated on 26 March to commemorate the proclamation of independence from Pakistan. Victory Day is celebrated on 16 December to celebrate the victory in the Bangladesh Liberation War.{{cite web|date=26 March 2024|last=Rafa|first=Amrin Tasnim|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/rising-stars/news/the-significance-bangladeshs-independence-day-and-victory-day-3575421|title=The significance of Bangladesh's Independence Day and Victory Day|publisher=The Daily Star|access-date=15 January 2025}} Public gatherings are observed at the Shaheed Minar and National Martyrs' Memorial during the three latter festivals to pay homage to the fallen martyrs.{{cite news|title=Nation set to pay homage to language martyrs tomorrow|url=https://www.tbsnews.net/bangladesh/nation-set-pay-homage-language-martyrs-tomorrow-795818|access-date=15 January 2025|work=The Financial Express|date=20 February 2024}}{{cite news|title=National Martyrs' Memorial ready for Independence Day observance|url=https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/307542/national-martyrs-memorial-ready-for-independence|access-date=15 January 2025|work=Dhaka Tribune|date=25 March 2023|last=Sabbir|first=Ariful Islam}}

{{Main|Bangladeshi literature}}

{{Further|Bengali literature}}

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| caption1 = Kazi Nazrul Islam in Chittagong, {{circa|1926}}. He is officially considered the national poet of Bangladesh.{{cite web|url=https://en.prothomalo.com/bangladesh/zoogq5cu7n|title=Kazi Nazrul Islam officially recognised as national poet|date=3 January 2025|access-date=18 January 2025|work=Prothom Alo}}

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| caption2 = Humayun Ahmed (left), a popular author and filmmaker

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Bengali literature forms an important part of Bengali culture. The Charyapada poems dating back to the 10th to 12th centuries are the oldest extant examples of the Bengali language.{{cite book|editor1-last=Guhathakurta|editor1-first= Meghna|editor2-last=Schendel|editor2-first=Willem van|title=The Bangladesh Reader: History, Culture, Politics|publisher=Duke University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0822353188}}{{rp|40}} During the Bengal Sultanate, medieval Bengali writers were influenced by Arabic and Persian literature.{{cite web|last=Bari|first=Sarah Anjum|title=A Tale of Two Languages: How the Persian language seeped into Bengali|work=The Daily Star|date=12 April 2019|access-date=18 January 2025|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/star-weekend/longform/news/tale-two-languages-how-the-persian-language-seeped-bengali-1728421}} Milestones of the medieval age include the Mangal-Kāvyas. The Vaishnava Padavali movement was led by writers such as Vidyapati, Chandidas, Govindadas and Balarama Dasa. Shreekrishna Kirtana written by Chandidas marked a particular height of poetic achievement since the Charyapadas.{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/literature/news/some-issues-medieval-bangla-literature-baru-chandidas-and-vidyapati-1855582|title=Some Issues in Medieval Bangla Literature: Baru Chandidas and Vidyapati|last=Hussain|first=Azfar|date=18 January 2020|access-date=17 January 2025|work=The Daily Star}} Other important works include Krittibas Ojha's translation of the Ramayana, Kashiram Das' translation of the Mahabharata, and Maladhar Basu's translation of the Bhagavata. Writers such as Bipradas Pipilai,{{cite book|editor1-last=Sengupta|editor1-first=Subodh Chandra|editor2-last=Bose|editor2-first=Anjali|year=1998|title=Sansad Bangali Charitabhidhan (Biographical dictionary) Vol I|publisher=Sahitya Samsad |language=bn|isbn=81-85626-65-0}}{{rp|349}} Vijay Gupta,{{cite book|last1=Sengupta|first1=Nitish K.|title=Land of Two Rivers: A History of Bengal from the Mahabharata to Mujib|date=2011|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=978-0-14-341678-4}}{{rp|104}} Shah Muhammad Sagir, Zainuddin and Abdul Hakim were important figures. Alaol, considered a bard, is a prolific poet of medieval period.

The Bengal Renaissance from the late 18th century to the early 20th century had a profound effect on modern Bengali literature. Michael Madhusudan Dutt invented the blank verse in Bengali literature.{{cite journal|year=2003|last=Radice|first=William|title=The Significance of Madhusudan Dutt and his Epic|journal=India International Centre Quarterly|publisher=India International Centre|jstor=23005843|pages=73–88|volume=30|number=1}} Mir Mosharraf Hossain was the first prominent Bengali Muslim writer.{{Cite book|title=Bangla Sahitye Musalman|last=Syed|first=Abdul Mannan|publisher=Islamic Foundation|year=2009|isbn=978-984-06-0478-4|location=Dhaka|pages=20|language=bn|script-title=bn:বাংলা সাহিত্যে মুসলমান|trans-title=Muslims in Bengali Literature|author-link=Abdul Mannan Syed}} Lalon, a fakir practising Sufism and sādhanā influenced the bauls.{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/views/opinion/news/fakir-lalon-shah-love-life-and-liberation-2199996|title=Fakir Lalon Shah: Love, life and liberation|last=Hussain|first=Azfar|date=17 October 2021|access-date=17 January 2025|work=The Daily Star}} Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay wrote about the characteristics of the Bengali society.{{cite journal|year=1981|last1=Dutt|first1=A. K.|last2=Dhussa|first2=R.|title=Novelist Sarat Chandra's Perception of his Bengali Home Region: A Literary Geographic Study|publisher=Springer|jstor=41142500|pages=429–461|volume=5|number=1|journal=GeoJournal|doi=10.1007/BF00185242 |bibcode=1981GeoJo...5...41D }}

Rabindranath Tagore was the first Asian and non-European laureate of the Nobel Prize in Literature.{{cite journal|year=2000|last=Jewell|first=Richard|title=The Nobel Prize: History and Canonicity|journal=The Journal of the Midwest Modern Language Association|publisher=Midwest Modern Language Association|doi=10.2307/1315120|jstor=1315120|pages=97–113|volume=33|number=1}} Kazi Nazrul Islam was a revolutionary poet who espoused political rebellion against colonialism and fascism.{{cite journal|last=Rahaman|first=Habibur|title=Kazi Nazrul Islam and Decolonisation: Poetry as a Praxis of Political Intervention and Cultural Ecology|journal=Asiatic|publisher=Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Science and Technology University|pages=120–136|volume=16|number=1|date=June 2022}} Jibanananda Das was the most recognized Bengali poet after Tagore and Nazrul.{{Cite news|url=http://www.prothomalo.com/entertainment/article/703870|title=Barishale Jibanananda Mela|date=6 December 2015|work=Prothom Alo|access-date=7 June 2018|publisher=Transcom Group|location=Dhaka|language=bn|script-title=bn:বরিশালে জীবনানন্দ মেলা|trans-title=Jibanananda Fair in Barishal}} Begum Rokeya is regarded as the pioneer feminist writer of Bangladesh.{{cite journal|year=1998|last=Alam|first=S. M. Shamsul|title=Women in the Era of Modernity and Islamic Fundamentalism: The Case of Taslima Nasrin of Bangladesh|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|jstor=3175098|pages=429–461|volume=23|number=2|journal=Signs|doi=10.1086/495258 }} Syed Mujtaba Ali is noted for his cosmopolitan views.{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/news-detail-106359|title=Syed Mujtaba Ali|date=18 September 2009|access-date=17 January 2025|work=The Daily Star}} Jasimuddin was a renowned pastoral poet, popularly called Palli Kabi (folk poet).{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/views/opinion/news/46th-death-anniversary-jasim-uddin-more-pastoral-poet-2982236|title=More than a pastoral poet|last=Hussain|first=Azfar|date=14 March 2022|access-date=17 January 2025|work=The Daily Star}} Farrukh Ahmad is considered the poet of the "Islamic Renaissance".{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/news/the-poet-of-islamic-renaissance|title=The poet of Islamic Renaissance|date=13 June 2013|access-date=17 January 2025|work=The Daily Star}} Syed Waliullah was a notable novelist.

Shamsur Rahman and Al Mahmud are considered two of the greatest Bangladeshi poets to have emerged in the late 20th century. Ahmed Sofa is regarded as the most important intellectual in the post-independence era.{{cite web|title=In the circle of fire|work=The Daily Star|date=29 October 2011|access-date=18 January 2025|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/news-detail-208350}} Sufia Kamal was a major feminist writer.{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/arts-entertainment/news/feminism-activism-and-literature-the-legacy-sufia-kamal-2114669|title=Feminism, activism, and literature: The legacy of Sufia Kamal|last=Khan|first=Nahaly Nafisa|date=20 June 2021|access-date=17 January 2025|work=The Daily Star}} Humayun Ahmed was the most popular author in post-Independence Bangladesh.{{cite web|last=Alim|first=Syed Fattahul|title=Pied Piper of Bangla literature|work=The Daily Star|date=23 July 2012|access-date=18 January 2025|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/news-detail-243127}} Shahidul Zahir was widely acclaimed for his usage of magical realism.{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/daily-star-books/news/mundanities-magic-realism-bangladesh-revisiting-shahidul-zahirs-novellas-3081576|title=Mundanities, magic realism, Bangladesh—Shahidul Zahir's novellas|last=Tariq|first=Jahanara|date=28 July 2022|access-date=17 January 2025|work=The Daily Star}} Other major writers include Akhteruzzaman Elias, Shawkat Osman and Syed Shamsul Haq. Selina Hossain is a prolific female author in the modern era.{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/in-focus/conversation-selina-hossain-182329|title=In conversation with Selina Hossain|date=5 December 2015|access-date=17 January 2025|work=The Daily Star}} Muhammad Zafar Iqbal is a pioneer science fiction writer.{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/news/muhammad-zafar-iqbal|title=Muhammad Zafar Iqbal|last=Khan|first=Nahid|date=26 October 2023|access-date=17 January 2025|work=The Daily Star}} Anisul Hoque is a popular contemporary literary figure.{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/entertainment/theatre-arts/news/the-artist-within-anisul-hoque-3537651|title=The artist within Anisul Hoque|last=Shazu|first=Shah Alam|date=6 February 2024|access-date=17 January 2025|work=The Daily Star}} The annual Ekushey Book Fair and Dhaka Lit Fest, organised by the Bangla Academy, are among the largest literary festivals in South Asia.{{cite web|url=https://thefinancialexpress.com.bd/views/columns/lit-fest-ekushey-boi-mela-and-our-books-1673450330|title=Lit Fest, Ekushey Boi Mela ... and our books|last=Ahsan|first=Syed Badrul|date=22 January 2023|access-date=17 January 2025|work=The Financial Express}}

{{Main|Architecture of Bangladesh}}

{{Further|Architecture of Bengal|List of archaeological sites in Bangladesh}}

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| image1 = Paharpur Buddhist Bihar.jpg

| caption1 = Somapura Mahavihara in Naogaon, a UNESCO World Heritage Site

| image2 = Sixty Dome Mosque,Bagerhat.jpg

| caption2 = The Sixty Dome Mosque in Bagerhat, a UNESCO World Heritage Site

| image3 = Ahsan Manzil-Front View.jpg

| caption3 = The Ahsan Manzil in Old Dhaka

}}

The architecture of Bangladesh is intertwined with that of the Bengal region and the broader Indian subcontinent. It is influenced by the country's culture, religion and history.{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/51736/Bangladesh/277578/Visual-art-and-architecture|title=Visual art and architecture in Bangladesh|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=6 September 2009}} Hindu and Buddhist architectural remnants have been found in Mahasthangarh, which dates back to the 3rd century BCE.{{cite book|author=Susan L. Huntington|title=The "Påala-Sena" Schools of Sculpture|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=xLA3AAAAIAAJ|year=1984|publisher=Brill Publishers|isbn=90-04-06856-2}}{{rp|157}} Nandipada and Swastika symbols have been found on stone querns in the Wari-Bateshwar ruins, which indicate the presence of Hinduism in the area during the Iron Age—from 400 to 100 BCE.{{cite journal|last1=Imam|first1=Abu|last2=Bulbul|first2=Ahmed|last3=Masood|first3=Imran|title=Religious and Auspicious Symbols Depicted on Artifacts of Wari-Bateshwar|journal=Pratnatattva|number=12|year=2006|pages=1–12|publisher=Jahangirnagar University}} The Somapura Mahavihara built under the rule of the Buddhist Pala Empire in the 8th century is an outstanding example of the pre-Islamic era.{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/life-living/travel/news/think-youve-seen-it-all-wait-till-you-visit-8th-century-gem-bangladesh-3729731|work=The Daily Star|title=Think you've seen it all? Wait till you visit this 8th-century gem in Bangladesh|date=17 October 2024|access-date=13 January 2025|last=Zarif|first=Mannan Mashhur}} Other Buddhist vihāras include Shalban Bihar in Mainamati and Bikrampur Vihara in Bikrampur.{{rp|164–167}} Recent excavations have also uncovered new evidence of pre-Islamic smaller temples which served the Hindu, Buddhist and Jain populations of the area. Indo-Islamic architecture can be seen from the 13th century, especially in the unique mosque architecture of the Bengal Sultanate, an example being the Sixty Dome Mosque among others in the Mosque City of Bagerhat—which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.{{cite journal|last=Hasan|first=Perween|title=Sultanate Mosques and Continuity in Bengal Architecture|journal=Muqarnas|volume=6|pages=58–74|year=1989|publisher=Brill Publishers|jstor=1602281|doi=10.2307/1602281}}{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/opinion/focus/news/sultanate-mughal-the-architectural-legacy-bengal-3738301|work=The Daily Star|title=From Sultanate to Mughal: The Architectural Legacy of Bengal|date=28 October 2024|access-date=13 January 2025}}

Mughal Bengal saw the spread of Mughal architecture in the region. Examples in Dhaka include the Bara Katra and Choto Katra in Old Dhaka, the Sat Gambuj Mosque in Mohammadpur and the Musa Khan Mosque in Curzon Hall.{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6672/|title=Mughal Mosques in Bangladesh|work=UNESCO|access-date=13 January 2025}}{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/news/bangladesh/news/historic-sites-left-ruins-3006146|last=Sarkar|first=Tarun|work=The Daily Star|title=Boro Katra, Chhoto Katra: Dhaka's key historic sites in ruins|date=17 April 2022|access-date=13 January 2025}} Notable Mughal-era forts include the Lalbagh Fort in Old Dhaka, the Idrakpur Fort in Munshiganj—and the Hajiganj Fort and the Sonakanda Fort in Narayanganj, respectively.{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6675/|title=Mughal Forts on Fluvial Terrains in Dhaka|work=UNESCO|access-date=20 January 2025}} The Kantajew Temple and Dhakeshwari Temple are excellent examples of late medieval Hindu temple architecture.{{cite book|editor-last=Husain|editor-first=ABM|title=Architecture: A History Through the Ages|series=Cultural Survey of Bangladesh Series|volume=2|publisher=Asiatic Society of Bangladesh|page=243|oclc=298612818}}{{cite book|last=Bakshi|first=Akhil|title=Between Heaven and Hell: Travels Through Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal, and India : an Account of the Expedition Hands Across the Borders|year=2004|page=221|isbn=81-900862-1-9|publisher=Odyssey Books}}

Bengali vernacular architecture is noted for pioneering the bungalow.{{cite journal|last=Groth|first=Paul|title=Making New Connections in Vernacular Architecture|journal=Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians|publisher=University of California Press|publication-date=September 1999 |volume=58 |pages=444–451|doi=10.2307/991538|jstor=991538|number=3}} Panam Nagar in Sonargaon exhibits architectural influence from the Sultanate, Mughal, British and hybrid colonial traditions.{{Cite book|last=Haque|first=AKM Muzzammil|title=Historic Sonargaon|date=February 2016|publisher=Bangladesh Folk Arts and Crafts Foundation|isbn=978-984-34-0277-6|location=Narayanganj|language=bn|script-title=bn:এতিহাসিক সোনারগাঁ}}{{rp|22}} Indo-Saracenic architecture flourished during the British Raj,{{cite journal|last=Groth|first=Paul|title=Architecture and the Representation of Empire: India, 1860-1910|journal=Representations|number=6|pages=37–65|year=1984|publisher=University of California Press|jstor=2928537|doi=10.2307/2928537}} examples include the Curzon Hall of the University of Dhaka, the Chittagong Court Building, Rangpur Town Hall and Rajshahi College. The zamindar gentry built many palaces in the latter style, including the Ahsan Manzil, the Baliati Zamnidar Bari, the Tajhat Palace, the Rose Garden Palace, the Dighapatia Palace, the Puthia Rajbari, Natore Rajbari and the Mohera Zamindar Bari. Muzharul Islam is considered to be a pioneer of modernist movement in Bangladesh and South Asia.{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6674/|title=The Architectural Works of Muzharul Islam: an Outstanding Contribution to the Modern Movement in South Asia|work=UNESCO|access-date=13 January 2025}} Louis Kahn is a notable foreign architect who designed the National Parliament Building in Sher-e-Bangla Nagar.{{cite journal|last1=Lutolli|first1=Blerim|last2=Jashanica|first2=Kaltrina|title=Kahn's light: The measurable and the unmeasurable of the Bangladesh National Assembly Building|journal=Frontiers of Architectural Research|publisher=Elsevier on behalf of Higher Education Press|publication-date=February 2022|volume=11|pages=89–102|doi=10.1016/j.foar.2021.09.005|issn=2095-2635|number=1|doi-access=free}}

{{Main|Bangladeshi art|Sculpture of Bangladesh|Textile industry in Bangladesh}}

{{Further|Muslin trade in Bengal}}

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| image1 = Kantha (Quilt) LACMA AC1994.131.1.jpg

| caption1 = Embroidery on Nakshi kantha (embroidered quilt), a centuries-old Bengali art tradition

| image2 = Aparajeyo Bangla - 1979 CE - Sculpture by Syed Abdullah Khalid - University of Dhaka Campus - Dhaka 2015-05-31 2367.JPG

| caption2 = Aparajeyo Bangla, a sculpture dedicated to the Bangladesh Liberation War, located on the campus of the University of Dhaka

}}

The recorded history of art in Bangladesh can be traced to the 3rd century BCE, when terracotta sculptures were made in the region. In classical antiquity, notable sculptural Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist art developed in the Pala Empire and the Sena dynasty. The Bengal Sultanate saw Islamic art evolve since the 14th century. During the Mughal rule, Jamdani, a unique design on fine muslin; was woven on Persian motifs in Dhaka.{{cite book |title=Historical Dictionary of the Bengalis |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0810-880-245 |editor1-last=Chakrabarti |editor1-first=Kunal |publication-date=22 August 2013 |editor2-last=Chakrabarti |editor2-first=Shubhra}}{{rp|239}} It was classified by UNESCO as an Intangible cultural heritage in 2013.{{cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/traditional-art-of-jamdani-weaving-00879|title=Traditional art of Jamdani weaving|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=15 January 2025}} Bangladesh also produces the Rajshahi silk, a fine silk renowned for its softness and ability to create sophisticated designs.{{cite encyclopedia |title=Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures |publisher=Brill Publishers |editor1-last=Najmabadi |editor1-first=Afsaneh |publication-date=19 December 2003 |volume=4 |isbn=978-9004113800 |editor2-last=Joseph |editor2-first=Suad}}{{rp|158}} Ivory, brass and pottery has deep roots in Bangladeshi culture.{{cite encyclopedia|last=Glassie|first=Henry|author-link=Henry Glassie|editor1-last=Mills|editor1-first=Margaret A.|editor2-last=Claus|editor2-first=Peter J.|editor3-last=Diamond|editor3-first=Sarah|year=2003|encyclopedia=South Asian Folklore: An Encyclopedia : Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka|title=Pottery, Bangladesh|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0-415-93919-4}}{{rp|483–485}} The Nakshi Kantha, a centuries-old embroidery tradition for quilts in Bengal, is made throughout Bangladesh.{{cite book|last=Sirajuddin|first=Muhammad|date=1992|title=Living Crafts in Bangladesh|location=Dhaka|publisher=Markup International|oclc=29737195}}{{rp|44}}

The modern art movement in Bangladesh took shape in post-independence East Bengal, especially with the pioneering works of Zainul Abedin.{{cite web|last=Hossain|first=Takir|year=2011|access-date=15 January 2015|work=The Daily Star|url=https://archive.thedailystar.net/suppliments/2011/anniversary/part9/pg18.htm|title=Art movements between 1948 and 2000}} Other leading painters include SM Sultan, Mohammad Kibria, Safiuddin Ahmed, Shahabuddin Ahmed, Kanak Chanpa Chakma,{{cite news|last1=Jahangir|first1=Apurba|last2=Hossain|first2=Anika|title=A FREE SPIRIT|url=http://www.thedailystar.net/the-star/spotlight/free-spirit-5077|work=The Daily Star|date=March 6, 2015|access-date=15 January 2025}} Qayyum Chowdhury, Rashid Choudhury, Quamrul Hassan, Rafiqun Nabi and Syed Jahangir.

Novera Ahmed is the pioneer of modernist sculpture in Bangladesh.{{cite web|last=Sarker|first=Sujit|date=7 May 2015|access-date=15 January 2015|work=The Daily Star|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/arts-entertainment/novera-pioneer-progressiveness-bangladesh-80953|title=Novera, pioneer of progressiveness in Bangladesh}} Other eminent sculptors include Nitun Kundu, Syed Abdullah Khalid, Hamiduzzaman Khan, Shamim Sikder, Ferdousi Priyabhashini and Abdur Razzaque.{{cite web|last=Alom|first=Zahangir|date=1 June 2018|access-date=15 January 2025|work=The Daily Star|url=https://online84.thedailystar.net/star-weekend/exhibition/opulent-display-sculptures-1584643|title=An opulent display of sculptures}} The annual Mangal Shobhajatra (Bengali New Year parade) organized by the Faculty of Fine Arts of the University of Dhaka on Pohela Boishakh was enlisted as an Intangible cultural heritage by UNESCO in 2016.{{cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/mangal-shobhajatra-on-pahela-baishakh-01091|title=Mangal Shobhajatra on Pahela Baishakh|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=15 January 2025}} Photography as a form of art has seen exponential growth in the 21st century. Chobi Mela, held biennially, is considered the largest photography festival in Asia.{{cite web|last=Asad|first=Kazi Akib Bin|date=5 February 2015|access-date=15 January 2025|work=The Daily Star|url=https://online84.thedailystar.net/shout/chobi-mela-viii-1219|title=CHOBI MELA VIII|quote=Festival or not, it is the single largest photography event in Asia and has been since its inception in 2000.}}

Lungi is the most common informal clothing for men,{{cite journal|last=Mahbub|first=Rifat|title=Re-imagining the Ambivalent: The Political Trajectory of Lungi from Pre-Colonial East Bangla to Post-Independent Bangladesh|journal=Spectrum|publisher=University of Dhaka|volume=17|number=1|year=2023|pages=47–65|doi=10.3329/spectrum.v17i1.68998|doi-access=free}} while kurta (panjabi) and pajama are worn by men on festivals and holidays.{{cite web|date=14 June 2016|access-date=15 January 2025|work=The Daily Star|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/lifestyle/spotlight/the-panjabi-story-1238983|title=The panjabi story}} Domestically tailored suits, neckties and pants are customarily worn by men at formal events, and the traditional sherwani and churidar are worn along with the turban in weddings. Women commonly wear the shalwar kameez accompanied by orna; while sari is worn on more formal events.{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Bangladesh|title=Bangladesh|last1=Husain|first1=Syed Sajjad|last2=Tinker|first2=Hugh Russell|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=15 January 2024}} Some women follow Islamic clothing.{{cite web|last=Kamaruzzaman|first=Md.|date=31 January 2022|access-date=15 January 2025|work=Anadolu Agency|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/hijab-popularity-budding-among-educated-women-in-bangladesh/2489648|title=Hijab popularity budding among educated women in Bangladesh}}

{{main|Music of Bangladesh|Dance in Bangladesh}}

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| image1 = Bangladesh Udichi Shilpigoshthi - Chittagong University Sangsad celebrating Pohela Falgun 1423 at CU Muktomoncho (02).jpg

| caption1 = Dance in celebration of Pohela Falgun at the University of Chittagong

| image2 = Ektara player.jpg

| caption2 = A baul playing the ektara at the shrine of Lalon in Kushtia

}}

Theatre in Bangladesh includes various forms with a history dating back to the 4th century CE.{{cite book |last=Ahmed |first=Syed Jamil |date=2000 |title=Achinpakhi Infinity: Indigenous Theatre of Bangladesh |publisher=University Press |page=396 |isbn=978-984-05-1462-5}} It includes narrative forms, song and dance forms, supra-personae forms, performances with scroll paintings, puppet theatre and processional forms. The Jatra is the most popular form of Bengali folk theatre.{{cite journal|last=Sarkar|first=Pabitra|title=Jatra: The Popular Traditional Theatre of Bengal|journal=Journal of South Asian Literature|volume=10|number=2/4|pages=87–107|year=1975|publisher=Michigan State University|jstor=40871932}} Apart from the various forms of Indian classical dances, including the Kathakali, Bharatanatyam, Odissi{{cite web|last=Shahriar|first=Amir Hasan|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/arts-entertainment/event/proma-abonti-life-dedicated-odissi-dance-1487770|title=Proma Abonti - A life dedicated to Odissi dance|work=The Daily Star|date=8 November 2017|access-date=15 January 2024}} and Manipuri dances–native dance traditions have formed across the country.

Music of Bangladesh can be classed into classical, light-classical, devotional, and popular. Classical music in Bangladesh is represented by the common forms of devotional music across the Indian subcontinent; such as the Hindustani classical music genre dhrupad and khayal. Other major forms include qawwali and kirtan. Rabindra Sangeet and Nazrul Sangeet retain their popularity.{{cite journal|last=Sarkar|first=Pabitra|title=Musical Literature of Bengal|journal=Indian Literature|volume=16|number=14–27|pages=14–27|year=1973|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|jstor=24157426}} Native folk music features the baul mystical tradition, which was popularised by Lalon in the 18th century, and is listed by UNESCO as a Masterpiece of Intangible Cultural Heritage.{{cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/baul-songs-00107|title=Baul songs|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=15 January 2024}} Other native lyric-based forms of folk music include bhatiali, bhawaiya, dhamail, kavigan, jarigan, sari gan, marfati, and gombhira.

Folk music is accompanied by instruments such as the ektara, dotara, dhol, bansuri (a type of flute), mandira, khanjani, sarinda, khamak, dugdugi, juri, jhunjhuni and majira (a type of cymbal).{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/supplements/naboborsho-1423/the-timeless-appeal-folk-music-1208197|title=The timeless appeal of folk music|work=The Daily Star|date=14 April 2016|access-date=15 January 2025|last=Alom|first=Zahangir}} Bangladesh has a rich tradition of Indian classical music, which uses instruments like the sitar, tabla, sarod, and santoor.London, Ellen (2004). Bangladesh. Gareth Stevens Pub. p. 29. {{ISBN|0-8368-3107-1}}. Musical organisations and schools such as the Bangladesh Shilpakala Academy and Chhayanaut have played significant roles in preserving the traditions of Bengali folk music.

Sabina Yasmin and Runa Laila are considered two of the greatest female playback singers in the country.{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/entertainment/music/news/runa-lailas-voice-gift-god-sabina-yasmin-3171921|title=Runa Laila's voice is a gift from God: Sabina Yasmin|work=The Daily Star|date=17 November 2022|access-date=15 January 2024|last=Shazu|first=Shah Alam}} Andrew Kishore, another leading playback singer, is considered the "King of Playback".{{cite web|last=Reeti|first=Sadia Khalid|url=https://www.dhakatribune.com/showtime/316303/remembering-%E2%80%98playback-king%E2%80%99-andrew-kishore|title=Remembering 'Playback King' Andrew Kishore|work=Dhaka Tribune|date=5 November 2021|access-date=15 January 2024}} Azam Khan, nicknamed the "Pop Samrat" and the "Rock Guru", is a founding figure of Bangladeshi rock.{{cite web|last=Adnin|first=Nazia|title=Remembering Azam Khan: The rock pioneer of Bangladesh|url=https://www.tbsnews.net/glitz/remembering-azam-khan-rock-pioneer-bangladesh-4918|date=28 February 2020|access-date=15 January 2024|work=The Business Standard}} Musicians such as Ayub Bachchu and James have also gained nationwide popularity.{{Cite news |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/arts-entertainment/news/ayub-bachchu-passes-away-1648585| title=Rock's leading light goes out|work=The Daily Star| date=18 October 2018}}{{cite web|last=Shahnewaz|first=Sadi Mohammad|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/showbiz/cover-story/ode-the-guru-of-bangladeshi-rock-james-1509028|title=An Ode to the Guru of Rock|work=The Daily Star|date=23 December 2017|access-date=28 September 2022}} Shayan Chowdhury Arnob has been an influential figure in indie rock.{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/entertainment/music/news/arnob-unplugged-candid-insights-his-artistic-journey-3606661|title=Arnob unplugged: Candid insights into his artistic journey|date=10 May 2024|access-date=15 January 2025|work=The Daily Star}} Popular pop singers in the 21st century include Habib Wahid and Tahsan Rahman Khan.{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/showbiz/cover-story/musician-habib-wahid-king-of-fusion-music-in-bangladesh-1789549|title=KING OF FUSION|work=The Daily Star|date=23 November 2018|access-date=15 January 2024}}{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/arts-entertainment/interview/news/tahsan-opens-about-career-future-plans-1663867|title=TAHSAN opens up about career, future plans|work=The Daily Star|date=24 August 2019|access-date=15 January 2024|last=Shahnewaz|first=Sadi Mohammad}} Influential heavy metal include Artcell and Warfaze.{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/entertainment/music/news/canada-chants-artcell-artcell-beloved-band-celebrates-25-years-3612926|title=Canada chants 'Artcell, Artcell!' as beloved band celebrates 25 years|work=The Daily Star|date=18 May 2024|access-date=15 January 2024|last=Shahnewaz|first=Sadi Mohammad}}{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/entertainment/music/news/warfaze-celebrates-4-decades-concerts-worldwide-3680936|title=Warfaze celebrates 4 decades with concerts worldwide|work=The Daily Star|date=19 August 2024|access-date=15 January 2024}}

{{Main|Media of Bangladesh|Cinema of Bangladesh}}

The history of press in Bangladesh dates back to 1860, when the first printing press was established in Dhaka.{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/in-focus/news/purbabanga-rangabhumi-and-the-beginning-theatre-dhaka-1849873|title=Purbabanga Rangabhumi and the beginning of theatre in Dhaka|last=Quayyum|first=Dr Muhammad Abdul|work=The Daily Star|date=6 January 2020 |access-date=14 January 2025}} The media in Bangladesh is diverse, competitive, commercial and profitable.{{cite web|url=https://downloads.bbc.co.uk/mediaaction/pdf/bangladesh.pdf|title=Country Case Study: Bangladesh|work=BBC Media Action|publisher=BBC|date=August 2012|access-date=14 January 2025}} Prominent news agencies in Bangladesh include Bangladesh Sangbad Sangstha (BSS) and Bdnews24.com.{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-12650946|title=Bangladesh media guide|work=BBC News|publisher=BBC|date=16 August 2024|access-date=14 January 2025}} Television is the most popular form of media consumption. Bangladesh Television (BTV) is the sole state-owned television network with nationwide coverage.{{cite web|url=https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/bangladesh-others/131125/the-life-and-obscurity-of-btv|title=The life and obscurity of BTV|last=Irani|first=Bilkis|date=20 November 2017|access-date=14 January 2025|work=Dhaka Tribune}} Private television networks include ATN Bangla, Channel I, NTV, RTV, Ekushey TV, Ekattor TV, Jamuna TV and Somoy TV. Print media is the second-most widely consumed, and newspapers are privately owned and outspoken, including The Daily Star, Dhaka Tribune, The Financial Express, Bangladesh Pratidin, Kaler Kantho, Prothom Alo, The Daily Ittefaq and Jugantor.

{{multiple image

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| image1 = Anwar Hossain in the film "Nawab Sirajuddoulah" (1967).jpg

| caption1 = Anwar Hossain playing Siraj-ud-Daulah, the last independent Nawab of Bengal, in the 1967 film Nawab Sirajuddaulah

| image2 = Headquarters of Ekushey Television, Kawran Bazar, Dhaka.jpg

| caption2 = Headquarters of Ekushey Television on a high-rise in Kawran Bazar, Dhaka

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Bangladesh Betar is the lone state-run radio service.{{cite news|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/news/bangladesh/news/radio-silence-bangladesh-betars-external-service-inoperative-three-years-3221291|title=Radio Silence: Bangladesh Betar's external service inoperative for three years|work=The Daily Star|date=15 January 2023|access-date=14 January 2025|last1=Hossain|first1=Sajjad|last2=Rahaman|first2=Arafat}} Radio Foorti, Radio Today, Radio Aamar and ABC Radio were popular privately owned radio stations; popularity of radio has declined significantly. Popular foreign media include BBC News (BBC Bangla), CNN, VOA and Al Jazeera. Indian television drama in particular has established a "cultural hegemony" over Bangladeshi satellite television.{{cite journal|last=Rahman|first=Anis|title=The politico-commercial nexus and its implications for television industries in Bangladesh and South Asia|volume=42|number=7–8|doi=10.1177/016344372090818|date=13 March 2020|journal=Media, Culture & Society|publisher=SAGE Publishers|pages=1153–1174|doi-broken-date=2 March 2025 }} Freedom of the press remains a major concern due to government attempts at censorship and the harassment of journalists. Bangladesh ranked 165th out of the 180 countries listed in the 2024 World Press Freedom Index, among the lowest rankings in the world.{{Cite web|title=Bangladesh|url=https://rsf.org/en/country/bangladesh|access-date=14 January 2025|website=Reporters Without Borders}}

The cinema of Bangladesh dates back to a screening of a bioscope in 1898.{{cite journal|last1=Easmin|first1=Mst. Farzana|last2=Hossain|first2=Afjal|last3=Mandal|first3=Anup Kumar|title=Determinants of Watching a Film: A Case Study on Dhallywood Film Industry, Bangladesh|pages=129–136|volume=8|number=3|journal=Asian Business Review|publisher=Asian Business Consortium|year=2018|issn=2305-8730|doi=10.18034/abr.v8i3.164}}{{rp|129}} The Nawabs of Dhaka patronised the production of several silent films from the 1900s.{{cite web|url=https://www.tbsnews.net/first-anniversary/looking-back-forgotten-industry-193126|title=Looking back on a forgotten industry|last1=Tahnia|first1=Rawnak|last2=Rahman|first2=Arin|last3=Aziz|first3=Deena Afroza|last4=Reza|first4=Arafat|work=The Business Standard|access-date=14 January 2024|date=28 January 2021}} Picture House, the first permanent cinema in Dhaka, began its operation during the year between 1913 and 1914.{{rp|130}} Sukumari (The Good Girl), released in 1929, was the first film produced in Bangladesh.{{rp|130}} Last Kiss, the first full-length feature film, was released in 1931.{{rp|130}} By 1947, a total of 80 cinemas were listed.{{rp|130}} The first Bengali-language film in East Pakistan, Mukh O Mukhosh (Face and Mask), was released in 1956.{{rp|130}} Akash ar Mati (Sky and Earth), released in 1959, was the second film as such.

The Bangladesh Film Development Corporation was founded in Dhaka as the East Pakistan Film Development Corporation in 1957–1958, as the full-service film production studio.{{rp|130}} Zahir Raihan made various influential films throughout the period, notably Kokhono Asheni in 1961, Shangam in 1964 (the first color film in Pakistan), and Jibon Theke Neowa in 1970. The film industry in Dhaka positioned itself as the base for a Bengali Muslim cinema from the 1960s and onwards.{{rp|130}} The first movie post-Independence, Ora Egaro Jon, was directed by Chashi Nazrul Islam and released in 1972. At the industry's peak, about 80 movies were produced each year between 1996 and 2003, a number which has constantly declined thereafter.{{rp|130}} Prominent directors include Khan Ataur Rahman, Alamgir Kabir, Amjad Hossain, Humayun Ahmed, Morshedul Islam, Tanvir Mokammel, Tareque Masud, Salahuddin Lavlu and Enamul Karim Nirjhar.{{rp|130}} Tareque Masud was honoured by FIPRESCI at the 2002 Cannes Film Festival for his film Matir Moina (The Clay Bird). Film societes have played a crucial role in the development of cinema in Bangladesh.{{cite web|url=https://thefinancialexpress.com.bd/views/reviews/how-film-societies-influence-cinema-1559231122|title=How film societies influence cinema|date=31 May 2019|access-date=14 January 2025|last=Sarkar|first=Shihab|work=The Financial Express}}

{{Main|Bangladeshi cuisine}}

{{Further|Bengali cuisine}}

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| image1 = Kala bhuna 1.jpg

| caption1 = Kala bhuna, a popular beef dish from Chittagong Division

| image2 = রুই মাছের ভুনা.jpg

| caption2 = Rohu curry, a popular fish-based dish

| image3 = Morog Polao 1.jpg

| caption3 = Chicken pilaf (Morog Polao), a traditional dish from Old Dhaka

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Bangladeshi cuisine, formed by its geographic location and climate, is rich and diverse; sharing its culinary heritage with the neighbouring Indian state of West Bengal.{{cite book |last=Osman |first=Shawkat|title=খুনতি কড়াই : Bangladeshi Cuisine |publisher=Mapin Publishing|date=16 February 2009|isbn=978-1-890-20602-4}}{{rp|14}} The staple dish is white rice, which along with fish, forms the culinary base. Varieties of leaf vegetables, potatoes, gourds and lentils (dal) also play an important role. Curries of beef, mutton, chicken and duck are commonly consumed,{{cite web|last=Yesmin|first=Shaheda|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/lifestyle/spotlight/bangladesh-cuisine-part-i-delectable-and-diverse-1325551|title=Bangladesh cuisine part I – delectable and diverse|work=The Daily Star|date=6 December 2016|access-date=1 October 2022|archive-date=6 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161206142722/https://www.thedailystar.net/lifestyle/spotlight/bangladesh-cuisine-part-i-delectable-and-diverse-1325551|url-status=live}} along with multiple types of bhortas (mashed vegetables),{{cite web |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/lifestyle/recipe/news/mashed-1723366 |title=MASHED |work=The Daily Star |last=Huda |first=Shahana |date=2 April 2019 |access-date=2 October 2022 |quote=Bhorta is just another staple for Bengalis... |archive-date=2 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002091752/https://www.thedailystar.net/lifestyle/recipe/news/mashed-1723366 |url-status=live }} bhajis (stir fried vegetables) and tarkaris (curried vegetables).{{rp|8}} Mughal-influenced dishes include kormas, kalias, biryanis, pulaos, teharis and khichuris.

Among the various used spices, turmeric, fenugreek, nigella, coriander, anise, cardamom and chili powder are widely used; a famous spice mix is the panch phoron. Condiments and herbs used include red onions, green chillies, garlic, ginger, cilantro, and mint.{{rp|12}} Coconut milk, mustard paste, mustard seeds, mustard oil, ghee, achars and chutneys are also widely used in the cuisine.{{rp|13–14}}

Fish is the main source of protein, owing to the country's riverine geography, and it is often enjoyed with its roe. The hilsa is the national fish and is immensely popular; a famous dish is shorshe ilish. Other highly consumed fishes include rohu, pangas, and tilapia.{{cite journal |last1=Rahman |first1=Md. Naimur |last2=Islam |first2=Abu Reza Md Towfiqul|title=Consumer fish consumption preferences and contributing factors: empirical evidence from Rangpur city corporation, Bangladesh|pmid=33426347|doi=10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e05864|volume=6|number=12|date=28 December 2020|journal=Heliyon|pages=e05864 |publisher=Cell Press|doi-access=free |pmc=7779775|bibcode=2020Heliy...605864R }} Lobsters, shrimps and dried fish (shutki) also play an important role, with the chingri malai curry being a famous shrimp dish.{{rp|8}} In Chittagong, famous dishes include kala bhuna and mezban, the latter being a traditionally popular feast, featuring the serving of mezbani gosht, a hot and spicy beef curry.{{rp|10}}{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/mar/21/from-kala-bhuna-to-shatkora-curry-lets-all-get-a-taste-for-bangladesh|last=Akbar|first=Ahsan|title=From kala bhuna to shatkora curry – let's all get a taste for Bangladesh|work=The Guardian|date=21 March 2021|access-date=2 October 2022|archive-date=2 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240902070150/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/mar/21/from-kala-bhuna-to-shatkora-curry-lets-all-get-a-taste-for-bangladesh|url-status=live}} In Sylhet, the shatkora lemons are used to marinate dishes, a notable one is beef hatkora. Among the tribal communities in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, cooking with bamboo shoots is popular.{{cite web|url=https://www.tbsnews.net/feature/food/bamboo-shoots-now-popular-delicacy-tourists-120037|title=Bamboo shoots now a popular delicacy for tourists|work=The Business Standard|date=16 August 2020|access-date=2 October 2022|archive-date=2 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002095316/https://www.tbsnews.net/feature/food/bamboo-shoots-now-popular-delicacy-tourists-120037|url-status=live}} Khulna is renowned for using chui jhal (piper chaba) in its meat-based dishes.

Bangladesh has a vast spread of desserts, including distinctive sweets such as the rôshogolla, roshmalai, chomchom, sondesh, mishti doi and kalojaam, and jilapi.{{cite web |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/star-weekend/the-concept-desserts-bangladesh-1244389|title=The Concept of Desserts in Bangladesh|work=The Daily Star|date=24 June 2016|access-date=2 October 2022 |last=Karim |first=Elita}} Pithas are traditional boiled desserts made with rice or fruits.{{cite web |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/lifestyle/deshi-mix/winter-pitha-176893|title=Winter Pitha|work=The Daily Star |date=24 November 2015|access-date=2 October 2022}} Halwa, shemai and falooda, the latter two being a variation of vermicelli; are popular desserts during religious festivities.{{cite web |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/life-living/news/shab-e-barat-the-night-fortune-and-forgiveness-2983236|title=Shab-e-Barat: The night of fortune and forgiveness|work=The Daily Star |date=15 March 2022|access-date=2 October 2022 |last=Khondokar |first=Faiza}}{{cite web |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/lifestyle/aappayon/variations-vermicelli-1250221|title=Variations on Vermicelli|date=5 July 2016|work=The Daily Star|access-date=24 April 2023}}{{cite web|url=https://images.thedailystar.net/lifestyle/recipe/news/dinas-table-1752979|title=Dina's Table|work=The Daily Star|date=4 June 2019|access-date=11 January 2025}} Ruti, naan, paratha, luchi and bakarkhani are the main local breads.{{cite web |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/lifestyle/ls-special/bread-101-1566847|title=Bread 101|work=The Daily Star|date=24 April 2018|access-date=2 October 2022 |last=Tariq |first=Jahanara}} Hot milk tea is the most commonly consumed beverage in the country, being at the centre of group conversations.{{cite web |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/lifestyle/reader%E2%80%99s-chit/coffee-lifestyle-or-just-another-alternative-tea-1503541|title=Coffee: a lifestyle or just another alternative to tea?|work=The Daily Star|date=12 December 2017|access-date=1 October 2022 |last1=Amatya |first1=Suki |last2=Mahin |first2=Tamanna |last3=Sadaaf |first3=Bushra Humaira |last4=Sarkar |first4=Supriti}} Borhani, mattha and lassi are popular traditionally consumed beverages.{{cite book |last1=Jyoti Prakash |first1=Tamang |title=Ethnic Fermented Foods and Alcoholic Beverages of Asia |date=2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=9788132228004 |pages=77–89}}{{cite web |last=Sarkar |first=Supriti|title=Tis' the season (almost) for Lassi|date=13 February 2018|access-date=24 April 2023|work=The Daily Star |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/lifestyle/ls-pick/tis-the-season-almost-lassi-1533559}} Kebabs are widely popular, particularly seekh kebab, chapli kebab, shami kebab, chicken tikka and shashlik, along with various types of chaaps. Popular street foods include chotpoti, jhal muri, shingara,{{cite news|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/my-dhaka/news/all-about-shingaras-3396736|title=All about shingaras|publisher=The Daily Star|date=18 August 2023|access-date=7 June 2024}} samosa and fuchka.{{cite news |url=https://archive.thedailystar.net/lifestyle/2010/03/02/centre.htm|title=street food 101|work=The Daily Star |date=9 March 2010 |last=Haider |first=M. H.|access-date=2 October 2022}}

{{Main|Sports in Bangladesh}}

File:Mashrafe 2016 (9).jpg]]

In rural Bangladesh, several traditional indigenous sports such as Kabaddi, Boli Khela, Lathi Khela and Nouka Baich remain fairly popular. While Kabaddi is the national sport,{{cite book |last=Faroqi |first=Gofran |year=2012 |chapter=Kabadi |chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Kabadi |editor1-last=Islam |editor1-first=Sirajul |editor1-link=Sirajul Islam |editor2-last=Jamal |editor2-first=Ahmed A. |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |edition=Second |publisher=Asiatic Society of Bangladesh}} Cricket is the most popular sport in the country. The national cricket team participated in their first Cricket World Cup in 1999 and the following year was granted Test cricket status. Bangladesh reached the quarter-final of the 2015 Cricket World Cup, the semi-final of the 2017 ICC Champions Trophy and they reached the final of the Asia Cup 3 times – in 2012, 2016, and 2018. Shakib Al Hasan is widely regarded as one of the greatest all-rounders in the history of the sport.{{Cite news |date=24 March 2020 |title=Why Shakib Al Hasan is one of cricket's greatest allrounders|publisher=ESPNcricinfo |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/stats-analysis-why-shakib-al-hasan-is-one-of-cricket-s-greatest-allrounders-1219732 |access-date=23 March 2021}} In 2020, the Bangladesh national under-19 cricket team won the men's Under-19 Cricket World Cup.{{cite news|title=U19s Cricket World Cup: Bangladesh beat India in final to win first title |url=https://www.bbc.com/sport/cricket/51437334|publisher=BBC Sport|date=9 February 2020|access-date=9 February 2020}}{{cite news |author1=Minhaz Uddin Khan|title=Young Tigers become World Champions |url=https://www.dhakatribune.com/sport/cricket/2020/02/09/u19wc-final-tilak-out-india-103-2-after-29-overs|work=Dhaka Tribune|date=9 February 2020|access-date=9 February 2020}} The Bangladesh national under-19 cricket team also won the U-19 Asia cup in 2023 and 2024 consecutively.{{Cite web |date=2024-12-06 |title=Bangladesh reach second consecutive U-19 Asia Cup final with dominant win over Pakistan |url=https://www.tbsnews.net/sports/bangladesh-reach-second-consecutive-u-19-asia-cup-final-dominant-win-over-pakistan-1011861 |access-date=2025-01-05 |website=The Business Standard |language=en}}{{Cite web |date=2024-12-08 |title=Under-19 Asia Cup winners list: Bangladesh win second title in Dubai over India |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/sports/cricket/under-19-asia-cup-full-winners-list-india-vs-bangladesh-dubai-9713377/ |access-date=2025-01-05 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}} In 2018, the Bangladesh women's national cricket team won the 2018 Women's Twenty20 Asia Cup.{{cite news |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/star-live/women-asia-cup-t20-champions-2018-bangladesh-womens-cricket-team-got-victory-1590118 |title=Champions of Asia T20 Cup 2018: Bangladesh Women's Cricket Team |work=The Daily Star |date=12 June 2018 |access-date=14 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180829153434/https://www.thedailystar.net/star-live/women-asia-cup-t20-champions-2018-bangladesh-womens-cricket-team-got-victory-1590118 |archive-date=29 August 2018 |url-status=live}}

File:Bangladesh National Football Team in Maldives in the SAFF Championship 2021.jpg]]

Football is the second-most popular sport in Bangladesh, following cricket.{{Cite web |url=https://thefinancialexpress.com.bd/views/columns/football-the-game-which-makes-us-come-alive|title=Football ... the game which makes us come alive|date=14 December 2022|website=The Financial Express|archive-date=4 March 2025|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250304070646/https://thefinancialexpress.com.bd/views/columns/football-the-game-which-makes-us-come-alive|url-status=live}} The first instance of a national football team was the emergence of the Shadhin Bangla football team during the liberation war of 1971.{{Cite news |url=https://www.tbsnews.net/sports/shadhin-bangla-football-dal-team-no-other |title='Shadhin Bangla Football Dal': A team like no other |date=16 December 2019 |work=The Business Standard |access-date=15 August 2022 |archive-date=15 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815160845/https://www.tbsnews.net/sports/shadhin-bangla-football-dal-team-no-other |url-status=live }} On 25 July 1971, the team's captain, Zakaria Pintoo, became the first person to hoist the Bangladesh flag on foreign land before their match in neighboring India.{{Cite news |url=https://www.newagebd.net/article/133717/i-am-luckier-than-pele-zakaria-pintoo|title=I am luckier than Pele: Zakaria Pintoo|date=26 March 2021|work=New Age}} Following independence, the national football team made its debut in 1973 and eventually achieved the feat of participating in the AFC Asian Cup (1980), becoming only the second South Asian team to do so.{{Cite web|url=https://www.prothomalo.com/sports/football/যে-ম্যাচগুলো-‘আফসোস’-বাংলাদেশের-ফুটবলে|title=যে ম্যাচগুলো 'আফসোস' বাংলাদেশের ফুটবলে|first=Niar|last=Iqbal|language=bn|work=Prothom Alo|date=6 April 2020|archive-date=September 10, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230910082413/https://www.prothomalo.com/sports/football/%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%87-%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8B-%E2%80%98%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%AB%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B8%E2%80%99-%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87|url-status=live}} Bangladesh's most notable achievements in football include the 2003 SAFF Gold Cup and 1999 South Asian Games. The Bangladesh women's national football team won the SAFF Women's Championship consecutively in 2022 and 2024.{{Cite web |last=Express |first=The Financial |title=Bangladesh retain SAFF Women's Champs title |url=https://today.thefinancialexpress.com.bd/first-page/bangladesh-retain-saff-womens-champs-title-1730307628 |access-date=2025-01-05 |website=The Financial Express |language=en|archive-date=2025-03-04|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250304071113/https://today.thefinancialexpress.com.bd/first-page/bangladesh-retain-saff-womens-champs-title-1730307628|url-status=live}}

Bangladesh archers Ety Khatun and Roman Sana won several gold medals winning all the 10 archery events (both individual and team events) in the 2019 South Asian Games.{{Cite news |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/sports/athletics/bangladesh-win-all-10-golds-in-archery-sa-games-2019-1837909 |title=Ety, Sana complete Bangladesh's clean sweep in archery |date=9 December 2019 |work=The Daily Star}} The National Sports Council regulates 42 sporting federations.{{cite web|title=All Affiliated National Federation/Association |url=http://nsc.gov.bd/n/?cat=11 |publisher=National Sports Council |access-date=25 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130121160742/http://nsc.gov.bd/n/?cat=11 |archive-date=21 January 2013}} Chess is very popular in Bangladesh. Bangladesh has five grandmasters in chess. Among them, Niaz Murshed was the first grandmaster in South Asia.{{cite web|url=http://bdchessfed.com/grand-masters|title=Bangladesh Chess Federation|website=bdchessfed.com|access-date=17 January 2020|archive-date=29 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200129112718/http://bdchessfed.com/grand-masters/|url-status=dead}} In 2010, mountain climber Musa Ibrahim became the first Bangladeshi climber to conquer Mount Everest.{{cite news |title=Musa conquers Everest |url=http://www.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details.php?nid=139787 |work=The Daily Star |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171027015045/https://www.thedailystar.net/news-detail-139787 |archive-date=27 October 2017 |date=24 May 2010}} Wasfia Nazreen is the first Bangladeshi climber to climb the Seven Summits and the K2.{{cite web |author1=Mary Anne Potts |title=Bangladeshi Climber Shares Her Spiritual Journey for the Women of Her Country |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/adventure/adventure-blog/2016/05/27/bangadeshi-climber-wasfia-nazreen-shares-her-spiritual-journey-for-the-women-of-her-country/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191119031640/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/adventure/adventure-blog/2016/05/27/bangadeshi-climber-wasfia-nazreen-shares-her-spiritual-journey-for-the-women-of-her-country/ |archive-date=19 November 2019 |website=National Geographic |date=27 May 2016}}{{cite magazine|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/life-living/news/wasfia-nazreen-becomes-first-bangladeshi-summit-k2-3076801|title=Wasfia Nazreen becomes first Bangladeshi to summit K2|magazine=The Daily Star|access-date=16 January 2024|date=22 July 2022}}

{{Portal|Bangladesh|Asia}}

• Index of Bangladesh-related articles
• Outline of Bangladesh{{clear}}

{{notelist}}

{{reflist}}

• {{cite book |last=Ahmed |first=Salahuddin |year=2004 |title=Bangladesh: Past and Present |publisher=APH Publishing |isbn=978-81-7648-469-5}}
• {{cite book|ref=Baxter |last=Baxter |first=Craig |author-link=Craig Baxter |year=1997 |title=Bangladesh, from a Nation to a State |publisher=Westview Press |isbn=978-0-8133-3632-9 |oclc=47885632}}
• {{cite book |last=Lewis |first=David |year=2011 |title=Bangladesh: Politics, Economy and Civil Society |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-50257-3}}

{{Refbegin|30em}}

• Ahmed, Nizam. The Parliament of Bangladesh (Routledge, 2018).
• {{cite book |last=Ali |first=S. Mahmud |date=2010|title=Understanding Bangladesh |url={{GBurl|id=FD2KzBG1ejwC}}|publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-70143-3}}
• {{cite book |title=Bangladesh War: Report from Ground Zero |last=Ghosh |first=Manash |year=2021 |publisher=Niyogi Books |isbn=9789391125370}}
• Baxter, Craig. Bangladesh: From a nation to a state (Routledge, 2018).
• {{cite book |last=Bose |first=Sarmila |date=2012 |title=Dead Reckoning Memories of the 1971 Bangladesh War |publisher=Hachette UK |isbn=978-93-5009-426-6 }}
• {{cite book |last=Chakrabarty |first=Bidyut | date=2004 |title=The Partition of Bengal and Assam, 1932-1947: Contour of Freedom |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-33274-8 |url={{GBurl|id=in1_AgAAQBAJ}}}}
• {{cite book |last=Grover |first=Verinder |date=2000 |title=Bangladesh: Government and Politics |publisher=Deep and Deep Publications |isbn=978-81-7100-928-2 }}
• {{cite book |editor1-last=Guhathakurta |editor1-first=Meghna |editor2-last=van Schendel |editor2-first=Willem |year=2013 |title=The Bangladesh Reader: History, Culture, Politics |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0-8223-5304-1}}
• Hasnat, GN Tanjina, Md Alamgir Kabir, and Md Akhter Hossain. "Major environmental issues and problems of South Asia, particularly Bangladesh." Handbook of environmental materials management (2018): 1-40. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/G_N_Hasnat/publication/323264078_Major_Environmental_Issues_and_Problems_of_South_Asia_Particularly_Bangladesh/links/5e7c678fa6fdcc139c04692f/Major-Environmental-Issues-and-Problems-of-South-Asia-Particularly-Bangladesh.pdf online]
• Iftekhar Iqbal (2010) The Bengal Delta: Ecology, State and Social Change, 1840–1943 (Palgrave Macmillan) {{ISBN|0-230-23183-7}}
• Islam, Saiful, and Md Ziaur Rahman Khan. "A review of the energy sector of Bangladesh." Energy Procedia 110 (2017): 611–618. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1876610217302230/pdf?md5=762df35a45d6d280234429fc79ec79bd&pid=1-s2.0-S1876610217302230-main.pdf online]
• Jannuzi, F. Tomasson, and James T. Peach. The agrarian structure of Bangladesh: An impediment to development (Routledge, 2019).
• {{cite book |last=Khan |first=Muhammad Mojlum |year=2013 |title=The Muslim Heritage of Bengal: The Lives, Thoughts and Achievements of Great Muslim Scholars, Writers and Reformers of Bangladesh and West Bengal |publisher=Kube Publishing |isbn=978-1-84774-052-6}}
• {{cite book |last=Mookherjee |first=Nayanika |date=2015 |title=The Spectral Wound: Sexual Violence, Public Memories, and the Bangladesh War of 1971 |url={{GBurl|id=JjUWrgEACAAJ}}|publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0-8223-5949-4}}
• M. Mufakharul Islam (edited) (2004) Socio-Economic History of Bangladesh: essays in memory of Professor Shafiqur Rahman, 1st Edition, Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, {{oclc|156800811}}
• M. Mufakharul Islam (2007) Bengal Agriculture 1920–1946: A Quantitative Study (Cambridge University Press), {{ISBN|0-521-04985-7}}
• Prodhan, Mohit. "The educational system in Bangladesh and scope for improvement." Journal of International Social Issues 4.1 (2016): 11–23. [https://www.winona.edu/socialwork/Media/Prodhan%20The%20Educational%20System%20in%20Bangladesh%20and%20Scope%20for%20Improvement.pdf online]
• {{cite book |last=Raghavan |first=Srinath |year=2013 |title=1971: A Global History of the Creation of Bangladesh |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-72864-6}}
• {{cite book |last=Rashid |first=Haroun Er |year=1977 |title=Geography of Bangladesh|publisher=University Press |oclc=4638928}}
• Riaz, Ali. Bangladesh: A political history since independence (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2016).
• {{cite book |last=Riaz |first=Ali |date=2010 |title=Political Islam and Governance in Bangladesh |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-92624-2 }}
• {{cite book |last1=Riaz |first1= Ali |last2=Rahman |first2= Mohammad Sajjadur |date=2016 |title=Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Bangladesh |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-30877-5 }}
• {{cite book |last=Schendel |first=Willem van |year=2009 |title=A History of Bangladesh |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-86174-8 }}
• Shelley, Israt J., et al. "Rice cultivation in Bangladesh: present scenario, problems, and prospects." Journal of International Cooperation for Agricultural Development 14.4 (2016): 20–29. [http://icrea.agr.nagoya-u.ac.jp/jpn/journal/Vol14_20-29-Review-Shelley.pdf online]
• Sirajul Islam (edited) (1997) History of Bangladesh 1704–1971(Three Volumes: Vol 1: Political History, Vol 2: Economic History Vol 3: Social and Cultural History), 2nd Edition (Revised New Edition), The Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, {{ISBN|984-512-337-6}}
• Sirajul Islam (Chief Editor) (2003) Banglapedia: A National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh.(10 Vols. Set), (written by 1300 scholars & 22 editors) The Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, {{ISBN|984-32-0585-5}}
• {{cite book |last1=Sisson |first1=Richard |last2=Rose |first2= Leo E|date=1991|title=War and Secession: Pakistan, India, and the Creation of Bangladesh |publisher=University of California Press |isbn= 978-0-520-07665-5}}
• {{cite book |last=Sogra |first=Khair Jahan |date=2014 |title=The Impact of Gender Differences on the Conflict Management Styles of Managers in Bangladesh: An Analysis |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |isbn=978-1-4438-6854-9}}
• {{cite book |last= Umar |first=Badruddin |date=2006 |title=The Emergence of Bangladesh: Rise of Bengali nationalism, 1958–1971 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn= 978-0-19-597908-4}}
• Van Schendel, Willem. A history of Bangladesh (Cambridge University Press, 2020).
• {{cite book |last=Uddin |first=Sufia M. |date=2006|title=Constructing Bangladesh: Religion, Ethnicity, and Language in an Islamic Nation |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |isbn=978-0-8078-7733-3 }}
• {{cite book |last1=Wahid |first1=Abu N.M.. |last2=Weis |first2= Charles E |date=1996 |title=The Economy of Bangladesh: Problems and Prospects |publisher=Praeger |isbn=978-0-275-95347-8 }}

{{Refend}}

{{Sister project links|voy=Bangladesh}}

Government

• {{Official website|http://www.bangladesh.gov.bd}}
• [http://bida.portal.gov.bd/ Official Site of Bangladesh Investment Development Authority]

General information

• {{Britannica|51736}}
• [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/bangladesh/ Bangladesh]. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
• [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-12650940 Bangladesh] from the BBC News
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20081026124922/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/bangladesh.htm Bangladesh] from UCB Libraries GovPubs
• {{osmrelation-inline|184640}}
• {{wikiatlas|Bangladesh}}
• [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=BD Key Development Forecasts for Bangladesh] from International Futures

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