List of modern great powers#Early modern powers

File:EmpireFrench.pngs]]

France has been one of the leading powers in Europe and the world, since the breakup of the Carolingian Empire and the emergence of West Francia, its predecessor state, although its power was only truly consolidated from 1214 onwards with its victory in the Anglo-French War.{{Cite journal |date=2022-11-30 |title=Philip Ii and The Rise of France |url=https://doi.org/10.1017/9781802700664.008 |journal=Medieval France at War |pages=113–146 |doi=10.1017/9781802700664.008|isbn=978-1-80270-066-4 }}{{Cite book |last=Bradbury |first=Jim |title=Philip Augustus: King of France, 1180 - 1223 |date=1998 |publisher=Longman |isbn=978-0-582-06058-6 |edition=1. publ |series=The medieval world |location=London}} Over the 14th century, French kings would focus on bringing more of the kingdom's lands under their direct control, as France emerged as the most populous region in Europe by 1340.{{cite web |last=Josiah C. |first=Russell |title=Medieval Sourcebook: Tables on Population in Medieval Europe |url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/pop-in-eur.html |access-date=2 March 2011 |work="Population in Europe:, in Carlo M. Cipolla, ed., The Fontana Economic History of Europe, Vol. I: The Middle Ages |publisher=Collins/Fontana}} After the discovery of the New World, France became a dominant empire possessing many colonies in various locations around the world. Still participating in his deadly Italian conflicts, Francis I of France managed to finance expeditions to find trade routes to China or Cathay through landmass already discovered by the Spanish under Giovanni da Verrazzano. Giovanni would lead the first French discovery of the "New World" just north of the Spanish invasions of Mesoamerica later as New Spain and a decade later Jacques Cartier would firmly colonize the landmass in the name of Francis I. This New World colony would become New France, the first colony of the Kingdom of France. In the 1500s, France was still the most populous country in Europe,{{Cite book |title=Europe, 1500–1600 |date=1997 |publisher=Nelson |isbn=978-0-17-435064-4 |editor-last=Jones |editor-first=J. A. P. |edition=1. publ |series=Challenging history / [general ed.: J. A. P. Jones] |location=Walton-on-Thames, Surrey |editor-last2=Jones |editor-first2=J. A. P.}} and would remain so until the mid-19th to late 19th century.{{Cite book |last=Mitchell |first=Brian R. |title=European historical statistics 1750 – 1975 |date=1980 |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=978-90-286-0660-9 |edition=2., rev. |location=London}} During the reign of Louis XIV, the Sun King, from 1643 to 1715, France was the leading European power as Europe's richest and most powerful country. The dominance of France over world affairs extended to most foreign European courts speaking French, including other great powers of the time such as England, Sweden, and Russia.{{Cite book |last1=Fumaroli |first1=Marc |title=When the world spoke French |last2=Howard |first2=Richard |date=2010 |publisher=New York Review Books |isbn=978-1-59017-375-6 |series=New York review books classics |location=New York}}

From the 16th to the 17th centuries, the first French colonial empire stretched over a total area, at its peak in 1680, of up to {{convert|10|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}}, the second-largest empire in the world at the time behind only the Spanish Empire (which France would also take control of, briefly, under Napoleon). It had many possessions around the world, mainly in the Americas, Asia and Africa. France kept some of these possessions to this day, integrating them into its territory, like La Réunion. At its peak in 1750, French India had an area of {{convert|1.5|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}} and a totaled population of 30 million people, making it the most populous colony under French rule.{{cite web |title=Western colonialism – European expansion since 1763 |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Western-colonialism |access-date=2021-08-20 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}{{Cite book |last=Montagnon |first=Pierre |title=Dictionnaire de la colonisation française |date=2010 |publisher=Pygmalion |isbn=978-2-7564-0265-9 |location=Paris}}

At the onset of the French Revolutionary Wars, early French victories exported many ideological features of the French Revolution throughout Europe. Napoleon gained support by appealing to some common concerns of the people. In France, these included fear by some of a restoration of the {{lang|fr|ancien régime}}, a dislike of the Bourbons and the emigrant nobility who had escaped the country, a suspicion of foreign kings who had tried to reverse the Revolution – and a wish by Jacobins to extend France's revolutionary ideals.

Napoleon became Emperor of the French ({{langx|fr|L'Empereur des Français}}) on 18 May 1804 and crowned Emperor on 2 December 1804, ending the period of the French Consulate, and won early military victories in the Napoleonic Wars against most European allied nations, notably at the Battle of Austerlitz (1805) and the Battle of Friedland (1807). Subsequent years of military victories extended French influence over much of Western Europe and into Poland. At its height in 1812, the French Empire had 134 départements, ruled over 90 million subjects, maintained extensive military presence in Germany, Italy, Spain, and the Duchy of Warsaw, and could count Prussia, Russia and Austria as nominal allies.{{Cite journal |last=Rein Taagepera |author-link=Rein Taagepera |date=September 1997 |title=Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3cn68807 |journal=International Studies Quarterly |volume=41 |issue=3 |page=501 |doi=10.1111/0020-8833.00053 |jstor=2600793 |access-date=2021-08-20}} The First French Empire (1804–1814, 1815), otherwise known as the Napoleonic Empire, was also the dominant power of much of continental Europe, and ruled over 90 million people at its height.{{Cite book |last=Lyons |first=Martyn |title=Napoleon Bonaparte and the Legacy of the French Revolution |date=1994 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-1-349-23436-3 |series=European Studies |location=London}} It was the preeminent power in Europe, if not the world, as Britain was its only rival during the early 19th century, the two countries battling for supremacy over the world, with France dominating on land and Britain on the sea.{{Cite book |last=Shovlin |first=John |title=Trading with the enemy: Britain, France, and the 18th-century quest for a peaceful world order |date=2021 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-25356-6 |location=New Haven; London}}{{Cite book |last=Hamilton |first=C. I. |title=Anglo-French naval rivalry, 1840-1870 |date=1993 |publisher=Clarendon Press; Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-820261-5 |location=Oxford : New York}}

The feudal system was abolished, aristocratic privileges were eliminated in all places except Poland, and the introduction of the Napoleonic Code throughout the continent increased legal equality, established jury systems, and legalized divorce. Napoleon placed his relatives on European thrones and granted many titles, most of which expired with the fall of the Empire. Napoleon and South India Mysore ruler Tipu Sultan wished to make an alliance, having provided Mysore with French volunteers during the Anglo-Mysore Wars, with the continuous aim of having an eventual open way to attack the British in India.{{Cite book |last=Sicker |first=Martin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BzMJys65u9wC&pg=PA97 |title=The Islamic World in Decline: From the Treaty of Karlowitz to the Disintegration of the Ottoman Empire |date=20 February 2001 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-275-96891-5 |page=97 |via=Google Books}}Kaushik Roy, War, Culture and Society in Early Modern South Asia, 1740–1849, Routledge, 2011, 77.[https://books.google.com/books?id=n5IOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA11 Napoleon and Persia by Iradj Amini p.11]

Historians have estimated the death toll from the Napoleonic Wars to be around 5 million people, or 15% of the French Empire's subjects.{{Cite book |last=Gates |first=David |title=The Napoleonic wars: 1803–1815 |date=1997 |publisher=Arnold |isbn=978-0-340-69184-7 |series=Modern wars |location=London New York Sydney [etc.]}} After Napoleon's disastrous invasion of Russia, the continental powers joined Russia, Britain, Portugal and the rebels in Spain. The War of the Sixth Coalition, a coalition of Austria, Prussia, Russia, the United Kingdom, Sweden, Spain and a number of German states finally defeated France and drove Napoleon into exile on Elba. When he returned, the coalition invaded France again, forcing Napoleon to abdicate and thus leading to the restoration of Bourbon rule.

At the end of the 16th century, having secured its position as a strong naval power, England began to challenge the Portuguese Empire's monopoly of trade with Asia, forming private joint-stock companies to finance the voyages: most notably the English, later British, East India Company, chartered in 1600. The primary aim of these companies was to tap into the lucrative spice trade, an effort focused mainly on two regions: the East Indies archipelago, and India. There, England competed for trade supremacy with Portugal and the Netherlands.{{harvnb|Lloyd|1996|p=13}} Although England eventually eclipsed both countries as a colonial power, in the short term the three Anglo-Dutch Wars of the 17th century left the Netherlands with a stronger position in Asia. Hostilities ceased when, in 1688, the Dutch William of Orange invaded and ascended to the English throne in what is known as the Glorious Revolution – bringing peace between the Dutch Republic and England. A deal between the two nations left the spice trade of the East Indies archipelago to the Netherlands and trade with the textiles industry of India to England, but textiles soon overtook spices in terms of profitability.{{sfn|Ferguson|2004|p=19}}

File:Colonisation_1754.png

During the 16th to 18th centuries, British colonies were created along the east coast of North America. The southern colonies had a plantation economy, made possible by slavery, which produced tobacco and cotton. This cotton was especially important in the development of British textile towns and the rise of the world's first Industrial Revolution in Britain by the end of the 18th century. The northern colonies provided timber, ships, furs, and whale oil for lamps; allowing work to be done at times of the day without natural light.{{Sfnp|Richter|2011|page=330–331}}{{Sfnp|Richter|2011|page=332–336}} All of these colonies served as important captive markets for British finished goods and trade goods including British textiles, Indian tea, West Indian coffee, and other items.{{Sfnp|Richter|2011|page=329–330}}

The British Empire participated officially in the Seven Years' War from 1756, a war described by some historians as the world's first World War.{{cite book |last1=Hamilton |first1=Richard F. |title=The Origins of World War I |last2=Herwig |first2=Holger H. |date=24 February 2003 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-39386-8 |editor1=Richard F. Hamilton |pages=4–9 |chapter=Chapter 1: World Wars: Definition and Causes |access-date=21 January 2022 |editor2=Holger H. Herwig |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fcILAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA8 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121060914/https://books.google.com/books?id=fcILAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA8 |archive-date=21 January 2022 |url-status=live}} The British had hoped winning the war against its colonial rival France would improve the defensibility of its important American colonies, where tensions from settlers eager to move west of the Appalachian Mountains had been a substantive issue.{{sfnp|Anderson|2007|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FFO2clqJCqMC&pg=PA17 p. 17]}} The new British-Prussian alliance was successful in forcing France to cede Canada to Britain, and Louisiana to Spain, thus ostensibly securing British North America from external threats as intended. The war also allowed Britain to capture the proto-industrialised Bengal from the French-allied Mughal Empire, then Britain's largest competitor (and by far the world's single largest producer) in the textile trade, it was also able to flip Hyderabad from the Mughals to its cause, and capture the bulk of French territorial possessions in India, effectively shutting them out of the sub-continent.{{cite book |last=Szabo |first=Franz A.J. |title=The Seven Years' War in Europe 1756–1763. |publisher=Routledge |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-582-29272-7 |pages=432}}{{cite book |last=Kennedy |first=Paul |author-link=Paul Kennedy |title=The Rise and Fall of British Naval Mastery |publisher=Penguin Books |year=1976 |isbn=978-0-684-14609-6 |edition=new introduction |location=London}} Importantly, the war also saw Britain becoming the dominant global naval power.{{cite web |last=Eccles |first=William John |date=2006 |title=Seven Years' War |url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/seven-years-war/ |access-date=17 June 2006 |website=The Canadian Encyclopedia}}

Regardless of its successes in the Seven Years' War, the British government was left close to bankruptcy, and in response it raised taxes considerably in order to pay its debts.Calloway 2007, p. 12 Britain was also faced with the delicate task of pacifying its new French-Canadian subjects, as well as the many American Indian tribes who had supported France, without provoking a new war with France. In 1763, Pontiac's War broke out as a group of Indian tribes in the Great Lakes region and the Northwest (the modern American Midwest) were unhappy with the loss of congenial and friendly relations with the French and complained about being cheated by the new British monopoly on trade.{{sfnp|Marston|2002|pp=84–85}} Moreover, the Native Americans feared that British rule would lead to white settlers displacing them from their land, whereas it was known that the French had only come as fur traders, and indeed this had been the original source of animosity on the part of British settlers with France and part of the reason the war had started in the first place.{{sfnp|Marston|2002|pp=84–85}} Pontiac's War was going very badly for the British, and it was only with their victory at the Battle of Bushy Run that a complete collapse of British power in the Great Lakes region was avoided.{{sfnp|Marston|2002|p=87}}

File:Map_of_territorial_growth_1775.svg

In response, King George III issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763, which forbade white settlement beyond the crest of the Appalachians, with the hope of appeasing the Indians and preventing further insurrection, but this led to considerable outrage in the Thirteen Colonies, whose inhabitants were eager to acquire native lands. The Quebec Act of 1774, similarly intended to win over the loyalty of French Canadians, also spurred resentment among American colonists.{{cite book |last=MacLeod |first=D. Peter |title=Northern Armageddon: The Battle of the Plains of Abraham |publisher=Douglas & McIntyre |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-55365-412-4 |location=Vancouver}} As such, dissatisfaction with the Royal Proclamation and "Taxation Without Representation" are said to have led to the Thirteen Colonies declaring their independence and starting the American War of Independence (1775–1783).Calloway 2007, p. 4

This war was comprehensively supported by Britain's competitors, France and Spain, and Britain lost the war. Britain and the new United States of America were able to retain the pre-existing trade arrangements from before independence, minimizing long-term harm to British trading interests. After the war, the American trade deficit with Britain was approximately 5:1, causing a shortage of gold for a number of years.Marshall Smelser, The Democratic Republic, 1801–1815 (1968). However, the British Empire would shift its focus from North America to India, expanding from its new base in Bengal and signalling the beginning of the second phase of the British Empire.

File:RussianEmpire1700.png, {{Circa|1700}}, during the reign of Peter the Great]]

The Russian Empire formed from what was the Tsardom of Russia under Peter the Great. Peter fought numerous wars and expanded an already vast empire into a major European power. In 1703, he moved the capital from Moscow to the new model city of Saint Petersburg, which was largely built according to Western design. This would be the turning point of a series of major reforms he would gradually enact in Russia, aiming to transform the country into a westernized, major player on the world stage.{{Cite book |last=Cracraft |first=James |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv1pncq7q |title=The Revolution of Peter the Great |date=2006-03-15 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-02994-1 |doi=10.2307/j.ctv1pncq7q|jstor=j.ctv1pncq7q }} He led a cultural revolution that replaced some of the traditionalist and medieval social and political mores with a modern, scientific, Western-oriented, and rationalist system. His victory over Sweden in the Great Northern War in 1721 saw Russia being recognized as a great power, dominating the Baltic region. The Empire was officially proclaimed after the war, with Peter becoming the first Emperor of Russia.

Empresses Elizabeth and Catherine the Great presided over a golden age; in the late 17th century, they expanded the state by conquest, colonization, and diplomacy, while continuing Peter I's policy of modernization along Western European lines.{{Cite book |last=Rice |first=Tamara Talbot |title=Elizabeth, Empress of Russia |date=1970 |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |isbn=978-0-297-00109-6 |location=London}}{{Cite book |last=Whitelaw |first=Nancy |title=Catherine the Great and the Enlightenment in Russia |date=2005 |publisher=Morgan Reynolds Pub |isbn=978-1-931798-27-3 |series=European queens |location=Greensboro, N.C}} Emperor Alexander I played a major role in defeating Napoleon's ambitions to control Europe, as well as constituting the short-lived Holy Alliance of conservative eastern European monarchies. Russia further expanded to the west, south and east, becoming one of the most powerful European empires of the time. Its victories in the Russo-Turkish Wars were checked by defeat in the Crimean War (1853–1856), which led to a period of reform and intensified expansion in Central Asia.{{Cite web |title=The Great Game, 1856–1907: Russo-British Relations in Central and East Asia {{!}} Reviews in History |url=https://reviews.history.ac.uk/review/1611 |access-date=8 October 2021 |website=reviews.history.ac.uk |language=en}} Following these conquests, Russia's territories spanned across Eurasia, with its western borders ending in eastern Poland, and its eastern borders ending in Alaska. By the end of the 19th century, the area of the empire was about {{convert|22800000|km2|sqmi|sp=us}}, or almost {{frac|1|6}} of the Earth's landmass; its only rival in size at the time was the British Empire. The majority of the population lived in European Russia. More than 100 different ethnic groups lived in the Russian Empire, with ethnic Russians composing about 45% of the population.Martin Gilbert, Routledge Atlas of Russian History (4th ed. 2007) [https://www.amazon.com/Routledge-Russian-History-Historical-Atlases/dp/0415394848/ excerpt and text search] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525204700/https://www.amazon.com/Routledge-Russian-History-Historical-Atlases/dp/0415394848|date=25 May 2017}} Emperor Alexander II initiated numerous reforms, most dramatically the emancipation of all 23 million serfs in 1861.

{{See also|Administrative divisions of the Ottoman Empire}}

File:OttomanEmpireIn1683.png territories at its greatest extent]]

File:Kara-Keui_(Galata)_bridge,_Constantinople,_Turkey-LCCN2001699426.tif in Constantinople, between the 19th and 20th century]]

The Ottoman Empire was a Turkic state, which at the height of its power in the 16th–17th centuries spanned three continents, controlling parts of Southeastern Europe, the Middle East and most of North Africa.Caroline Finkel, Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1923. The empire has been called by historians a "Universal Empire" due to having both Roman and Islamic traditions.H. Inaicik "The rise of the Ottoman Empire" in P.M. Holt, A.K. S. Lambstone, and B. Lewis (eds), The Cambridge History of Islam (2005).(Cambridge University). pages 295–200 It was one of the powerful gunpowder empires.

The empire was at the center of interactions between the Eastern and Western worlds for several centuries. The Ottoman Empire was the only power in the world to seriously challenge the rising power of Western Europe between the 15th and 19th centuries. With Constantinople (later Istanbul) as its capital, the Empire was in some respects an Islamic successor of earlier Mediterranean empires—the Roman and Byzantine empires.

The effective military and bureaucratic structures of the early Empire also came under strain, while the Ottomans gradually fell behind European powers in military technology. Causes of this long decline are still debated today: the Ottoman decline thesis was the predominant view for most of history, but recent discoveries tend to contradict it.Howard, Douglas A. "Genre and myth in the Ottoman advice for kings literature," in Aksan, Virginia H. and Daniel Goffman eds. The Early Modern Ottomans: Remapping the Empire (Cambridge University Press, 2007; 2009), 143. Potential factors contributing to this decline include a protracted period of misrule by weak Sultans; stifled innovation and research due to growing religious and intellectual conservatism; public or military opposition to reform; or simply a need to transform the country in order for it to survive, which could have hampered all efforts to strengthen the state itself.Faroqhi, "Crisis and Change," 411–414.

In spite of these difficulties, the Empire remained a major expansionist power until the Battle of Vienna in 1683, which marked the end of Ottoman expansion into Europe and its maximum territorial extent on the continent.{{cite journal |author=Leitsch, Walter |date=July 1983 |title=1683: The Siege of Vienna |url=http://www.historytoday.com/walter-leitsch/1683-siege-vienna |url-status=live |journal=History Today |volume=33 |issue=7 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181221234902/https://www.historytoday.com/walter-leitsch/1683-siege-vienna |archive-date=21 December 2018 |access-date=19 December 2014}}

Ottoman military reform efforts begin with Selim III (1789–1807) who made the first major attempts to modernize the army along European lines. These efforts, however, were hampered by reactionary movements, partly from the religious leadership, but primarily from the Janissary corps, who had become anarchic and ineffectual. Jealous of their privileges and firmly opposed to change, they revolted and deposed him. Selim's efforts cost him his throne and his life, but were resolved in spectacular and bloody fashion by his successor, the dynamic Mahmud II, who massacred the Janissary corps in 1826. Even then, it was too late: much of the decline took place in the 19th century under pressure from Russia and various other powers, beginning with the Greek War of Independence, and culminating in 1875 in the Great Eastern Crisis: by 1882, the Empire had lost effective control of Egypt, Tunisia, and more. The Balkans were lost by 1913, leading to a coup d'état, and the Empire disintegrated after the First World War, leaving Turkey as its successor state.*Alan Palmer, The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire. (1992)

File:Portugal_Império_total.png (1415–1999)]]

The Portuguese Empire was the first empire with land on all continents, as well as the earliest and longest-lived of the Western European colonial empires, lasting from 1415 to 1999.{{Cite web |title=Portuguese Empire {{!}} Encyclopedia.com |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/portuguese-empire-0 |access-date=7 April 2021 |website=encyclopedia.com}} Portugal's small size and population restricted the empire, in the 16th century and beyond, to a collection of small but well-defended outposts along the African coasts, alongside three vast colonies, Angola, Mozambique and Brazil. For most of the 16th century, the Portuguese Indian Armadas, then one of the strongest navies in shipbuilding and naval artillery, dominated most of the Atlantic Ocean south of the Canary Islands, the Indian Ocean, and the western Pacific Ocean. The height of the empire was reached in the 16th century; but isolation and competition against new colonial empires like the British, French and Dutch, started its long and gradual decline. After the 18th century, Portugal focused on the colonization of Brazil as well as its African possessions. However, following the Liberal Revolution of 1820, Brazil soon declared independence and the Portuguese Empire lost its most prized possession.{{Cite book |last1=Vianna |first1=Hélio |title=História do Brasil |last2=Donato |first2=Hernâni |date=1994 |publisher=Melhoramentos |isbn=978-85-06-01999-3 |edition=15a. ed. rev. e atualizada até o governo de Fernando Collor |location=São Paulo, SP}}

File:Spanish_Empire_Anachronous_en.svg at various times over a period exceeding 400 years]]

File:Philip_II's_realms_in_1598.png]]

After the crowns of Castile and Aragon united in 1469, modern Spain began to emerge as a great power. Besides conquering the Emirate of Granada and completing the Reconquista, in the 16th century, Spain was in the vanguard of European global exploration and colonial expansion and the opening of trade routes across the oceans, with trade flourishing across the Atlantic Ocean between Spain and the Americas and across the Pacific Ocean between the Asia–Pacific and Mexico via the Philippines. Conquistadors toppled the Aztec, Inca, and Maya civilizations, and laid claim to vast stretches of land in North and South America. For a long time, the Spanish Empire dominated the oceans with its navy and ruled the battlefield with its infantry, the effective tercios. Spain enjoyed a cultural golden age in the 16th and 17th centuries as Europe's foremost power, with the largest economy of all nations during at least half of the 16th century.{{Cite book |last=Kamen |first=Henry |title=Empire: how Spain became a world power, 1492–1763 |date=2004 |publisher=Perennial |isbn=978-0-06-093264-0 |location=New York}}

From 1580 to 1640,{{cite book |last=Torgal |first=Luís Reis |title=Ideologia Política e Teoria do Estado na Restauração |publisher=Biblioteca Geral da Universidade de Coimbra |year=1981 |isbn=9789726160823 |volume=I |location=Coimbra |pages=69–85 |language=pt |chapter=A Restauração – Sua Dinâmica Sócio-política |hdl=10316/665 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WIKrsgWG91gC&pg=PA69}} the Spanish Empire and the Portuguese Empire were conjoined in a personal union of its Habsburg monarchs, during the period of the Iberian Union, though the empires continued to be administered separately.

From the middle of the 16th century, silver and gold from the American mines increasingly financed the military capability of Habsburg Spain, then the foremost global power, in its long series of European, American and North African wars. Until the loss of its American colonies in the 19th century, Spain maintained one of the largest empires in the world, even though it suffered fluctuating military and economic fortunes from the 1640s. Confronted by new experiences, Spanish thinkers formulated some of the first modern thoughts on natural law, sovereignty, international law, war, and economics, going as far as questioning the legitimacy of imperialism, in related schools of thought referred to collectively as the School of Salamanca.

Constant contention with rival powers caused territorial, commercial, and religious conflict that contributed to the slow decline of Spanish power from the early 17th century, aggravated by both the General Crisis sweeping through Europe, as well as the collapse of the Habsburg Netherlands and ensuring Eighty Years' War, which would cripple Spain for decades. In the Mediterranean, Spain warred constantly with the Ottoman Empire; on the European continent, France eventually replaced Spain as the leading military power. Overseas, Spain was initially rivaled by Portugal, and later by the English and Dutch. In addition, English-, French-, and Dutch-sponsored privateering and piracy, overextension of Spanish military commitments in its territories, increasing government corruption, and economic stagnation caused by military expenditures ultimately contributed to the empire's weakening.{{Cite book |last=Nolan |first=Cathal J. |title=Wars of the Age of Louis XIV, 1650–1715: An Encyclopedia of Global Warfare and Civilization |date=2008 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |isbn=978-0-313-35920-0 |edition=1st |location=New York}}

After a century of decline from once being Europe's most powerful country, Spain entered the War of the Spanish Succession, with its population divided between pro-Bourbon and pro-Habsburg factions, as Europe was to decide on the country's fate. Spain's European empire was finally undone by the Peace of Utrecht (1713), which stripped Spain of its remaining territories in Italy and the Low Countries. Spain's fortunes improved thereafter, but it remained a second-rate power in European politics. However, Spain maintained and enlarged its vast overseas empire until the 19th century, when the shock of the Peninsular War sparked declarations of independence in Quito, Venezuela, Paraguay and many more successive revolutions that split away its territories from its American mainland. By then, although it would remain a strong country, Spain was not to be a great power again.

{{See also|Golden Liberty}}

File:Królestwo_Polskie_i_Wielkie_Księstwo_Litewskie_w_1466_r..svg at its greatest extent, 1466]]

File:Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth_1635.svg at its greatest extent, 1635]]

The union of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, formed in 1385, emerged as a major power in Central and Eastern Europe following its victory at the Battle of Grunwald in 1410.{{citation |last=Ekdahl |first=Sven |title=The Military Orders: History and Heritage |volume=3 |page=175 |year=2008 |editor=Victor Mallia-Milanes |chapter=The Battle of Tannenberg-Grunwald-Žalgiris (1410) as reflected in Twentieth-Century monuments |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dSM_w4Q1sUwC&pg=PA175 |publisher=Ashgate |isbn=978-0-7546-6290-7}}{{cite book |last=Grant |first=R. G. |title=1001 Battles That Changed the Course of History |publisher=Chartwell |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-7858-3553-0 |page=214}}{{cite book |last=Kort |first=Michael |title=The Handbook of the New Eastern Europe |year=2001 | publisher = Twenty-First Century Books |location=Brookfield, Connecticut |pages=39–40}} Poland–Lithuania covered a large territory in Central and Eastern Europe, making it the largest state in Europe at the time. Through its territorial possessions and vassal principalities and protectorates, its influence extended from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea, reaching Livonia (present-day Estonia and Latvia) in the north,{{cite book |last=Brand |first=Hanno |title=Trade, Diplomacy and Cultural Exchange: Continuity and change in the North Sea area and the Baltic c. 1350–1750 |publisher=Uitgeverij Verloren |year=2005 |isbn=90-6550-881-3 |location=Hilversum |page=17}} and Moldavia and Crimea in the south and southeast.{{cite journal |last=Deletant |first=Dennis |year=1986 |title=Moldavia between Hungary and Poland, 1347–1412 |journal=The Slavonic and East European Review |publisher=Modern Humanities Research Association, UCL School of Slavonic and East European Studies |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=191, 210 |issn=1427-1443}}{{cite book |last=Małowist |first=Marian |title=Western Europe, Eastern Europe and World Development, 13th–18th Centuries |publisher=Brill |year=2010 |isbn=978-90-04-17917-2 |location=Leiden/Boston |pages=115–116}} In the 15th century the ruling Jagiellonian dynasty managed to place its members on the thrones of the neighbouring kingdoms of Bohemia and Hungary, becoming one of the most powerful houses in Europe.{{cite web |title=The Historical Setting: The Jagiellonian Era (1385–1572) |url=http://info-poland.icm.edu.pl/classroom/longhist2.html |access-date=9 July 2022}}

The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was one of the largest, most powerful and most populous[https://www.pbs.org/wnet/heritage/episode5/atlas/map3.html# Heritage: Interactive Atlas: Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth], last accessed on 19 March 2006. "At its apogee, the Poland comprised some {{convert|400000|sqmi|km2}} and a multi-ethnic population of 11 million." For population comparisons, see also those maps: {{cite web |title=AD 1618 Republic of Poland The Bastion of Western Civilization |url=http://homepage.interaccess.com/%7Enetpol/POLISH/historia/MAPY/1618.jpg |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130217222629/http://homepage.interaccess.com/~netpol/POLISH/historia/MAPY/1618.jpg |archive-date=17 February 2013 |access-date=2017-06-18}}, {{cite web |title=AD 1717 Republic of Poland in Crisis of Sovereignty With Western Christianity |url=http://homepage.interaccess.com/%7Enetpol/POLISH/historia/MAPY/1717.jpg |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130217222634/http://homepage.interaccess.com/~netpol/POLISH/historia/MAPY/1717.jpg |archive-date=17 February 2013 |access-date=2017-06-18}}. countries in 16th, 17th, and 18th century Europe. In fact, Poland was a major power that imposed its will on weaker neighbors. Its political structure was formed in 1569 by the Union of Lublin, which transformed the previous Polish–Lithuanian union into the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and lasted in this form until the adoption of the Constitution of May 3, 1791. In the 16th century, the area of the Rzeczpospolita reached almost 1 million km², with a population of 11 million. At that time, it was the third largest country in Europe, and the largest country of Western Christian Europe.{{cite journal |last=Koyama |first=Satoshi |year=2007 |title=The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth as a Political Space: Its Unity and Complexity |journal=Regions in Central and Eastern Europe: Past and Present |publisher=Slavic Research Center Hokkaido University |issue=15 |page=137}} Poland was a political, military and economic power. It was a country of religious freedom, confirmed by the Warsaw Confederation, one of the first European acts of its kind, which encouraged an influx of immigrants, including Armenian, Czech,{{cite web |title=Files and library of the Unity of the Brethren |url=https://www.unesco.org/en/memory-world/files-and-library-unity-brethren |access-date=23 August 2024 |website=UNESCO}} Dutch, French, Greek, Jewish, and Scottish.

The Union possessed features unique among contemporary states. This political system unusual for its time stemmed from the ascendance of the szlachta noble class over other social classes and over the political system of monarchy. In time, the szlachta accumulated enough privileges (such as those established by the Nihil novi Act of 1505) that no monarch could hope to break the szlachta's grip on power. The Commonwealth's political system does not readily fit into a simple category; it may best be described as a melange of:

• confederation and federation, with regard to the broad autonomy of its regions. It is, however, difficult to decisively call the Commonwealth either confederation or federation, as it had some qualities of both of them;
• oligarchy, as only the szlachta—around 15% of the population—had political rights;
• democracy, since all the szlachta were equal in rights and privileges, and the Sejm could veto the king on important matters, including legislation (the adoption of new laws), foreign affairs, declaration of war, and taxation (changes of existing taxes or the levying of new ones). Also, the 9% of Commonwealth population who enjoyed those political rights (the szlachta){{in lang|en}} {{cite book |author=David Sneath |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OR14qaApQbgC |title=The headless state: aristocratic orders, kinship society, & misrepresentations of nomadic inner Asia |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-231-14054-6 |location=New York |page=188}} was a substantially larger percentage than in majority European countries;{{in lang|en}} {{cite book |author=M. L. Bush |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TIG7AAAAIAAJ |title=Rich noble, poor noble |publisher=Manchester University Press ND |year=1988 |isbn=0-7190-2381-5 |pages=8–9}} note that in 1789 in France only about 1% of the population had the right to vote, and in 1867 in the United Kingdom, only about 3%.
• elective monarchy, since the monarch, elected by the szlachta, was Head of State;
• constitutional monarchy, since the monarch was bound by pacta conventa and other laws, and the szlachta could disobey decrees of the king that they deemed illegal.

The Polish Golden Age, in the reigns of Sigismund I and Sigismund II, the last two Jagiellonian kings, and more generally the 16th century, is identified with the culture of the Polish Renaissance. This flowering had its material base in the prosperity of the elites, both the landed nobility and urban patriciate at such centers as Kraków and Gdańsk. The University of Kraków became one of the leading centers of learning in Europe, and in Poland Nicolaus Copernicus formulated a model of the universe that placed the Sun rather than Earth at its center, making a groundbreaking contribution, which sparked the Scientific Revolution in Europe.

Following the Union of Lublin, at various times, through personal unions and vassalages, Poland's sphere of influence reached Sweden and Finland in Northern Europe, the Danube in Southeastern Europe,{{cite web |title=Moldavia |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Moldavia |access-date=9 July 2022 |website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}{{cite web |title=Zamoyski Jan |url=https://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo/Zamoyski-Jan;4000199.html |access-date=9 July 2022 |website=Encyklopedia PWN |language=pl}} and the Caribbean and West Africa. In a rather unique feat, Poland became a territorially extensive state largely not through war conquests, but rather through peaceful incorporation of territories, with the Polish-Lithuanian union formed voluntarily, and Prussia, Caffa in Crimea and Livonia voluntarily recognizing Polish sovereignty in 1454,{{Cite book |last=Górski |first=Karol |title=Związek Pruski i poddanie się Prus Polsce: zbiór tekstów źródłowych |publisher=Instytut Zachodni |year=1949 |location=Poznań |page=54 |language=pl}} 1462 and 1561, respectively, viewing Poland as a defender against either oppressive regimes, such as the Teutonic Order, or potential invaders such as Turkey and Russia.

Poland had turbulent relations with the neighboring powers of Russia, Sweden and Turkey, which challenged Polish power in a series of wars.{{cite web |title=wojny polsko-moskiewskie |url=https://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo/wojny-polsko-moskiewskie;3997562.html |access-date=24 August 2024 |website=Encyklopedia PWN |language=pl}}{{cite web |title=wojny polsko-szwedzkie |url=https://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo/wojny-polsko-szwedzkie;3997565.html |access-date=24 August 2024 |website=Encyklopedia PWN |language=pl}}{{cite web |title=wojny polsko-tureckie |url=https://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo/wojny-polsko-tureckie;3997566.html |access-date=24 August 2024 |website=Encyklopedia PWN |language=pl}} After victories in the Dimitriads (the Battle of Klushino, 1610), with Polish forces entering Moscow, Sigismund III's son, Prince Władysław of Poland, was briefly elected Tsar of Russia. The weakening of Poland was brought by the disastrous Russo-Swedish invasion of 1654–1660, yet Poland still remained a great power. The victory of Polish-led forces at the Battle of Vienna in 1683 saved Austria from Ottoman conquest and marked the end of Ottoman advances into Europe.{{cite web |title=Siege of Vienna |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Siege-of-Vienna-1683 |access-date=9 July 2022 |website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}{{cite journal |author=Leitsch, Walter |date=July 1983 |title=1683: The Siege of Vienna |url=http://www.historytoday.com/walter-leitsch/1683-siege-vienna |journal=History Today |volume=33 |issue=7 |access-date=9 July 2022}} Poland's great power came to an end with the Swedish invasion of Poland of 1701–1706 during the Great Northern War.{{cite web |title=wojna północna |url=https://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo/wojna-polnocna;3997503.html |access-date=28 August 2024 |website=Encyklopedia PWN |language=pl}}

File:Qing_Empire_circa_1820_EN.svg in 1820]]

The Qing dynasty was the last ruling dynasty of China, proclaimed in 1636 and collapsed in 1912 (with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917). It was preceded by the Ming dynasty and followed by the Republic of China. The dynasty was founded by the Manchu clan Aisin Gioro in what is today Northeast China (also known as "Manchuria"). Starting in 1644, it expanded into China proper and its surrounding territories. Complete pacification of China proper was accomplished around 1683 under the Kangxi Emperor. The multiethnic Qing Empire assembled the territorial base for modern China. It was the largest Chinese dynasty and in 1790 the fourth-largest empire in world history in terms of territorial size. With a population of 432 million in 1912, it was the world's most populous country at the time. The Qing dynasty also reached its economic peak in 1820, when it became the world's largest economy, contributing to around 30% of the world's GDP.{{cite web |date=27 July 2016 |title=Groningen Growth and Development Centre |url=http://www.ggdc.net/maddison/other_books/appendix_B.pdf}}

Originally the Later Jin dynasty, the dynasty changed its official name to "Great Qing", meaning "clear" or "pellucid", in 1636. In 1644, Beijing was sacked by a coalition of rebel forces led by Li Zicheng, a minor Ming official who later proclaimed the Shun dynasty. The last Ming emperor, the Chongzhen Emperor, committed suicide when the city fell, marking the official end of the Ming dynasty. Qing forces then allied with Ming general Wu Sangui and seized control of Beijing to expel Shun forces from the city.Immanuel C. Y. Hsü, The rise of modern China (4th ed. 1990) online free to borrow

File:Ewer,_Qing_dynasty,_Qianlong_period,_porcelain,_Honolulu_Museum_of_Art.JPG

The Qing dynasty reached its height in the ages of the Kangxi Emperor, Yongzheng Emperor and the Qianlong Emperor. The Ten Great Campaigns and in addition, the conquest of the western territories of the Mongols, Tibetans, and Muslims under the rule of the Qing were another factor of prosperity. The skillful rule of the era's emperors allowed for this success: rule through chiefdoms, in territories like Taiwan, allowed for the conquered peoples to retain their culture and be ruled by their own people while the Qing Empire still possessed the ultimate control over its vast territory. These ruling tactics created little need or reason for rebellion of the conquered.Hu, Minghui. "High Qing Society" HIS 140B, 31 January 2018, UCSC Another aspect of Manchu rule under the Qing Empire, was rule within modern-day China. The Mongols' attempt to rule may have failed because they attempted to rule from the outside. The High Qing emperors ruled from within, enabling them to obtain and retain stable, efficient control of the state.

A new generation of emperors combined the strengths of their culture in addition to a level of sinicization of the conquered cultures, in order to combine assimilation and the retaining of their own cultural identity. This was initiated with the Kangxi Emperor who was in power at the initiation of the High Qing. As an emperor he elevated the status of the Qing Empire through his passion for education in combination with his military expertise, and his restructuring of the bureaucracy into that of a cosmopolitan one. His son and successor, the Yongzheng Emperor ruled differently through more harsh and brutal tactics, but possessed an efficient and unprecedented level of commitment to the betterment of the empire.{{cite book |last1=Rowe |first1=William |title=China's Last Empire |date=10 September 2012 |publisher=The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-06624-3 |page=66}} The last successful emperor of the High Qing was the Qianlong Emperor who, following in the footsteps of his father and grandfather, was a well-rounded ruler who created the peak of the High Qing Empire. The unique and unprecedented ruling techniques of these three emperors, and the emphasis on multiculturalism{{cite book |last1=Porter |first1=Jonathan |title=Imperial China 1350–1900 |date=4 February 2016 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |isbn=978-1-4422-2293-9}} fostered the productivity and success that lasted through the High Qing era.

A heavy revival of the arts was another characteristic of the High Qing Empire. Through commercialization, items such as porcelain were mass-produced and used in trade. Literature was emphasized as Imperial libraries were erected, and literacy rates of men and women both rose within the elite class. The significance of education and art in this era is that it created an economic stimulation that would last for a period of over fifty years.Hu, Minghui. "Settlement and Border Regions". HIS 140B, 9 February 2018. UCSC After the Qianlong Emperor's death, the dynasty faced changes in the world system, foreign instrusion, internal revolts, population growth, economic disruption, official corruption, and the reluctance of Confucian elites to change their mindsets. With peace and prosperity, the population rose to some 400 million, but taxes and government revenues were fixed at a low rate, soon leading to a fiscal crisis.

China, under the Qing dynasty, remained an unrecognized great power, as European powers did not, at the time, consider Asian nations to be their equals. Following the First and Second Opium Wars, where Britain and France imposed their will on the imperial dynasty, the government attempted to pursue a policy of radical reforms known as the Self-Strengthening Movement.{{Cite book |title=Li Hung-chang and China's early modernization |date=1994 |publisher=M. E. Sharpe |isbn=978-1-56324-242-7 |editor-last=Chu |editor-first=Samuel C. |location=Armonk, New York |editor-last2=Liu |editor-first2=Kwang-Ching}} While initially successful, the First Sino-Japanese War brought an abrupt end to the relative stability the Qing had managed to maintain, and was followed quickly by the Boxer Rebellion, until the Qing finally lost control in 1912.

File:Neues_Grünes_Gewölbe_-_Hofstaat_zu_Delhi_am_Geburtstag_des_Großmoguls.jpg]]

The Mughal Empire was a Persianate empire founded in 1526 by Babur of the Barlas clan with the backing of the neighboring Safavid Empire's Shah Ismail Safavi acting as Babur's suzerain.{{Cite book |last=Canfield |first=Robert L. |title=Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1991 |isbn=0521522919 |pages=20 |quote="The Mughals – Persianized Turks who invaded from Central Asia and claimed descent from both Timur and Genghis – strengthened the Persianate culture of Muslim India"}} Babur's victories at the First Battle of Panipat and the Battle of Khanwa against the Delhi Sultanate and Rajput Confederation led to the formation of the Mughal Empire.{{Cite book |last=Sicker |first=Martin |title=The Islamic World in Ascendancy: From the Arab Conquests to the Siege in Vienna. |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |year=2000 |isbn=0-275-96892-8 |pages=189 |quote=Ismail was quite prepared to lend his support to the displaced Timurid prince, Zahir ad-Din Babur, who offered to accept Safavid suzerainty in return for help in regaining control of Transoxiana.}}{{Cite book |last=Hooja |first=Rima |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qqd1RAAACAAJ&q=rajasthan%20hooja |title=A History of Rajasthan |publisher=Rupa |year=2006 |isbn=9788129115010 |pages=454 |quote=From Baburs memoirs we learn that Sanga's success against the Mughal advance guard commanded by Abdul Aziz and other forces at Bayana, severely demoralised the fighting spirit of Baburs troops encamped near Sikri.}}{{Cite book |last=Berndl |first=Klaus |title=National Geographic Visual History of the World |publisher=National Geographic Society |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7922-3695-5 |pages=318–320}} Over the next centuries under Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, the Mughal Empire would grow in area and power and dominate the Indian subcontinent, reaching its maximum extent under Emperor Aurangzeb. This imperial structure lasted until 1720, shortly after the Mughal-Maratha Wars and the death of Aurangzeb,{{citation |last=Stein |first=Burton |title=A History of India |pages=159– |year=2010 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QY4zdTDwMAQC&pg=PA159 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-2351-1 |author-link=Burton Stein}} Quote: "The imperial career of the Mughal house is conventionally reckoned to have ended in 1707 when the emperor Aurangzeb, a fifth-generation descendant of Babur, died. His fifty-year reign began in 1658 with the Mughal state seeming as strong as ever or even stronger. But in Aurangzeb's later years the state was brought to the brink of destruction, over which it toppled within a decade and a half after his death; by 1720 imperial Mughal rule was largely finished and an epoch of two imperial centuries had closed."{{citation |last=Richards |first=John F. |title=The Mughal Empire |page=xv |year=1995 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC&pg=PAxv |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-56603-2}} Quote: "By the latter date (1720) the essential structure of the centralized state was disintegrated beyond repair." where the Mughals would gradually lose their influence to new powers such as the Maratha Empire and the Sikh Confederacy. The empire went on a prolonged period of decline during the following century, notably resulting in Delhi being sacked in 1739 and 1757. The country was made an unofficial protectorate of the Maratha Empire in 1784.{{Cite book |last1=Bose |first1=Sugata |title=Modern South Asia: history, culture, political economy |last2=Jalal |first2=Ayesha |date=2003 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-16951-6 |edition=Reprinted |location=London}} After the Second Anglo-Maratha War, the British took over, until the Mughal Empire was formally dissolved by the British Raj after the Indian Rebellion of 1857.

The Indian subcontinent was producing about 25% of the world's industrial output from 1st millennium CE up to until the 18th century.Jeffrey G. Williamson & David Clingingsmith, [http://www.lse.ac.uk/economicHistory/Research/GEHN/GEHNPDF/Conf7_Williamson.pdf India's Deindustrialization in the 18th and 19th Centuries] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170329075904/http://www.lse.ac.uk/economicHistory/Research/GEHN/GEHNPDF/Conf7_Williamson.pdf|date=29 March 2017}}, Global Economic History Network, London School of Economics The exchequer of the Emperor Aurangzeb reported an annual revenue of more than £100 million, or $450 million, making him one of the wealthiest monarchs in the world at the time.{{cite book |last1=Harrison |first1=Lawrence |author-link=Peter L. Berger |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=RB0oAQAAIAAJ|page=158}} |title=Developing cultures: case studies |last2=Berger |first2=Peter L. |publisher=Routledge |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-415-95279-8 |page=158}}{{Cite book |last=Roy |first=Tirthankar |author-link=Tirthankar Roy |title=The Ashgate Companion to the History of Textile Workers, 1650–2000 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-7546-6428-4 |editor1=Lex Heerma van Voss |page=255 |chapter=The Long Globalization and Textile Producers in India |editor2=Els Hiemstra-Kuperus |editor3=Elise van Nederveen Meerkerk |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f95ljbhfjxIC&pg=PA255}} The empire had an extensive road network, which was vital to the economic infrastructure, built by a public works department set up by the Mughals, linking towns and cities across the empire, making trade easier to conduct.{{Cite book |last=Schmidt |first=Karl J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BqdzCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA100 |title=An Atlas and Survey of South Asian History |publisher=Routledge |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-317-47681-8 |pages=100–}}

The Mughals adopted and standardised the rupee (rupiya, or silver) and dam (copper) currencies introduced by Sur Emperor Sher Shah Suri during his brief rule.{{Cite web |title=Picture of original Mughal rupiya introduced by Sher Shah Suri |url=http://www.rbi.org.in/currency/museum/c-mogul.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021005231609/http://www.rbi.org.in/currency/museum/c-mogul.html |archive-date=5 October 2002 |access-date=4 August 2017}}{{Cite book |last1=Irfan Habib |author-link=Irfan Habib |url=http://www.hkrdb.kar.nic.in/documents/Downloads/Good%20Reads/The%20Cambridge%20Economic%20History%20of%20India,%20Volume%201.pdf#page=480 |title=The Cambridge Economic History of India |last2=Dharma Kumar |author-link2=Dharma Kumar |last3=Tapan Raychaudhuri |author-link3=Tapan Raychaudhuri |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1987 |volume=1 |page=464}} The Mughals minted coins with high purity, never dropping below 96%, and without debasement until the 1720s.{{Cite book |last=Richards |first=John F. |author-link=John F. Richards |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i85noYD9C0EC&pg=PA27 |title=The Unending Frontier: An Environmental History of the Early Modern World |publisher=University of California Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-520-93935-6 |pages=27–}}

A major sector of the Mughal economy was agriculture. A variety of crops were grown, including food crops such as wheat, rice, and barley, and non-food cash crops such as cotton, indigo and opium. By the mid-17th century, Indian cultivators begun to extensively grow imported from the Americas, maize and tobacco. The Mughal administration emphasised agrarian reform, started by Sher Shah Suri, the work of which Akbar adopted and furthered with more reforms. The civil administration was organised in a hierarchical manner on the basis of merit, with promotions based on performance, exemplified by the common use of the seed drill among Indian peasants,{{cite book |last1=Pagaza |first1=Ignacio |title=Winning the Needed Change: Saving Our Planet Earth |last2=Argyriades |first2=Demetrios |publisher=IOS Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-58603-958-5 |page=129}} and built irrigation systems across the empire, which produced much higher crop yields and increased the net revenue base, leading to increased agricultural production.

Manufacturing was also a significant contributor to the Mughal Economy. The Mughal empire produced about 25% of the world's industrial output up until the end of the 18th century. Manufactured goods and cash crops from the Mughal Empire were sold throughout the world. Key industries included textiles, shipbuilding, and steel. Processed products included cotton textiles, yarns, thread, silk, jute products, metalware, and foods such as sugar, oils and butter The Mughal Empire also took advantage of the demand of products from Mughal India in Europe, particularly cotton textiles, as well as goods such as spices, peppers, indigo, silks, and saltpeter (for use in munitions). European fashion, for example, became increasingly dependent on Mughal Indian textiles and silks. From the late 17th century to the early 18th century, Mughal India accounted for 95% of British imports from Asia, and the Bengal Subah province alone accounted for 40% of Dutch imports from Asia.Om Prakash, "[http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/CX3447600139/WHIC?u=seat24826&xid=6b597320 Empire, Mughal]", History of World Trade Since 1450, edited by John J. McCusker, vol. 1, Macmillan Reference US, 2006, pp. 237–240, World History in Context. Retrieved 3 August 2017

Indian cotton textiles were the most important manufactured goods in world trade in the 18th century, consumed across the world from the Americas to Japan.{{Citation |surname=Parthasarathi |given=Prasannan |title=Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850 |page=2 |year=2011 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-49889-0}} By the early 18th century, Mughal Indian textiles were clothing people across the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, Europe, the Americas, Africa, and the Middle East.{{Cite book |last=Jeffrey G. Williamson |author-link=Jeffrey G. Williamson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QiDslL0o-hUC&pg=PA91 |title=Trade and Poverty: When the Third World Fell Behind |publisher=MIT Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-262-29518-5 |page=91}}

File:DutchColonialEmpire.png]]

The Dutch Empire ended up in control of various territories after the Dutch achieved independence from Spain in the late 16th century. The strength of their shipping industry and the expansion of trading routes between Europe and the Orient bolstered the strength of the overseas colonial empire which lasted from the 17th to the 20th century. The Dutch initially built up colonial possessions on the basis of indirect state capitalist corporate colonialism, as small European trading-companies often lacked the capital or the manpower for large-scale operations. The States General chartered larger organisations—the Dutch West India Company and the Dutch East India Company—in the early seventeenth century to enlarge the scale of trading operations in the West Indies and the Orient respectively. These trading operations eventually became one of the largest and most extensive maritime trading companies at the time, and once held a virtual monopoly on strategic European shipping-routes westward through the Southern Hemisphere around South America through the Strait of Magellan, and eastward around Africa, past the Cape of Good Hope.{{cite book |last=Hunt |first=John |title=Dutch South Africa: Early Settlers at the Cape, 1652–1708 |date=2005 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-1-904744-95-5 |editor-last=Campbell |editor-first=Heather-Ann |location=Philadelphia |pages=2–13}} The companies' domination of global commerce contributed greatly to a commercial revolution and a cultural flowering in the Netherlands of the 17th century, known as the Dutch Golden Age. During the Dutch Golden Age, Dutch trade, science and art were among the most acclaimed in Europe.{{cite book |last=Hsin-Hui |first=Chiu |title=The Colonial 'civilizing Process' in Dutch Formosa: 1624–1662 |date=2008 |publisher=Tuta Sub Aegide Pallas |isbn=978-9004165076 |location=Leiden |pages=3–8}} Dutch military power was at its height in the middle of the 17th century and in that era the Dutch navy was one of the biggest navies in the world.{{Cite web |title=Royal Netherlands Navy |url=http://www.julianstockwin.com/RNN.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511065442/http://www.julianstockwin.com/RNN.htm |archive-date=11 May 2013}}

By the middle of the 17th century, the Dutch had overtaken Portugal as the dominant player in the spice and silk trade, and in 1652 founded a colony at Cape Town on the coast of South Africa, as a way-station for its ships on the route between Europe and Asia. After the first settlers spread out around the Company station, nomadic white livestock farmers, or Trekboers, moved more widely afield, leaving the richer, but limited, farming lands of the coast for the drier interior tableland. Between 1602 and 1796, many Europeans were sent to work in the Asia trade. The majority died of disease or made their way back to Europe, but some of them made the Indies their new home. Interaction between the Dutch and native population mainly took place in Sri Lanka and the modern Indonesian Islands.

In their search for new trade passages between Asia and Europe, Dutch navigators explored and charted distant regions such as Australia, New Zealand, Tasmania, and parts of the eastern coast of North America.{{cite book |last=Fisher |first=Ann Richmond |title=Explorers of the New World Time Line |date=2007 |publisher=Teaching & Learning Company |isbn=978-1-4291-1317-5 |location=Dayton, Ohio |pages=53–59}} During the period of proto-industrialization, the empire received 50% of textiles and 80% of silks import from the India's Mughal Empire, chiefly from its most developed region known as Bengal Subah.{{cite book |author=Junie T. Tong |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_UQGDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA151 |title=Finance and Society in 21st Century China: Chinese Culture Versus Western Markets |publisher=CRC Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-317-13522-7 |page=151}}{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KZcohRpc4OsC&pg=PT190 |title=The Islamic World: Past and Present |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-19-516520-3 |editor1=John L. Esposito |editor1-link=John L. Esposito |volume=1: Abba – Hist. |page=174}}Nanda, J. N (2005). {{cite book |title=Bengal: the unique state |publisher=Concept Publishing Company. p. 10. |year=2005 |isbn=978-81-8069-149-2 |quote=Bengal [...] was rich in the production and export of grain, salt, fruit, maize, liquors and wines, precious metals and ornaments besides the output of its handlooms in silk and cotton. Europe referred to Bengal as the richest country to trade with.}}Om Prakash, "[http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/CX3447600139/WHIC?u=seat24826&xid=6b597320 Empire, Mughal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118051038/https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=WHIC&u=seat24826&id=GALE%7B%7B%21%7D%7DCX3447600139&v=2.1&it=r&asid=6b597320|date=18 November 2022}}", History of World Trade Since 1450, edited by John J. McCusker, vol. 1, Macmillan Reference USA, 2006, pp. 237–240, World History in Context. Retrieved 3 August 2017

In the 18th century, the Dutch colonial empire began to decline as a result of the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War of 1780–1784, in which the Dutch Republic lost a number of its colonial possessions and trade monopolies to the British Empire, along with the conquest of the Mughal Bengal at the Battle of Plassey by the East India Company.{{cite book |author=Indrajit Ray |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CHOrAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA57 |title=Bengal Industries and the British Industrial Revolution (1757–1857) |publisher=Routledge |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-136-82552-1 |pages=57, 90, 174}}{{cite book |last=Hobkirk |first=Michael |title=Land, Sea or Air?: Military Priorities- Historical Choices |date=1992 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |isbn=978-0-312-07493-7 |location=Basingstoke |pages=77–80}}Dalio, Ray. [https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/big-cycles-over-last-500-years-ray-dalio/ "The Big Cycles of the Dutch and British Empires and Their Currencies"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201001130930/https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/big-cycles-over-last-500-years-ray-dalio/|date=1 October 2020}}, LinkedIn, 21 May 2020 Nevertheless, major portions of the empire survived until the advent of global decolonisation following World War II, namely the East Indies and Dutch Guiana.{{cite book |last=Jones |first=Guno |title=Dutch Racism |date=2014 |publisher=Rodopi B.V. |isbn=978-9042037588 |editor-last1=Essed |editor-first1=Philomena |location=Amsterdam |pages=315–316 |editor-last2=Hoving |editor-first2=Isabel}} Three former colonial territories in the West Indies islands around the Caribbean Sea—Aruba, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten—remain as constituent countries represented within the Kingdom of the Netherlands.

File:Swedish_Empire.svg

Sweden emerged as a great European power under Axel Oxenstierna and King Gustavus Adolphus.{{cite web |author=Michael Roberts |date=9 July 2024 |title=Gustavus Adolphus |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Gustav-II-Adolf |access-date=28 August 2024 |website=Britannica}} As a result of acquiring territories seized from Russia and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, as well as its involvement in the Thirty Years' War, Sweden found itself transformed into the leading power of the Baltic Sea{{cite book |author1=Derek Mckay |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OaiQBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 |title=The Rise of the Great Powers 1648–1815 |author2=H.M. Scott |publisher=Pearson |year=1983 |isbn=978-1-317-87284-9 |pages=10–14}} and the leader of Protestantism. Although not a very populous country, Sweden has achieved the status of the dominant power in northern Europe due to its efficient administration, a near monopoly on copper production in Europe, a strong arms industry, and a robust and innovative army with capable leaders. The mid-17th and early 18th centuries were Sweden's most successful years as a great power.{{Cite book |last=Lunde |first=Henrik O. |title=A warrior dynasty: the rise and decline of Sweden as a military superpower |date=2014 |publisher=Casemate |isbn=978-1-61200-243-9 |location=Philadelphia Oxford}}

During the Thirty Years' War, Sweden sought to conquer land from the Holy Roman Empire. After its defeat in the Battle of Nördlingen (1634), Sweden was left with only a couple of territories in present-day northern Germany. After France intervened on the same side as Sweden, the tide shifted in its favor. As the war continued, the civilian and military death toll grew, and when it was over, it led to severe depopulation in the German states. Although exact population estimates do not exist, historians estimate that the population of the Holy Roman Empire fell by one-third as a result of the war.{{cite journal |last=De Vries |first=Jan |date=2009 |title=The economic crisis of the seventeenth century after fifty years |journal=The Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=40 |page=160 |number=2}} Sweden had seats in the Imperial Diet of the Holy Roman Empire, and was able to interfere in its politics. Sweden's involvement in the Thirty Years' War weakened Imperial authority and delayed the unification of German states, which occurred only in the 19th century.

Sweden controlled most of the Baltic Sea, where its only notable rival in the 17th century remained Poland, therefore Sweden initiated several invasions of Poland in an effort to conquer Polish coastal regions as well, however, except for the capture of central Livonia with Riga in the 1620s, without lasting success. Other major rivals of Sweden in the struggle for hegemony in Northern Europe were Denmark and Russia. During the Northern War of 1655–1660, Sweden even made unsuccessful attempts to definitively end the existence of Denmark and Poland as sovereign entities.

File:SwedishColonialEmpire(FIX).png]]

Sweden also had colonial possessions as a minor colonial Empire that existed from 1638 to 1663 and later from 1784 to 1878. Sweden founded overseas colonies, principally in the New World. New Sweden was founded in the valley of the Delaware River in 1638, and Sweden later laid claim to a number of Caribbean islands.{{Cite book |last=Thompson |first=Mark L. |title=The contest for the Delaware Valley: allegiance, identity, and empire in the seventeenth century |date=2013 |publisher=Louisiana State University Press |isbn=978-0-8071-5058-0 |location=Baton Rouge}} A string of Swedish forts and trading posts was constructed along the coast of West Africa as well, but these were not designed for Swedish settlers.

Sweden reached its largest territorial extent during the rule of Charles X (1622–1660) after the treaty of Roskilde in 1658. After half a century of expansive warfare, the Swedish economy had deteriorated. It would become the lifetime task of Charles' son, Charles XI (1655–1697), to rebuild the economy and refit the army. His legacy to his son, the coming ruler of Sweden Charles XII, was one of the finest arsenals in the world, with a large standing army and a great fleet. Sweden's largest threat at this time, Russia, had a larger army but was far behind in both equipment and training.{{Cite book |last1=Esposito |first1=Gabriele |title=Armies of the Great Northern War 1700–1720 |last2=Rava |first2=Giuseppe |date=2019 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |isbn=978-1-4728-3366-2 |series=Men-at-arms |location=Oxford}} The Swedish army crushed the Russians at the Battle of Narva in 1700, one of the first battles of the Great Northern War. The campaign had a successful opening for Sweden, which came to occupy half of Poland and Charles laid claim to the Polish throne. But after a long march exposed by cossack raids, the Russian Tsar Peter the Great's scorched-earth techniques and the very cold Russian climate, the Swedes stood weakened with shattered confidence and enormously outnumbered by the Russian army at Poltava.Kekke Stadin, "The masculine image of a great power: Representations of Swedish imperial power c. 1630–1690." Scandinavian journal of history 30.1 (2005): 61–82. The decisive Russian victory at the Battle of Poltava (1709) marked the end of Sweden as a great power.{{cite web |title=Battle of Poltava |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Poltava |access-date=28 August 2024 |website=Britannica}}

== Late modern era great powers ==

{{Further|Modern era|International relations (1814–1919)}}

{{Main|French colonial empire}}

File:EmpireFrench.png

France kept its status through the modern era, as a dominant empire possessing many colonies in various locations around the world. The French colonial empire is the set of territories outside Europe that were under French rule primarily from the 16th century to the late 1960s (some see the French control of places such as New Caledonia as a continuation of that colonial empire). The first French colonial empire reached its peak in 1680 at over {{convert|10000000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}, which at the time, was the second largest in the world behind the Spanish Empire. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the colonial empire of France was the second-largest in the world behind the British Empire. At its height in the 1920s and 1930s, including metropolitan France, the total amount of land under French sovereignty reached {{convert|13500000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} at the time, which represented 10% of the Earth's total land area.{{Cite book |last=Aldrich |first=Robert |title=Greater France: A History of French Overseas Expansion |date=1996 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-1-349-24729-5 |series=European Studies |location=London}} The total area of the French colonial empire, with the first (mainly in the Americas and Asia) and second (mainly in Africa and Asia), combined, reached 24,000,000 km2 (9,300,000 sq mi), the second-largest ever overall.{{Cite book |title=Colonialism: an international, social, cultural, and political encyclopedia |date=2003 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-57607-335-3 |editor-last=Page |editor-first=Melvin E. |location=Santa Barbara, CA |editor-last2=Sonnenburg |editor-first2=Penny M.}}

France began to establish colonies in North America, the Caribbean and India, following Spanish and Portuguese successes during the Age of Discovery, in rivalry with Britain for supremacy. A series of wars with Britain during the 18th and early 19th centuries, which France lost, ended its colonial ambitions on these continents, and with it what some historians term the "first" French colonial empire. In the 19th century, France established a new empire in Africa and South East Asia. Some of these colonies lasted beyond the Second World War, and were integrated into France proper as overseas territories.

{{Main|British Empire}}

File:The_British_Empire.png, 1600–present. By 1920 it had become the largest empire in history, constituting approximately 25% of the world's surface and 25% of the world's people.Angus Maddison. The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective (p. 98, 242). OECD, Paris, 2001.]]

File:Houses.of.parliament.overall.arp.jpg, with Elizabeth Tower and Westminster Bridge]]

The British Empire in the modern era was built primarily in Asia, the Middle East and Africa. It included colonies in Canada, the Caribbean, and India, South Africa, and shortly thereafter began the settlement of Australia and New Zealand. Following France's 1815 defeat in the Napoleonic Wars, Great Britain took possession of many more overseas territories in Africa and Asia, and established an informal empire of free trade in South America, Persia, and more.

At its height, the British Empire was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. In 1815–1914 the Pax Britannica was the most powerful unitary authority in history due to the Royal Navy's unprecedented naval predominance.Nigel Dalziel, The Penguin Historical Atlas of the British Empire (2006),

During the 19th century, the United Kingdom was the first country in the world to industrialise and embrace free trade, giving birth to the Industrial Revolution. The rapid industrial growth after the conquests of the wealthy Mughal Bengal transformed Great Britain into the world's largest industrial and financial power, while the world's largest navy gave it undisputed control of the seas and international trade routes, an advantage which helped the British Empire, after a mid-century liberal reaction against empire-building, to grow faster than ever before. The Victorian empire colonised large parts of Africa, including such territories as South Africa, Egypt, Kenya, Sudan, Nigeria, and Ghana, most of Oceania, colonies in the Far East, such as Singapore, Malaysia, and Hong Kong, and took control over the whole Indian subcontinent, making it the largest empire in the world.Timothy H. Parsons, The British Imperial Century, 1815–1914: A World History Perspective (2nd ed. 2019)

After victory in the First World War, the Empire gained control of territories such as Tanzania and Namibia from the German Empire, and Iraq and Palestine (including the Transjordan) from the Ottoman Empire. By this point in 1920 the British empire had grown to become the largest empire in history, controlling approximately 25% of the world's land surface and 25% of the world's population. It covered about {{convert|36.6|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}}. Because of its magnitude, it was often referred to as "the empire on which the sun never sets".Timothy H. Parsons, The Second British Empire (2014)

The political and social changes and economic disruption in the United Kingdom and throughout the world caused by the First World War, followed only two decades later by the Second World War, caused the Empire to gradually break up as colonies were given independence. Much of the reason the Empire ceased was because many colonies by the mid-20th century were no longer as undeveloped as at the arrival of British control nor as dependent and social changes throughout the world during the first half of the 20th century gave rise to national identity. The British Government, reeling from the economic cost of two successive world wars and changing social attitudes towards being an empire, felt it could no longer afford to maintain it if the country were to recover economically, pay for the newly created welfare state, and fight the newly emerged Cold War with the Soviet Union.

The influence and power of the British Empire dropped dramatically after the Second World War, especially after the Partition of India in 1947 and the Suez Crisis in 1956. The Commonwealth of Nations is the successor to the Empire, where the United Kingdom is an equal member with all other states.

{{Main|Russian Empire|Soviet Union}}

File:Russian_Empire_(1867).svg (green) as of 1866, at the time of the maximum territorial expansion of the empireAfter 1866, Alaska was sold and South Sakhalin lost to Japan, but Batum, Kars, Pamir, and the Transcaspian region (Turkmenistan) were acquired. The map incorrectly shows Tuva in dark green, although in reality the protectorate over Tuva was only established in 1914.]]

The Russian Empire as a state, existed from 1721 until it was declared a republic in 1917. The Russian Empire was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia and the predecessor of the Soviet Union. It was one of the largest empires in world history, surpassed in landmass only by the British and Mongolian empires: at one point in 1866, it stretched from Northern Europe across Asia and into North America.

At the beginning of the 19th century, the Russian Empire extended from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Black Sea on the south, from the Baltic Sea on the west to the Pacific Ocean on the east. With 125.6 million subjects registered by the 1897 census, it had the third-largest population of the world at the time, after Qing China and the British Empire. Like all empires it represented a large disparity in economic, ethnic, and religious positions. Its government, ruled by the Emperor, was one of the last absolute monarchies in Europe. Prior to the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 Russia was one of the five major Great Powers of Europe.Iver B. Neumann, "Russia as a great power, 1815–2007." Journal of International Relations and Development 11.2 (2008): 128–151. [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1057/jird.2008.7 online]

File:Warsaw_Pact_in_1990_(orthographic_projection).svg, a collective defense treaty signed in Warsaw, Poland, between the Soviet Union and seven other Eastern Bloc socialist republics of Central and Eastern Europe in May 1955, during the Cold War]]

Following the October Revolution that overthrew the Russian Republic, the Soviet Union was established by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union began to resemble the old Russian Empire in landmass, with its territory stretching from Eastern Europe to Siberia, and from Northern Europe to Central Asia.

After the death of the first Soviet leader, Vladimir Lenin, in 1924, Joseph Stalin eventually won a power struggle and led the country through a large-scale industrialization with a command economy and political repression. On 23 August 1939, after unsuccessful efforts to form an anti-fascist alliance with Western powers, the Soviets signed the non-aggression agreement with Nazi Germany. After the start of World War II, the formally neutral Soviets invaded and annexed territories of several Central and Eastern European states, including eastern Poland, the Baltic states, northeastern Romania and eastern Finland.

In June 1941 the Germans invaded, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history.{{Cite book |last=Cross |first=Robin |title=The battle of Kursk: Operation Citadel 1943 |date=2002 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0-14-139109-0 |series=Classic military history |location=London; New York}} Soviet war casualties accounted for the majority of Allied casualties of the conflict in the process of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at intense battles such as Stalingrad and Kursk. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin and won World War II in Europe on 9 May 1945. The territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged in 1947, where the Eastern Bloc confronted the Western Bloc, which would unite in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949.

Following Stalin's death in 1953, a period known as de-Stalinization and the Khrushchev Thaw occurred under the leadership of Nikita Khrushchev. The country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took an early lead in the Space Race with the first ever satellite and the first human spaceflight and the first probe to land on another planet, Venus. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, but tensions resumed when the Soviet Union deployed troops in Afghanistan in 1979. The war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters.

In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to further reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost and perestroika. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing economic stagnation. The Cold War ended during his tenure and in 1989, Warsaw Pact countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective Marxist–Leninist regimes. Strong nationalist and separatist movements broke out across the USSR. Gorbachev initiated a referendum—boycotted by the Baltic republics, Armenia, Georgia, and Moldova—which resulted in the majority of participating citizens voting in favor of preserving the Union as a renewed federation. In August 1991, a coup d'état was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a high-profile role in facing down the coup. The main result was the banning of the Communist Party. The republics led by Russia and Ukraine declared independence. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned. All the republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states. The Russian Federation (formerly the Russian SFSR) assumed the Soviet Union's rights and obligations and is recognized as its continued legal personality in world affairs.

The Soviet Union produced many significant social and technological achievements and innovations regarding military power. It boasted the world's second-largest economy and the largest standing military in the world.{{cite web |title=GDP – Million – Flags, Maps, Economy, Geography, Climate, Natural Resources, Current Issues, International Agreements, Population, Social Statistics, Political System |url=http://www.theodora.com/wfb/1990/rankings/gdp_million_1.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612163518/https://www.theodora.com/wfb/1990/rankings/gdp_million_1.html |archive-date=12 June 2018 |access-date=29 August 2018}}Scott and Scott (1979) p. 305{{cite web |title=October 30, 1961 – The Tsar Bomba: CTBTO Preparatory Commission |url=https://www.ctbto.org/specials/testing-times/30-october-1961-the-tsar-bomba |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160319201753/http://ctbto.org/specials/testing-times/30-october-1961-the-tsar-bomba/ |archive-date=19 March 2016 |access-date=29 August 2018}} The USSR was recognized as one of the five nuclear weapons states. It was a founding permanent member of the United Nations Security Council as well as a member of the OSCE, the WFTU and the leading member of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance and the Warsaw Pact.

Before its dissolution, the USSR had maintained its status as a world superpower alongside the United States, for four decades after World War II. Sometimes also called "the Soviet Empire", it exercised its hegemony in Central and Eastern Europe and worldwide with military and economic strength, proxy conflicts and influence in developing countries and funding of scientific research, especially in space technology and weaponry.{{Cite web |date=15 June 1992 |title=The Soviet Union and the United States – Revelations from the Russian Archives {{!}} Exhibitions – Library of Congress |url=https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/archives/sovi.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170915012329/http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/archives/sovi.html |archive-date=15 September 2017 |access-date=12 November 2017 |website=loc.gov}}{{cite book |author1=Wheatcroft, S. G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m-voAAAAIAAJ |title=Soviet Industrialization Reconsidered: Some Preliminary Conclusions about Economic Development between 1926 and 1941 |author2=Davies, R. W. |author3=Cooper, J. M. |publisher=Economic History Review |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-7190-4600-1 |volume=39 |pages=30–2 |issue=2}}

File:American_Empire1.PNG territory at its largest]]

File:Statue_of_Liberty.JPG, a symbol of American culture]]

The United States has exercised and continues to exercise worldwide economic, cultural, and military influence.

Founded in 1776 by thirteen coastal colonies that declared their independence from Great Britain, the United States began its western expansion following the end of the American Revolutionary War and the recognition of U.S. sovereignty in the 1783 Treaty of Paris. The treaty bequeathed to the nascent republic all land between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River, and Americans began migrating there in large numbers at the end of the 18th Century, resulting in the displacement of Native American cultures, often through native peoples' forcible deportation and violent wars of eviction. These efforts at expansion were greatly strengthened by the 1787 Constitutional Convention, which resulted in the ratification of the United States Constitution and transformed the U.S. from a loose confederation of semi-autonomous states into a federal entity with a strong national core. In 1803, the United States acquired Louisiana from France, doubling the country's size and extending its borders to the Rocky Mountains.

American power and population grew rapidly, so that by 1823 President James Monroe felt confident enough to issue his Monroe Doctrine, which warned European powers against further seizure of land in North America. This was the beginning of the U.S.'s emergence as a regional power in North America. That process was confirmed in the Mexican–American War of 1846–1848, in which the United States, invaded Mexico to protect Texas and acquire California. The war included the deployment of U.S. forces into Mexico, the taking of Veracruz by sea, and the occupation of Mexico City by American troops (which finally resulted in Mexico's defeat). In the peace treaty (Treaty of Guadelupe Hidalgo) that followed, the U.S. annexed the northern half of Mexico, comprising what is now the Southwestern United States.{{Cite book |title=The encyclopedia of the Mexican-American War: a political, social, and military history |date=2013 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-853-8 |editor-last=Tucker |editor-first=Spencer |location=Santa Barbara, Calif |editor-last2=Arnold |editor-first2=James R. |editor-last3=Wiener |editor-first3=Roberta |editor-last4=Pierpaoli |editor-first4=Paul G. |editor-last5=Cutrer |editor-first5=Thomas W. |editor-last6=Santoni |editor-first6=Pedro}} During the course of the war, the United States also negotiated by treaty the acquisition of the Oregon Territory's southern half from Great Britain. In 1867, William H. Seward, the U.S. Secretary of State, negotiated the purchase of Alaska from the Russian Empire. President Ulysses Grant was defeated by Congress in his scheme to annex the Dominican Republic. The United States defeated Spain in the Spanish–American War in 1898, and gained the possessions of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines. The independent republic of Hawaii was annexed in 1898. The United States became a major victorious power in both World Wars, and became a major economic power after World War I tired out the European powers.{{Cite web |title=The Impact of the First World War and Its Implications for Europe Today | Heinrich Böll Stiftung | Brussels office – European Union |url=https://eu.boell.org/en/2014/06/02/impact-first-world-war-and-its-implications-europe-today |website=Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung}}

{{Main|Italian Empire}}

File:Italian_Colonial_Empire_(orthographic_projection).svg at some point in time during World War II.

Kingdom of Italy (dark green), Italian colonial empire (light green) and Italian occupied territories (grey).]]

Modern Italy was unified, from a collection of small states, over several decades during the modern era. The Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed in 1861, and the Risorgimento was only truly completed by 1871, with the capture of Rome and its designation as the kingdom's capital city.

The Italian colonial empire was created after Italy joined other European powers in establishing colonies overseas during the "scramble for Africa". By this time, France, Spain, Portugal, Britain, and the Netherlands, had already carved out large empires over several hundred years. One of the last remaining areas open to colonisation was on the African continent.Giuseppe Finaldi, A History of Italian Colonialism, 1860–1907: Europe's Last Empire (Routledge, 2016).Angelo Del Boca, "The myths, suppressions, denials, and defaults of Italian colonialism." in Patrizia Palumbo, ed. A place in the sun: Africa in Italian colonial culture from post-unification to the present (2003): 17–36.

By the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Italy had annexed Eritrea and Somalia, and had wrested control of portions of the Ottoman Empire, including Libya, though it was defeated in its attempt to conquer Ethiopia. The Fascist regime under Italian dictator Benito Mussolini which came to power in 1922 sought to increase the size of the empire further. Ethiopia was successfully taken, four decades after the previous failure, and Italy's European borders were expanded. An official "Italian Empire" was proclaimed on 9 May 1936 following the conquest of Ethiopia.Lowe, p.289 Before the outbreak of World War II, Italy boasted the fifth-largest economy in Europe and the seventh in the world.{{Cite book |last=Levy-Leboyer |first=Maurice |title=Disparities in Economic Development since the Industrial Revolution |date=1981 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |others=Paul Bairoch, Maurice Levy-Leboyerd |isbn=978-1-349-04707-9 |location=London}}

Italy sided with Nazi Germany during World War II, but Britain soon captured Italian overseas colonies. By the time Italy itself was invaded in 1943, its empire had ceased to exist. On 8 September 1943 the Fascist regime of Mussolini collapsed, and a civil war broke out between the Italian Social Republic, supported by Axis forces, and the Italian Resistance Movement, supported by Allied forces.{{clear}}

{{Main|Kingdom of Prussia|German Empire|Nazi Germany}}

File:Kingdom_of_Prussia_1870.svg in Europe at its greatest extent in 1870]]

The Kingdom of Prussia attained its greatest importance in the 18th and 19th centuries, when it conquered various territories previously held by Sweden,{{cite web |title=Second Northern War |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Second-Northern-War |access-date=9 July 2022 |website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}{{cite web |title=Congress of Vienna |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Congress-of-Vienna |access-date=9 July 2022 |website=Encyclopædia Britannica}} Austria, Poland, France, Denmark, and various minor German principalities.{{cite news |title=Prussia |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Prussia |access-date=9 July 2022 |newspaper=Encyclopædia Britannica}} It became a European great power under the reign of Frederick II of Prussia (1740–1786). It dominated Northern Germany politically, economically, and in terms of population, and played a key role in the unification of Germany in 1871.

After the territorial acquisitions of the Congress of Vienna (1815), the Kingdom of Prussia became the only great power with a majority German-speaking population. During the 19th century, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck pursued a policy of uniting the German principalities into a "Lesser Germany" which would exclude the Austrian Empire. Prussia was the core of the North German Confederation formed in 1867, which became part of the German Empire or Deutsches Reich in 1871 when the southern German states, excluding Austria, were added.

File:Reichstag_und_Siegessäule_um_1900.jpg in Berlin, 1900]]

After 1850, the states of Germany had rapidly become industrialized, with particular strengths in coal, iron (and later steel), chemicals, and railways. In 1871, Germany had a population of 41 million people; by 1913, this had increased to 68 million. A heavily rural collection of states in 1815, the now united Germany became predominantly urban.J. H. Clapham, The Economic Development of France and Germany 1815–1914 (1936) The success of German industrialization manifested itself in two ways since the early 20th century: The German factories were larger and more modern than their British and French counterparts.{{Cite web |title=Germany – The economy, 1890–1914 | Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Germany/The-economy-1890-1914 |website=www.britannica.com}} During its 47 years of existence, the German Empire became the industrial, technological, and scientific giant of Europe, and by 1913, Germany was the largest economy in Continental Europe and the third-largest in the world.{{cite book |author=Azar Gat |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S6gSDAAAQBAJ |title=War in Human Civilization |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-19-923663-3 |page=517}} Germany built up the longest railway network of Europe, the world's strongest army,Alfred Vagts, "Land and Sea Power in the Second German Reich." The Journal of Military History 3.4 (1939): 210+ {{JSTOR|3038611}} and a fast-growing industrial base.Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000 (1987) Starting very small in 1871, in a few decades, the navy became second only to Britain's Royal Navy, as Germany planned to match it. After the removal of Otto von Bismarck by Wilhelm II in 1890, the empire embarked on Weltpolitik – a bellicose new course that ultimately contributed to the outbreak of World War I.

File:German_colonial.PNG colonies in 1914]]

Wilhelm II wanted Germany to have her "place in the sun", like Britain, which he constantly wished to emulate or rival.{{cite web |title=Wilhelm II (1859–1941) |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/wilhelm_kaiser_ii.shtml |access-date=19 April 2014 |publisher=BBC}} With German traders and merchants already active worldwide, he encouraged colonial efforts in Africa and the Pacific ("new imperialism"), causing the German Empire to vie with other European powers for remaining "unclaimed" territories. With the encouragement or at least the acquiescence of Britain, which at this stage saw Germany as a counterweight to her old rival France, Germany acquired German Southwest Africa (modern Namibia), German Kamerun (modern Cameroon), Togoland (modern Togo) and German East Africa (modern Rwanda, Burundi, and the mainland part of current Tanzania). Islands were gained in the Pacific through purchase and treaties and also a 99-year lease for the territory of Kiautschou in northeast China. But of these German colonies, only Togoland and German Samoa (after 1908) became self-sufficient and profitable; all others required subsidies from the Berlin treasury for building infrastructure, school systems, hospitals and other institutions.

After World War I broke out, Germany participated in the war as a part of the Central Powers. At its height, Germany occupied Belgium and parts of France, and also acquired Ukraine and the Baltic States in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. After its defeat, the German Empire collapsed and, in the Treaty of Versailles, had to cede some of its territories and all of its overseas territories to Britain and France, as well as giving up most of its military.{{sfn|Truitt|2010|p=114}}Articles 33 and 34{{sfn|Reinach|1920|p=193}}Articles 45 and 49Section V preamble and Article 51Articles 81 and 83Article 88 and annexArticle 94{{sfn|Ingrao|Szabo|2007|p=261}}Article 99Articles 100–104

File:Greater_German_Reich_(1942).svg

Germany rose back to be a great power in 1933, when Nazi Germany replaced the Weimar Republic as the new government of Germany. The most pressing economic matter the Nazis initially faced was the 30 per cent national unemployment rate.{{sfn|DeLong|1997}} Economist Dr. Hjalmar Schacht, President of the Reichsbank and Minister of Economics, created a scheme for deficit financing in May 1933. Capital projects were paid for with the issuance of promissory notes called Mefo bills. When the notes were presented for payment, the Reichsbank printed money. Hitler and his economic team expected that the upcoming territorial expansion would provide the means of repaying the soaring national debt.{{sfn|Evans|2005|p=345}} Schacht's administration achieved a rapid decline in the unemployment rate, the largest of any country during the Great Depression.{{sfn|DeLong|1997}} Economic recovery was uneven, with reduced hours of work and erratic availability of necessities, leading to disenchantment with the regime as early as 1934.{{sfn|Tooze|2006|p=97}}

In October 1933, the Junkers Aircraft Works was expropriated. In concert with other aircraft manufacturers and under the direction of Aviation Minister Göring, production was ramped up. From a workforce of 3,200 people producing 100 units per year in 1932, the industry grew to employ a quarter of a million workers manufacturing over 10,000 technically advanced aircraft annually less than ten years later.{{sfn|Tooze|2006|pp=125–127}}

An elaborate bureaucracy was created to regulate imports of raw materials and finished goods with the intention of eliminating foreign competition in the German marketplace and improving the nation's balance of payments. The Nazis encouraged the development of synthetic replacements for materials such as oil and textiles.{{sfn|Tooze|2006|p=131}} As the market was experiencing a glut and prices for petroleum were low, in 1933 the Nazi government made a profit-sharing agreement with IG Farben, guaranteeing them a 5 per cent return on capital invested in their synthetic oil plant at Leuna. Any profits in excess of that amount would be turned over to the Reich. By 1936, Farben regretted making the deal, as excess profits were by then being generated.{{sfn|Tooze|2006|pp=106, 117–118}} In another attempt to secure an adequate wartime supply of petroleum, Germany intimidated Romania into signing a trade agreement in March 1939.{{sfn|Tooze|2006|pp=308–309}}

Major public works projects financed with deficit spending included the construction of a network of Autobahnen and providing funding for programmes initiated by the previous government for housing and agricultural improvements.{{sfn|Evans|2005|pp=322–326, 329}} To stimulate the construction industry, credit was offered to private businesses and subsidies were made available for home purchases and repairs.{{sfn|Evans|2005|p=320}} On the condition that the wife would leave the workforce, a loan of up to 1,000 Reichsmarks could be accessed by young couples of Aryan descent who intended to marry, and the amount that had to be repaid was reduced by 25 per cent for each child born.{{sfn|Evans|2005|pp=330–331}} The caveat that the woman had to remain unemployed outside the home was dropped by 1937 due to a shortage of skilled labourers.{{sfn|Evans|2005|p=166}}

Envisioning widespread car ownership as part of the new Germany, Hitler arranged for designer Ferdinand Porsche to draw up plans for the KdF-wagen (Strength Through Joy car), intended to be an automobile that everyone could afford. A prototype was displayed at the International Motor Show in Berlin on 17 February 1939. With the outbreak of World War II, the factory was converted to produce military vehicles. None were sold until after the war, when the vehicle was renamed the Volkswagen (people's car).{{sfn|Evans|2005|pp=327–328, 338}}

File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101III-Reprich-012-08,_Wolfschanze,_Hitler,_Ley,_Porsche_und_Göring.jpg, head of the German Labour Front; Ferdinand Porsche, armaments manufacturer; and Hermann Göring, head of the Four Year Plan (1942)]]

Six million people were unemployed when the Nazis took power in 1933 and by 1937 there were fewer than a million.{{sfn|Evans|2005|pp=328, 333}} This was in part due to the removal of women from the workforce.{{sfn|Evans|2005|p=331}} Real wages dropped by 25 per cent between 1933 and 1938.{{sfn|DeLong|1997}} After the dissolution of the trade unions in May 1933, their funds were seized and their leadership arrested,{{sfn|Kershaw|2008|p=289}} including those who attempted to co-operate with the Nazis.{{sfn|Shirer|1960|p=202}} A new organisation, the German Labour Front, was created and placed under Nazi Party functionary Robert Ley.{{sfn|Kershaw|2008|p=289}} The average work week was 43 hours in 1933; by 1939 this increased to 47 hours.{{sfn|McNab|2009|pp=54, 71}}

By early 1934, the focus shifted towards rearmament. By 1935, military expenditures accounted for 73 per cent of the government's purchases of goods and services.{{sfn|Tooze|2006|pp=61–62}} On 18 October 1936, Hitler named Göring as Plenipotentiary of the Four Year Plan, intended to speed up rearmament.{{sfn|Evans|2005|pp=357–360}} In addition to calling for the rapid construction of steel mills, synthetic rubber plants, and other factories, Göring instituted wage and price controls and restricted the issuance of stock dividends.{{sfn|DeLong|1997}} Large expenditures were made on rearmament in spite of growing deficits.{{sfn|Evans|2005|p=360}} Plans unveiled in late 1938 for massive increases to the navy and air force were impossible to fulfil, as Germany lacked the finances and material resources to build the planned units, as well as the necessary fuel required to keep them running.{{sfn|Tooze|2006|p=294}} With the introduction of compulsory military service in 1935, the Reichswehr, which had been limited to 100,000 by the terms of the Versailles Treaty, expanded to 750,000 on active service at the start of World War II, with a million more in the reserve.{{sfn|Evans|2005|pp=141–142}} By January 1939, unemployment was down to 301,800 and it dropped to only 77,500 by September.{{sfn|McNab|2009|p=59}}

After triumphing in economic success, the Nazis started a hostile foreign expansion policy. They first sent troops to occupy the demilitarized Rhineland in 1936, then annexed Austria and Sudetenland of Czechoslovakia in 1938. In 1939, they further annexed the Czech part of Czechoslovakia and founded the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, and annexed the Lithuanian port city of Klaipėda. The Slovak part of Czechoslovakia declared independence under German support and the Slovak Republic was established.

World War II broke out in 1939, when Germany invaded Poland with the Soviet Union. After occupying Poland, Germany started the conquest of Europe, and occupied Belgium, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Denmark, Norway, France and the British Channel Islands in 1940, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Greece and Yugoslavia in 1941, Italy, Albania, Montenegro and Monaco in 1943, and Hungary in 1944. The French government continued to operate after the defeat, but was actually a client state of Germany.

Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941, but was forced to retreat following a number of Allied victories. This marks the start of the collapse of the German Reich. On 8 May 1945, Nazi Germany surrendered to the Allies and the regime was dissolved shortly thereafter.

{{Main|Austrian Empire|Austria-Hungary}}

The Habsburg Empire became one of the key powers in Europe after the Napoleonic Wars, with a sphere of influence stretching over Central Europe, Germany, and Italy. During the second half of the 19th century, the Habsburgs could not prevent the unification of Italy and Germany. Eventually, the complex internal power struggle resulted in the establishment of a so-called dual monarchy between Austria and Hungary. Austria-Hungary maintained a strong economy, and its vast population gave it the industry and manpower to compete against other European powers.{{Cite book |last1=Good |first1=David F. |title=Der wirtschaftliche Aufstieg des Habsburgerreiches 1750 – 1914 |last2=Good |first2=David F. |last3=Good |first3=David F. |date=1986 |publisher=Böhlau |isbn=978-3-205-06390-2 |series=Forschungen zur Geschichte des Donauraumes |location=Wien Köln Graz |translator-last=Streissler |translator-first=Monika}}

Following the defeat and dissolution of the monarchy after the First World War, both Austria and Hungary became independent and self-governing countries (First Austrian Republic, Kingdom of Hungary). Other political entities emerged from the destruction of the Great War including Poland, Czechoslovakia, and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes.

{{Main|Empire of Japan}}

File:Japanese_Empire_(orthographic_projection).svg in 1942. The empire until 1905 is in dark green, acquisitions until 1930 are in lighter green, and occupied/conceded territories are in the lightest green.]]

The Empire of Japan, officially the Empire of Great Japan or simply Great Japan (Dai Nippon), was an empire that existed from the Meiji Restoration on 3 January 1868 to the enactment of the post-World War II Constitution of Japan on 3 May 1947.

Imperial Japan's rapid industrialization and militarization under the slogan Fukoku kyōhei (富国強兵, "Enrich the Country, Strengthen the Army") led to its emergence as a great power, eventually culminating in its shock victory in the Russo-Japanese War, the first time an Asian country had soundly defeated a relatively modern European great power. This resulted in a further rise of nationalism in Japan, and its recognition by other nations as a rising power.{{Cite book |title=The Russo-Japanese war in global perspective: World War Zero. Volume 2 |date=2007 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-14284-8 |editor-last=Steinberg |editor-first=John W. |series=History of warfare 1385-7827 |location=Leiden Boston |editor-last2=Wolf |editor-first2=David}}

In August 1914, former President of the United States William Howard Taft listed Japan and his country as the only two great powers uninvolved in World War I.{{Cite magazine |last=Taft |first=William Howard |date=10 August 1914 |title=A Message to the People of the United States |url=https://archive.org/details/independen79v80newy/page/n203/mode/1up?view=theater |access-date=17 May 2022 |magazine=The Independent |pages=198–199}} After its military victories against China (First Sino-Japanese War, and the later invasion of Manchuria) and Russia, the Japanese Empire was considered to be one of the major powers worldwide.

Its eventual membership in the Axis alliance, and the conquest of a large part of the Asia-Pacific region, allowed Japan to control much-needed resources for its further development. The maximum extent of the empire was gained during the Second World War, when Japan conquered many Asian and Pacific countries (see Greater East Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere). At the height of its power in 1942, the Japanese Empire ruled over a geographic area spanning {{convert|{{#expr:7400000}}|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sigfig=5}} to {{convert|{{#expr:8508100}}|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sigfig=5}}.{{Cite book |last=James |first=David H. |title=The rise and fall of the Japanese Empire |date=2011 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-92546-7 |series=Routledge library editions : Japan |location=Oxon [England]}} This made it the 12th or 11th largest empire in history.{{Cite journal |last=Conrad |first=Sebastian |date=2014 |title=The Dialectics of Remembrance: Memories of Empire in Cold War Japan |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/199424523.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History |volume=56 |issue=1 |pages=8 |doi=10.1017/S0010417513000601 |issn=0010-4175 |jstor=43908281 |s2cid=146284542 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200708000924/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/199424523.pdf |archive-date=8 July 2020 |access-date=7 July 2020 |quote=In 1942, at the moment of its greatest extension, the empire encompassed territories spanning over 7,400,000 square kilometers.}}

After suffering many defeats and the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, however, the Empire of Japan surrendered to the Allies on 2 September 1945. A period of occupation by the Allies followed the surrender, and a new constitution was created with American involvement. The constitution came into force on 3 May 1947, officially dissolving the Empire. American occupation and reconstruction of the country continued well into the 1950s, eventually forming the current nation-state whose title is simply that ("the nation of Japan" Nippon-koku) or just "Japan".

{{Further|Contemporary history}}

The French Republic is considered to be a great power.{{cite book |url=http://www.hcss.nl/reports/download/150/2483/ |title=Why are Pivot States so Pivotal? The Role of Pivot States in Regional and Global Security |date=2014 |publisher=The Hague Centre for Strategic Studies |location=Netherlands |page=Table on page 10 (Great Power criteria) |access-date=14 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161011200310/http://www.hcss.nl/reports/download/150/2483/ |archive-date=11 October 2016 |url-status=dead}}{{Cite book |last=Farrell |first=Theo |title=Transforming Military Power – Since the Cold War: Britain, France, and the United States, 1991–2012 |date=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |others=Sten Rynning, Terry Terriff |isbn=978-1-107-36014-3 |edition=1st |location=West Nyack |pages=}}{{cite book |last1=Sterio |first1=Milena |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-QuI6n_OVMYC |title=The right to self-determination under international law: "selfistans", secession and the rule of the great powers |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0415668187 |location=Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon |page=xii (preface)}} ("The great powers are super-sovereign states: an exclusive club of the most powerful states economically, militarily, politically and strategically. These states include veto-wielding members of the United Nations Security Council (United States, United Kingdom, France, China, and Russia), as well as economic powerhouses such as Germany, Italy and Japan."){{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nTKBdY5HBeUC |title=Canada Among Nations, 2004: Setting Priorities Straight |date=17 January 2005 |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP |isbn=0773528369 |page=85}} ("The United States is the sole world's superpower. France, Italy, Germany and the United Kingdom are great powers")Yasmi Adriansyah, 'Questioning Indonesia's place in the world', Asia Times (20 September 2011): 'Though there are still debates on which countries belong to which category, there is a common understanding that the GP [great power] countries are the United States, China, United Kingdom, France, and Russia. Besides their political and economic dominance of the global arena, these countries have a special status in the United Nations Security Council with their permanent seats and veto rights.'{{Cite news |last=Kuper |first=Stephen |title=Clarifying the nation's role strengthens the impact of a National Security Strategy 2019 |url=https://www.defenceconnect.com.au/key-enablers |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211210044814/https://www.defenceconnect.com.au/key-enablers |archive-date=10 December 2021 |access-date=22 January 2020 |language=en |quote=Traditionally, great powers have been defined by their global reach and ability to direct the flow of international affairs. There are a number of recognised great powers within the context of contemporary international relations – with Great Britain, France, India and Russia recognised as nuclear-capable great powers, while Germany, Italy and Japan are identified as conventional great powers}}{{Cite book |last1=T.V. Paul |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9jy28vBqscQC&dq="Great+power"&pg=PA59 |title=Balance of Power |last2=James J. Wirtz |last3=Michel Fortmann |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7914-6401-4 |pages=59, 282}} Accordingly, the great powers after the Cold War are Britain, China, France, Germany, Japan, Russia and the United States p. 59{{Cite book |last=Carter |first=Keith Lambert |url=https://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5238&context=edissertations&fbclid=IwAR0Ofqcv143TtWLhAAuN_hPILXgBvvk3In3aQ6_Zy6N7HWCFeJ-iopDeJg8 |title=Great Power, Arms, And Alliances |date=2019 |language=en |quote= U.S., Russia, China, France, Germany, U.K. and Italy – Table on page 56,72 (Major powers-great power criteria) |access-date=25 January 2021}} France retains its centuries-long status as a global centre of art, science and philosophy. It hosts the fourth-largest number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites{{Citation |last=Tullio |first=Scovazzi |title=World Heritage Committee and World Heritage List |date=2023-10-06 |work=The 1972 World Heritage Convention |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/law/9780198877448.003.0009 |access-date=2024-12-27 |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/law/9780198877448.003.0009 |isbn=978-0-19-887744-8}} and is the world's most visited tourist destination, having received over 100 million foreign visitors in 2023.{{cite web |date=May 2024 |title=World Tourism Barometer |url=https://pre-webunwto.s3.eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/2024-06/Barom_PPT_May_2024.pdf?VersionId=U7O62HatlG4eNAj.wcmuQG1PMCjK.Yss |access-date=5 July 2024 |publisher=World Tourism Organization |language=en |page=19}} France is a cultural superpower, consistently ranked among the most powerful nations in soft power,{{cite web |date=2021 |title=Cultural Influence rankings |url=https://www.usnews.com/news/best-countries/influence-rankings |access-date=24 May 2021 |publisher=USnews}}{{Cite web |date=15 August 2023 |title=World Soft Power Index 2023 |url=https://archive.org/details/issf-wspi-2023-final |access-date=31 October 2023}} if not the most powerful of all.{{Cite web |title=Soft Power 30 |url=https://softpower30.com/ |access-date=2024-12-27 |website=Soft Power |language=en-GB}} France is a developed country with the world's seventh-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by PPP;{{Cite web |title=GDP, current prices |url=https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/NGDPD@WEO/OEMDC/ADVEC/WEOWORLD |access-date=2024-12-27 |website=www.imf.org}} in terms of aggregate household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world.{{cite web |date=October 2010 |title=Global Wealth Report |url=http://piketty.pse.ens.fr/fichiers/enseig/ecoineg/EcoIneg_fichiers/DaviesShorrocks2010(CSGlobalWealthReport).pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109055804/http://piketty.pse.ens.fr/fichiers/enseig/ecoineg/EcoIneg_fichiers/DaviesShorrocks2010%28CSGlobalWealthReport%29.pdf |archive-date=9 November 2014 |access-date=27 October 2014 |publisher=Credit Suisse |quote="In euro and USD terms, the total wealth of French households is very sizeable. Although it has just 1% of the world's adults, France ranks fourth among nations in aggregate household wealth – behind China and just ahead of Germany. Europe as a whole accounts for 35% of the individuals in the global top 1%, but France itself contributes a quarter of the European contingent.}} France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, human development, and global innovation.{{cite web |date=8 December 2010 |title=World Health Organization Assesses the World's Health Systems |url=https://www.who.int/whr/2000/media_centre/press_release/en/ |access-date=16 July 2011 |publisher=World Health Organization}}{{cite web |title=World Population Prospects – The 2006 Revision |url=https://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2006/WPP2006_Highlights_rev.pdf |access-date=27 April 2010 |publisher=United Nations}}{{Cite web |last=WIPO |title=Global Innovation Index 2024, 17th Edition |url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2024/en/ |access-date=2024-10-01 |website=www.wipo.int |language=en}} It remains a major influence on global affairs,Jack S. Levy, War in the Modern Great Power System, 1495–1975, (2014) p. 29{{Cite book |last=Aldrich |first=Robert |title=France in World Politics |date=2024 |publisher=Taylor & Francis Group |others=John Connell |isbn=978-1-032-84176-2 |edition=1st |series=Routledge Revivals Series |location=Oxford}} being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council and an official nuclear-weapon state.[https://sipri.org/sites/default/files/SIPRIYB20c10s0.pdf "Table 10.1. World nuclear forces, January 2020"], page 326, Chapter 10: "World nuclear forces", Military Spending and Armaments, 2019, Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), retrieved March 18, 2023 France is a founding and leading member of the European Union and the eurozone,{{cite web |title=Europa Official Site – France |url=http://europa.eu/about-eu/countries/member-countries/france/index_en.htm |access-date=28 October 2014 |publisher=EU}} as well as a key member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and La Francophonie.

France's metropolitan area extends from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean, and from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea; overseas territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the North Atlantic, the French West Indies, and several islands in Oceania and the Indian Ocean. It is also a transcontinental country spanning Western Europe and overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans.French Guiana is in South America; Guadeloupe and Martinique are in the Caribbean Sea; and Réunion and Mayotte are in the Indian Ocean, off the coast of Africa. All five are considered integral parts of the French Republic. France also comprises Saint Pierre and Miquelon in North America; Saint Barthélemy and Saint Martin in the Caribbean; French Polynesia, New Caledonia, Wallis and Futuna and Clipperton Island in the Pacific Ocean; and the French Southern and Antarctic Lands. Including all of its territories, France has twelve time zones, the most of any country, ironically being today the only country where the sun never truly sets,{{Cite web |date=2015-11-15 |title=True Map of France: Republic On Which The Sun Never Sets – Brilliant Maps |url=https://brilliantmaps.com/france/ |access-date=2024-12-27 |language=en-US}} a title formerly attributed to its old rival, Britain, and its empire. Due to its several coastal territories, France has the largest exclusive economic zone in the world, or the second-largest discounting its claim to a part of Antarctica. France borders Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany, Switzerland, Monaco, Italy, Andorra and Spain in Europe, as well as the Netherlands, Suriname and Brazil in the Americas. Its eighteen integral regions (five of which are overseas) span a combined area of {{cvt|643801|km2}} and over 68 million people ({{as of|2024|December|lc=y}}), making it the largest and second-most populous country in the European Union.{{cite web |title=Field Listing :: Area |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2147.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140131115000/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2147.html |archive-date=31 January 2014 |access-date=1 November 2015 |website=The World Factbook |publisher=CIA}} {{PD-notice}}

France has a developed, high-income mixed economy, characterised by sizeable government involvement, economic diversity, a skilled labour force, and high innovation. For roughly five centuries and more, the French economy has consistently ranked among the ten largest globally.{{Cite book |date=2001-06-11 |title=The World Economy |url=https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/the-world-economy_9789264189980-en.html |access-date=2024-12-27 |via=OECD |series=Development Centre Studies |language=en |doi=10.1787/9789264189980-en|isbn=978-92-64-18608-8 }} France is considered an economic power,{{Cite book |last=Lynch |first=Frances M. B. |title=The French economy |date=2021 |publisher=Agenda Publishing |isbn=978-1-78821-166-6 |series=World economies |location=Newcastle upon Tyne}} with membership in the Group of Seven, the Group of Ten, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (headquartered in Paris), and the Group of Twenty.

France's economy is highly diversified; services represent two-thirds of both the workforce and GDP,[https://www.eulerhermes.com/en_global/economic-research/country-reports/France.html Country profile: France], Euler Hermes while the industrial sector accounts for a fifth of GDP and a similar proportion of employment. France is the third-biggest manufacturing country in Europe, behind Germany and Italy, and ranks eighth in the world by share of global manufacturing output, at 1.9 percent.{{Cite web |date=25 February 2020 |title=These are the top 10 manufacturing countries in the world |url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/02/countries-manufacturing-trade-exports-economics/ |access-date=10 February 2022 |website=World Economic Forum |language=en}} Less than 2 percent of GDP is generated by the primary sector, namely agriculture;[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/france/ Country profil: France], CIA World factbook however, France's agricultural sector is among the largest in value and leads the EU in overall production.[https://import-export.societegenerale.fr/en/country/france/market-sectors France: the market] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210219011017/https://import-export.societegenerale.fr/en/country/france/market-sectors|date=19 February 2021}}, Société Générale (latest Update: September 2020)

In 2018, France was the fifth-largest trading nation in the world and the second-largest in Europe, with the value of exports representing over a fifth of GDP.[https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/statis_e/wts2019_e/wts2019_e.pdf World Trade Statistical Review 2019], World Trade Organization, p. 11 Its membership in the eurozone and the broader European Single Market facilitate access to capital, goods, services, and skilled labour.{{Cite news |last=Andrews |first=Edmund L. |date=1 January 2002 |title=Germans Say Goodbye to the Mark, a Symbol of Strength and Unity |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/01/01/world/germans-say-goodbye-to-the-mark-a-symbol-of-strength-and-unity.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501031330/http://www.nytimes.com/2002/01/01/world/germans-say-goodbye-to-the-mark-a-symbol-of-strength-and-unity.html |archive-date=1 May 2011 |work=The New York Times}} Despite protectionist policies over certain industries, particularly in agriculture, France has generally played a leading role in fostering free trade and commercial integration in Europe in order to enhance its economy.{{Cite web |title=France – Finance |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/France |access-date=28 August 2021 |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |language=en}}{{cite news |last=Taylor Martin |first=Susan |date=28 December 1998 |title=On Jan. 1, out of many arises one Euro |newspaper=The St. Petersburg Times |page=National, 1.A}} In 2019, it ranked first in Europe and 13th in the world in foreign direct investment, with European countries and the United States being leading sources.[https://www.ey.com/en_gl/attractiveness/20/how-can-europe-reset-the-investment-agenda-now-to-rebuild-its-future How can Europe reset the investment agenda now to rebuild its future?], EY, 28 May 2020 Similarly, France is ranked 6th on the FDI Confidence Index.{{Cite web |title=The 2024 Kearney Foreign Direct Investment Confidence Index®: Continued optimism in the face of instability |url=https://www.kearney.com/service/global-business-policy-council/foreign-direct-investment-confidence-index |access-date=2024-12-27 |website=Kearney |language=en}} The Paris region has the highest concentration of multinational firms in Europe.{{Cite web |title=Foreign direct investment (FDI) in France – Investing – International Trade Portal International Trade Portal |url=https://www.lloydsbanktrade.com/en/market-potential/france/investment |access-date=28 August 2021 |website=lloydsbanktrade.com}}

With 27 companies that are part of the world's biggest 500 companies, France was in 2024 the second-most represented European country in the 2024 Fortune Global 500, behind Germany (29 companies) and ahead of the UK (22).{{Cite web |title=Fortune Global 500 |url=https://fortune.com/ranking/global500/2024/ |access-date=2024-12-28 |website=Fortune |language=en}} In addition, some companies such as Airbus, while not listed as French, have their operational headquarters set in France. As of December 2024, France was also the country that weighed the most on the eurozone's EURO STOXX 50 (representing 41.8% of all total assets), ahead of Germany (26.5%), controlling six of the top ten companies in the list.[https://www.stoxx.com/document/Bookmarks/CurrentFactsheets/SX5GT.pdf EURO STOXX 50], 27 December 2024

Several French corporations rank amongst the largest in their industries{{Cite web |title=Top companies by sectors – GlobalData |url=https://www.globaldata.com/companies/top-companies-by-sectors/ |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20240523184610/https://www.globaldata.com/companies/top-companies-by-sectors/ |archive-date=2024-05-23 |access-date=2024-12-27 |website=www.globaldata.com |language=en-us}} such as AXA in insurance, the world's second-largest insurance company by total nonbanking assets in 2020{{Cite web |title=World's Largest Insurers — 2022 Edition: China Insurers, US Health Writers Show Gains in AM Best's Ranking |url=https://news.ambest.com/articlecontent.aspx?refnum=316701 |access-date=2022-02-10 |website=news.ambest.com}}[http://www.ambest.com/review/displaychart.aspx?Record_Code=274407 World's largest insurers – Total non banking assets, 2019], AM Best, 2019 and Air France in air transportation.{{cite magazine |date=May 2015 |title=Global 2000 Leading Companies |url=https://www.forbes.com/global2000/list/#header:revenue_sortreverse:true_industry:Airline |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110423003358/http://www.forbes.com/global2000/list#header:revenue_sortreverse:true_industry:Airline |archive-date=23 April 2011 |magazine=Forbes}} Luxury and consumer good are particularly relevant, with L'Oreal being the world's largest cosmetic company while LVMH and Kering are the world's two largest luxury product companies. In energy and utilities, GDF-Suez and EDF are amongst the largest energy companies in the world, and Areva, now Framatome, is a large nuclear-energy company; Veolia Environnement is the world's largest environmental services and water management company; Vinci SA, Bouygues and Eiffage are large construction companies, with Vinci having the highest market capitalization of all construction companies;{{Cite web |title=Largest construction companies by market cap |url=https://companiesmarketcap.com/construction/largest-construction-companies-by-market-cap/ |access-date=2024-12-27 |website=companiesmarketcap.com |language=en-US}} Michelin ranks in the top 3 tire manufacturers; JCDecaux is the world's largest outdoor advertising corporation; BNP Paribas, Credit Agricole and Société Générale rank amongst the largest in the world by assets; Capgemini and Atos are among the largest technology consulting companies; Carrefour is the world's second-largest retail group in terms of revenue; Total is the world's fourth-largest private oil company; Danone is the world's fifth-largest food company and the world's largest supplier of mineral water; Sanofi is the world's fifth-largest pharmaceutical company; Publicis is the world's third-largest advertising company; Groupe PSA, now Stellantis, is the world's 4th and Europe's second-largest automaker; Accor is the leading European hotel group; Alstom is one of the world's leading conglomerates in rail transport.

Under the doctrine of Dirigisme, the government historically played a major role in the economy; policies such as indicative planning and nationalisation are credited for contributing to three decades of unprecedented postwar economic growth known as Trente Glorieuses.{{Cite web |title=France – Economy |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/France |access-date=28 August 2021 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en}} Policies aimed at promoting economic dynamism and privatisation have improved France's economic standing globally: it is among the world's 10 most innovative countries in the 2020 Bloomberg Innovation Index,[https://www.businessinsider.com/these-are-the-10-most-innovative-countries-bloomberg-says-2020-1?IR=T These are the world's most innovative countries], Business Insider and the 15th most competitive, according to the 2019 Global Competitiveness Report (up two places from 2018).{{Cite web |title=The Global Competitiveness Report 2019 |url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_TheGlobalCompetitivenessReport2019.pdf}}

Financial services, banking, and insurance are important parts of the French economy. As of 2011, the three largest financial institutions cooperatively owned by their customers were French: Crédit Agricole, Groupe Caisse D'Epargne, and Groupe Caisse D'Epargne.{{cite web |last1=Gould |first1=Charles |title=Global300 Report 2010, International Co-operative Alliance. The world's major co-operatives and mutual businesses |url=https://www.ica.coop/sites/default/files/basic-page-attachments/global300-report-2011-1757377405.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813153010/https://www.ica.coop/sites/default/files/basic-page-attachments/global300-report-2011-1757377405.pdf |archive-date=13 August 2021 |access-date=29 November 2018 |website=ica.coop}} According to a 2020 report and a 2024 report by S&P, France's leading banks, BNP Paribas and Crédit Agricole, are among the top world's 10 largest bank by assets, with Société Générale and Groupe BPCE ranking near the top 20 globally, and Crédit Mutuel in the top 30.{{cite web |last=Ali |first=Zarmina |date=7 April 2020 |title=The world's 100 largest banks |url=https://www.spglobal.com/marketintelligence/en/news-insights/latest-news-headlines/the-world-s-100-largest-banks-2020-57854079 |access-date=23 June 2020 |publisher=Standard & Poor}}{{cite web |last1=Jimenea |first1=Adrian |last2=Wu |first2=John |last3=Terris |first3=Harry |date=30 April 2024 |title=The world's largest banks by assets, 2024 |url=https://www.spglobal.com/marketintelligence/en/news-insights/research/the-worlds-largest-banks-by-assets-2024 |access-date=8 May 2024 |website=spglobal.com |publisher=S&P Global Market Intelligence}}

The Paris stock exchange merged with counterparts in Amsterdam and Brussels in 2000 to form Euronext,{{cite web |author=Embassy of France |title=Embassy of France in Washington: Economy of France |url=http://www.ambafrance-us.org/spip.php?article511 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111009235442/http://ambafrance-us.org/spip.php?article511 |archive-date=9 October 2011 |access-date=16 July 2011 |publisher=Ambafrance-us.org}} which in 2007 merged with the New York stock exchange to form NYSE Euronext, the world's largest stock exchange. Euronext Paris, the French branch of Euronext, is Europe's second-largest stock exchange market, behind the London Stock Exchange.{{cite web |title=Euronext Paris |url=https://sseinitiative.org/stock-exchange/euronext-paris/ |access-date=14 April 2022 |publisher=Sustainable Stock Exchanges Initiative}}

According to the IMF, France ranks 22nd in GDP per capita, with roughly $48,000 per inhabitant.{{Cite web |title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2024/October/weo-report?c=512,914,612,171,614,311,213,911,314,193,122,912,313,419,513,316,913,124,339,638,514,218,963,616,223,516,918,748,618,624,522,622,156,626,628,228,924,233,632,636,634,238,662,960,423,935,128,611,321,243,248,469,253,642,643,939,734,644,819,172,132,646,648,915,134,652,174,328,258,656,654,336,263,268,532,944,176,534,536,429,433,178,436,136,343,158,439,916,664,826,542,967,443,917,544,941,446,666,668,672,946,137,546,674,676,548,556,678,181,867,682,684,273,868,921,948,943,686,688,518,728,836,558,138,196,278,692,694,962,142,449,564,565,283,853,288,293,566,964,182,359,453,968,922,714,862,135,716,456,722,942,718,724,576,936,961,813,726,199,733,184,524,361,362,364,732,366,144,146,463,528,923,738,578,537,742,866,369,744,186,925,869,746,926,466,112,111,298,927,846,299,582,487,474,754,698,&s=NGDPDPC,&sy=2022&ey=2029&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |access-date=2024-12-27 |website=IMF |language=en}} It placed 28th in the Human Development Index, indicating very high and rising human development.{{Cite report |url=https://hdr.undp.org/content/human-development-report-2023-24 |title=Human Development Report 2023-24 |last=Nations |first=United |date=2024-03-13 |publisher=United Nations |language=en}} Public corruption is among the lowest in the world, with France consistently ranking among the 30 least corrupt countries since the Corruption Perceptions Index began in 2012; it placed 21st in 2021, 2022 and 2023.{{Cite web |date=2024-01-30 |title=2023 Corruption Perceptions Index: Explore the results |url=https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2023 |access-date=2024-12-27 |website=Transparency.org |language=en}} France is Europe's second-largest spender in research and development, at over 2 percent of GDP; globally, it ranks 12th.[http://uis.unesco.org/apps/visualisations/research-and-development-spending/ How does your country invest in R&D ?], UNESCO Institute for Statistics (retrieved on 27 September 2020)

France is also the second largest contributor to the European Space Agency after Germany,{{cite web |date=28 November 2019 |title=Germany invests 3.3 billion euro in European space exploration and becomes ESA's largest contributor |url=https://www.dlr.de/content/en/articles/news/2019/04/20191128_esa-ministerial-2019.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210620152742/https://www.dlr.de/content/en/articles/news/2019/04/20191128_esa-ministerial-2019.html |archive-date=20 June 2021 |access-date=17 May 2020 |publisher=German Aerospace Centre}} and is its de facto leader: France maintains and shares a fully-functioning space program with the European Union, the third-oldest in the world; the CNES, the French space agency, controls the Guiana Space Center, from where the ESA launches its missions. Kourou counts among the launch centers with the highest rates of successful launches in the world, with Ariane 5 achieving a 95.5% success rate over its history.{{Cite web |last=Johnston |first=Scott Alan |date=2022-01-23 |title=With Webb Safely Launched, Focus Shifts to the Ariane 6 |url=https://www.universetoday.com/154155/with-webb-safely-launched-focus-shifts-to-the-ariane-6/ |access-date=2024-12-27 |website=Universe Today |language=en-US}}

Paris is a leading global city, has the largest GDP of any city and Europe, and one of the largest in the world.[https://www.iied.org/global-geography-world-cities The global geography of world cities], iied, 9 July 2020 It ranks as the first city in Europe (and 3rd worldwide) by the number of companies classified in Fortune's Fortune Global 500.[https://parisladefense.com/en/choisir-paris-la-defense 10 reasons to move to Paris La Défense], Official website of Paris La Défense Paris produced US$984 billion at market exchange rates in 2021{{Cite web |title=Global Wealth PPP Distribution: Who Are The Leaders Of The Global Economy? – Full Size |url=https://www.visualcapitalist.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/Global-Wealth-PPP-Distribution.html |access-date=2021-10-21 |website=www.visualcapitalist.com}} while the economy of the Paris metropolitan area — the largest in Europe with London — generates around $1.0 trillion. Paris has been ranked as the 2nd most attractive global city in the world in 2019 by KPMG.[https://gp-investment-agency.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/GlobalCitiesInvestmentMonitor2019web-compressed.pdf Global Cities Investment Monitor 2019], KPMG, 2019 La Défense, Paris's Central Business District, was ranked by Ernst & Young in 2017 as the leading business district in continental Europe, and fourth in the world.[https://www.ey.com/Publication/vwLUAssets/ey-the-attractiveness-of-world-class-business-districts/$FILE/ey-the-attractiveness-of-world-class-business-districts.pdf The attractiveness of world-class business districts: Paris La Défense vs. its global competitors] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200718045821/https://www.ey.com/Publication/vwLUAssets/ey-the-attractiveness-of-world-class-business-districts/$FILE/ey-the-attractiveness-of-world-class-business-districts.pdf|date=18 July 2020}}, EY, November 2017 The other major economic centres of the country include Lyon, Toulouse (centre of the European aerospace industry), Marseille and Lille.

France also maintains a strong military presence in the world, with one of the highest military expenditures in the world, overseas bases in Germany, Africa and the Middle East, and troops around the world in its various overseas territories. The French military routinely conducts military operations in foreign countries, such as operation Barkhane, Chammal and Boali, with anti-terror and stabilization operations being the most frequent. France is also at the helm of the European Union's defence program, having pushed extensively for PESCO and, more generally, for French and European independence from outside influences.{{Cite book |last=Fraudet |first=Xavier |title=France's security independence: originality and constraints in Europe, 1981–1995 |date=2006 |publisher=Peter Lang |isbn=978-3-03911-141-1 |series=Europäische Hochschulschriften |location=Bern; Oxford}}{{Cite book |url=https://books.openedition.org/igpde/2932 |title=France, Europe and Development Aid. From the Treaties of Rome to the Present Day |date=2013 |publisher=Institut de la gestion publique et du développement économique |isbn=978-2-8218-3882-6 |editor-last=Bossuat |editor-first=Gérard |series=Histoire économique et financière - XIXe-XXe |location=Vincennes |language=en |doi=10.4000/books.igpde.2932 |editor-last2=Cummings |editor-first2=Gordon D.}}

France remains the oldest-standing great power, and while its influence has waned, notably in Africa, it remains a source of soft power, a diplomatic powerhouse{{Cite web |title=Lowy Institute Global Diplomacy Index 2024 |url=https://globaldiplomacyindex.lowyinstitute.org/ |access-date=2024-12-27 |website=globaldiplomacyindex.lowyinstitute.org |language=en}} with a strong economy and military allowing it to exert influence in all regions of the world, in a much more friendly manner compared to its colonial and belligerent past – for instance, with de Gaulle's buildup of relations with the PRC, or by recently building close relations with India, or even by heading a new, comprehensive treaty on climate change.

{{Main||Commonwealth realm|Commonwealth of Nations}}

[[File:Detailed SVG map of the Anglophone world.svg|thumb|Map which shows the majority of the world which has English as its native language.{{legend|#045a8d|Majority native language}}

{{legend|#0674b6|Co-official and majority native language}}

{{legend|#439dd4|Official but minority native language}}

{{legend|#9bbae1|Secondary language: spoken as a second language by more than 20% of the population, de facto working language of government, language of instruction in education, etc.}}]]

The United Kingdom is considered to be a great power. The United Kingdom is a sovereign country in north-western Europe, off the north-{{shy}}western coast of the European mainland.{{Cite web |last=United Kingdom Permanent Committee on Geographical Names |date=May 2017 |title=Toponymic guidelines for the United Kingdom |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/toponymic-guidelines |website=GOV.UK |at=10.2 Definitions |quote=usually shortened to United Kingdom ... The abbreviation is UK or U.K.}} The United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, the north-{{shy}}eastern part of the island of Ireland, and many smaller islands within the British Isles.{{Cite web |title=Definition of Great Britain in English |url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/Great-Britain?q=Great+Britain |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004223902/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/Great-Britain?q=Great+Britain |archive-date=4 October 2013 |access-date=29 October 2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |quote=Great Britain is the name for the island that comprises England, Scotland and Wales, although the term is also used loosely to refer to the United Kingdom.}} Northern Ireland shares a land border with the Republic of Ireland. Otherwise, the United Kingdom is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east, the English Channel to the south and the Celtic Sea to the south-west, giving it the 12th-longest coastline in the world. The Irish Sea separates Great Britain and Ireland. The total area of the United Kingdom is {{convert|244376|km2|sqmi|order=out}},{{Cite web |title=Standard Area Measurements for Administrative Areas (December 2023) in the UK |url=https://geoportal.statistics.gov.uk/datasets/ons::standard-area-measurements-for-administrative-areas-december-2023-in-the-uk/about |access-date=2024-12-27 |website=geoportal.statistics.gov.uk |language=en-gb}} with an estimated population in 2024 of 68 million.{{Cite web |title=Office for National Statistics |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationestimates/ |website=ons.gov.uk}}

The nearby Isle of Man, Guernsey and Jersey are not part of the UK, being Crown Dependencies with the British Government responsible for defence and international representation.{{Cite web |title=Key facts about the United Kingdom |url=http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Governmentcitizensandrights/LivingintheUK/DG_10012517 |url-status=dead |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20121015000000/http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Governmentcitizensandrights/LivingintheUK/DG_10012517 |archive-date=15 October 2012 |access-date=6 March 2015 |publisher=Directgov |quote=The full title of this country is 'the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland'. Great Britain is made up of England, Scotland and Wales. The United Kingdom (UK) is made up of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. 'Britain' is used informally, usually meaning the United Kingdom.
The Channel Islands and the Isle of Man are not part of the UK.}} There are also 14 British Overseas Territories,{{Cite web |title=Supporting the Overseas Territories |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/policies/protecting-and-developing-the-overseas-territories |access-date=9 March 2015 |publisher=Foreign and Commonwealth Office}} the last remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, encompassed almost a quarter of the world's landmass and a third of the world's population, and was the largest empire in history. British influence can be observed in the language, culture and the legal and political systems of many of its former colonies;Hogg, p. 424 chapter 9 English Worldwide by David Crystal: "approximately one in four of the worlds population are capable of communicating to a useful level in English".{{Cite news |last=Reynolds |first=Glenn |date=28 October 2004 |title=Explaining the 'Anglosphere' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/oct/28/uselections2004.usa4 |website=The Guardian |location=London}}{{Cite web |title=Head of the Commonwealth |url=http://www.thecommonwealth.org/Internal/150757/head_of_the_commonwealth/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100706045334/http://www.thecommonwealth.org/Internal/150757/head_of_the_commonwealth/ |archive-date=6 July 2010 |access-date=9 October 2010 |publisher=Commonwealth Secretariat}}{{Cite book |last=Julian Go |title=Constitutionalism and political reconstruction |date=2007 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-15174-1 |editor-last=Arjomand |editor-first=Saïd Amir |pages=92–94 |chapter=A Globalizing Constitutionalism?, Views from the Postcolony, 1945-2000 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kYmmnYKEvE0C&pg=PA94}}{{sfn|Ferguson|2004|p=307}} the English language is the most spoken language in the world, and is the world's lingua franca today.

The United Kingdom has the world's sixth-largest economy by nominal gross domestic product (GDP), and the tenth-largest by purchasing power parity (PPP).{{Cite web |title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2024/October/weo-report?c=512,914,612,171,614,311,213,911,314,193,122,912,313,419,513,316,913,124,339,638,514,218,963,616,223,516,918,748,618,624,522,622,156,626,628,228,924,233,632,636,634,238,662,960,423,935,128,611,321,243,248,469,253,642,643,939,734,644,819,172,132,646,648,915,134,652,174,328,258,656,654,336,263,268,532,944,176,534,536,429,433,178,436,136,343,158,439,916,664,826,542,967,443,917,544,941,446,666,668,672,946,137,546,674,676,548,556,678,181,867,682,684,273,868,921,948,943,686,688,518,728,836,558,138,196,278,692,694,962,142,449,564,565,283,853,288,293,566,964,182,359,453,968,922,714,862,135,716,456,722,942,718,724,576,936,961,813,726,199,733,184,524,361,362,364,732,366,144,146,463,528,923,738,578,537,742,866,369,744,186,925,869,746,926,466,112,111,298,927,846,299,582,487,474,754,698,&s=PPPGDP,&sy=2024&ey=2025&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |access-date=2024-12-27 |website=IMF |language=en}} It has a high-income economy and a very high human development index rating, ranking 15th in the world in 2024. Today the UK remains one of the world's leading powers with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific, technological and political influence internationally.{{Cite book |last=McCourt |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lwpOnwEACAAJ&q=Britain+and+World+Power+Since+1945:+Constructing+a+Nation%27s+Role+in+International+Politics |title=Britain and World Power Since 1945: Constructing a Nation's Role in International Politics |publisher=University of Michigan Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-472-07221-7 |location=United States}} It is a recognised nuclear state and is ranked sixth globally in military expenditure.{{Cite journal |date=January 2021 |title=IISS Military Balance 2021 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/04597222.2021.1868791?journalCode=tmib20 |journal=The Military Balance |volume=121 |issue=1 |pages=23–29 |doi=10.1080/04597222.2021.1868791 |s2cid=232050862 |access-date=1 October 2021}} It has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946.

The United Kingdom is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, the Council of Europe, the G7, the Group of Ten, the G20, the United Nations, NATO, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Interpol, and the World Trade Organization (WTO). It was a member state of the European Communities (EC) and its successor, the European Union (EU), from its accession in 1973 until its withdrawal in 2020 following a referendum held in 2016.

Since the end of the second World War, the United Kingdom has been described as a "super power in decline".{{cite book |last1=Gamble |first1=Andrew |title=Britain in Decline: Economic Policy, Political Strategy and the British State |date=1994 |publisher=The MacMillan Press |isbn=978-0-333-61441-9 |edition=Fourth |location=London |page=xiv}} Nonetheless, a 2019 study in geopolitical capability (carried out by the UK-based Henry Jackson Society) found the United Kingdom to be the most powerful nation in Europe and the second most powerful in the world behind the United States.{{cite web |title=Audit of Geopolitical Capability: An Assessment of Twenty Major Powers |url=https://henryjacksonsociety.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/HJS-2019-Audit-of-Geopolitical-Capability-Report-web.pdf |access-date=7 March 2022 |publisher=The Henry Jackson Society |page=38 |editor-last1=Rogers |editor-first1=James}} Several other studies point to the United Kingdom as one of the top ten countries country in soft power,{{Cite book |last=ISSF (issf.org.in) |url=https://archive.org/details/issf-wspi-2023-final/page/8/mode/2up |title=ISSF World Soft Power Index 2023 |date=2023-08-15}} diplomatic missions, and economy.{{Cite web |title=The Global Competitiveness Report 2019 |url=https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_TheGlobalCompetitivenessReport2019.pdf |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20241227040222/https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_TheGlobalCompetitivenessReport2019.pdf |archive-date=2024-12-27 |access-date=2024-12-27 |website=weforum.org}}

In the aftermath of the second World War and the Suez crisis, the United Kingdom substantially declined as a world power. Towards the end of the 20th century, and especially under the Conservative-led government of Margaret Thatcher and the Labour-led government of Tony Blair, the United Kingdom underwent a period of strong economic growth and cultural reach, especially in the United States; the relationship between the UK and the US is generally considered to be among the strongest international relationships. A notable break in this tradition occurred under the administration of Barack Obama who sought to align with Germany as a principal European ally.{{cite news |last=Elliott |first=Michael |date=22 January 2007 |title=China Takes on the World |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1576831,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070114062833/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1576831,00.html |archive-date=14 January 2007 |publisher=Time Magazine}}{{cite news |last=Allen |first=Nick |date=14 November 2016 |title=Barack Obama delivers parting snub to special relationship with Britain by naming Angela Merkel his 'closest partner' |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/11/14/barack-obama-delivers-parting-snub-to-special-relationship-with/ |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/11/14/barack-obama-delivers-parting-snub-to-special-relationship-with/ |archive-date=12 January 2022 |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London}}{{cbignore}} Although a highly controversial figure in the United Kingdom, President Donald Trump described the UK-US relationship as "just so important" and the administration of President Joe Biden has restored traditional relations, reiterating that "the United States has no closer ally than the United Kingdom".{{cite web |title=History of the Special Relationship |url=https://uk.usembassy.gov/our-relationship/policy-history/ |access-date=7 March 2022 |website=U.S. Embassy and Consulates in the United Kingdom |publisher=United States Government}}

The UK has been described as a "cultural superpower",[http://www.britishpoliticssociety.no/British%20Politics%20Review%2001_2011.pdf "The cultural superpower: British cultural projection abroad"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180916155419/http://www.britishpoliticssociety.no/British%20Politics%20Review%2001_2011.pdf|date=16 September 2018}}. Journal of the British Politics Society, Norway. Volume 6. No. 1. Winter 2011{{cite news |author=Sheridan, Greg |date=15 May 2010 |title=Cameron has chance to make UK great again |url=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/opinion/cameron-has-chance-to-make-uk-great-again/story-e6frg6zo-1225866975992 |access-date=20 May 2012 |work=The Australian |location=Sydney}} and London, one of the highest-ranking global cities, has been described as a world cultural capital{{cite web |title=London is the world capital of the 21st century... says New York | News |url=http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/news/article-23389580-london-is-the-world-capital-of-the-21st-century-says-new-york.do |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120125224024/http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/news/article-23389580-london-is-the-world-capital-of-the-21st-century-says-new-york.do |archive-date=25 January 2012 |access-date=10 February 2012 |work=Evening Standard |location=London}}{{cite news |last=Calder |first=Simon |date=22 December 2007 |title=London, capital of the world |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/travel/news-and-advice/london-capital-of-the-world-766661.html |work=The Independent |location=London}} and the center of European trade, at least until its withdrawal from the European Union.{{Cite book |last=Abrahamson |first=Mark |title=Global cities |date=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-514203-7 |location=New York}} With 22 companies that are part of the world's biggest 500 companies, the UK was in 2024 the third-most represented European country in the Fortune Global 500 index.

File:United Kingdom military bases worldwide.png]]

The UK has several military bases around the world and in the territories it controls, with the island of Diego Garcia being used for major operations during the War on Terror. After leaving the European Union, the UK formed a new strategic partnership with Australia and the United States named AUKUS. It remains one of the driving forces of NATO, and committed significant international aid during the Russian invasion of Ukraine.

The United Kingdom, while no longer the superpower it used to be, remains a country with a diversified and powerful economy, with its culture, language and diplomatic ability reaching and influencing all regions of the world. With a strong military and a nuclear arsenal, the UK remains a great power.

{{Further|Post-Soviet Russia}}

Since its imperial times, Russia has risen from being a regional power to being considered a great power.

The Russian Federation, the world's largest nation by land area, is home to over 30% of the world's natural resources according to some sources.Kevin M. Korabik, [http://www.ems.psu.edu/~williams/russia.htm Russia's Natural Resources and their Economic Effects] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190720062114/https://www.ems.psu.edu/~williams/russia.htm|date=20 July 2019}}, Penn State College of Earth and Mineral Sciences, 1 December 1997{{cite web |date=July 2016 |title=India Partner Country at INNOPROM-2016 Show: Russia: (11–14 July 2016, Yekaterinburg, Russia) |url=http://www.eepcindia.com/download/Circular-160411115935.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611000234/http://www.eepcindia.com/download/Circular-160411115935.pdf |archive-date=11 June 2016 |access-date=4 January 2017 |publisher=EEPC India}}{{cite web |date=February 2016 |title=Pre-empting Russia's Year of Ecology |url=http://www.oceanunite.org/round-up/pre-empting-russias-year-ecology/ |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160904133942/http://www.oceanunite.org/round-up/pre-empting-russias-year-ecology/ |archive-date=4 September 2016 |access-date=4 November 2021 |work=Ocean Unite}} It is a high-income country and the world's fourth-largest economy in terms of PPP according to the World Bank.{{Cite web |title=Russia was classified as a high-income country |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/about/leadership/directors/eds23/brief/russia-was-classified-as-high-income-country |access-date=2024-07-20 |website=World Bank |language=en}} Throughout most of the Soviet-era, Russia was one of the world's two superpowers. However, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, it lost its superpower status, and recently has been suggested as a potential candidate for resuming superpower status in the 21st century{{cite book |author=Steven Rosefielde |author-link=Steven Rosefielde |url=http://www.cambridge.org/gb/academic/subjects/economics/international-economics/russia-21st-century-prodigal-superpower |title=Russia in the 21st Century |date=February 2005 |publisher=UNC Press |isbn=978-0-521-54529-7}}New York Times by Ronald Steel professor of international relations August 24, 2008 (Superpower Reborn)[http://georgiandaily.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=6527&Itemid=68&lang=ka]{{cite web |author=Farooque Chowdhury |date=22 December 2013 |title=A Militarily Resurging Russia |url=http://www.countercurrents.org/chowdhury221213.htm |access-date=13 September 2015 |publisher=Counter Currents}} while others have made the assertion that it is already a superpower.{{cite news |last1=Steel |first1=Ronald |date=24 August 2008 |title=A Superpower Is Reborn |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/24/opinion/24steel.html?_r=0 |access-date=19 November 2015 |newspaper=The New York Times}} In 2009, Hugo Chavez, late President of Venezuela whose government was noted to have enjoyed warm relations with the Kremlin, stated that "Russia is a superpower", citing waning American influence in global affairs, and suggested the ruble be elevated to a global currency.{{cite news |author=Megan K. Stack |date=11 September 2009 |title=Venezuela's Hugo Chavez recognizes independence of breakaway Georgia republics |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2009-sep-11-fg-russia-chavez11-story.html |access-date=7 July 2014 |newspaper=Los Angeles Times}} Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu called Russia an important superpower, praising its effectiveness as an ally of Israel.{{cite web |author=Robert Berger |date=13 February 2010 |title=Netanyahu Heads to Russia with Call for 'Crippling Sanctions' on Iran |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/netanyahu-heads-to-russia-with-call-for-crippling-sanctions-on-iran-84341537/112463.html |access-date=7 July 2014 |publisher=Voice of America}}

In 2014, Stephen Kinzer of The Boston Globe compared Russia's actions with its own neighbouring territories, to those of "any other superpower", taking Ukraine and Crimea as examples.{{cite news |author=Stephen Kinzer |date=11 May 2014 |title=Russia acts like any other superpower |url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/opinion/2014/05/11/russia-acts-like-any-other-superpower/AJRSNiIUYQPAHRlLXcfIlJ/story.html |access-date=7 July 2014 |newspaper=The Boston Globe}} A mixed opinion has been offered by Matthew Fleischer of the Los Angeles Times: he contends that Russia will not become a superpower unless climate change eats away at the permafrost that covers, as of March 2014, two-thirds of the country's landmass. The absence of this permafrost would reveal immense stores of oil, natural gas, and precious minerals, as well as potential farmland, which would allow Russia to "become the world's bread basket—and control the planet's food supply".{{cite news |author=Matthew Fleischer |date=12 March 2014 |title=How curbing climate change can prevent Russia from becoming a superpower |url=https://www.latimes.com/opinion/opinion-la/la-ol-climate-change-russia-super-power-20140311-story.html |access-date=7 July 2014 |newspaper=Los Angeles Times}}

Russian news agency RIA Novosti called Russia a "superpower" after its actions in Syria,{{cite news |title=Россия – военная сверхдержава, и США должны с этим считаться |url=http://ria.ru/world/20151104/1313528799.html |access-date=8 November 2015 |publisher=РИА Новости |language=ru}} and after the formation of a coalition to fight ISIS in Syria and Iraq, Benny Avni of the New York Post called Russia the "world's new sole superpower".{{Cite web |date=2015-09-29 |title=Obama has turned Putin into the world's most powerful leader |url=https://nypost.com/2015/09/29/obama-has-turned-putin-into-the-worlds-most-powerful-leader/ |access-date=2023-09-06 |language=en-US}} Russian intervention in Syria was crucial in helping Bashar Al Assad to stay in power against ISIS and western-backed rebels.{{Cite web |last=Dreazen |first=Yochi |date=2017-11-21 |title=Bashar al-Assad is taking a sickening victory lap through Russia |url=https://www.vox.com/world/2017/11/21/16684862/assad-syria-russia-putin-civil-war |access-date=2023-09-06 |website=Vox |language=en}}{{Cite web |title=It's about time we all admit that Putin has prevailed in Syria |url=https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/north-africa-west-asia/syria-russia-assad-putin-iran-israel-middle-east-oil-usa-war/ |access-date=2023-09-06 |website=openDemocracy |language=en}}{{Cite web |last=Bill Bray |first=Miyako Yerick |date=2017-08-31 |title=Putin Saved Assad, Will He Save Maduro? |url=https://nationalinterest.org/feature/putin-saved-assad-will-he-save-maduro-22127 |access-date=2023-09-06 |website=The National Interest |language=en}}

Since the creation of the Wagner Group in 2014, Russia has used it to intervene in various conflicts (while maintaining plausible deniability) in Africa aside from being involved in Libya, Syria, and even Venezuela by projecting power far away from the borders of the former Soviet Union.{{cite news |title=Obama has turned Putin into the world's most powerful leader |url=https://nypost.com/2015/09/29/obama-has-turned-putin-into-the-worlds-most-powerful-leader/ |access-date=8 November 2015 |newspaper=New York Post}}{{Cite web |title=What Is Russia's Wagner Group Doing in Africa? |url=https://www.cfr.org/in-brief/what-russias-wagner-group-doing-africa |access-date=2023-09-06 |website=Council on Foreign Relations |language=en}}{{Cite web |title=Russia's Wagner Group: Where is it active? – DW – 06/25/2023 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/russias-wagner-group-where-is-it-active/a-66027220 |access-date=2023-09-06 |website=dw.com |language=en}}

However, several analysts commented on the fact that Russia showed signs of an aging and shrinking population. Fred Weir said that this severely constricts and limits Russia's potential to re-emerge as a central world power.{{cite news |author=Fred Weir |date=3 November 2011 |title=Despite huge cash bonuses to mothers, Russia's population is shrinking |url=http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/regions/europe/russia/111102/russia-population-superpower-health-soviet-union |access-date=8 July 2014 |work=GlobalPost}} In 2011, British historian and professor Niall Ferguson also highlighted the negative effects of Russia's declining population, and suggested that Russia is on its way to "global irrelevance".{{cite magazine |author=Niall Ferguson |date=12 December 2011 |title=In Decline, Putin's Russia Is on Its Way to Global Irrelevance |url=http://www.newsweek.com/decline-putins-russia-its-way-global-irrelevance-65847 |access-date=2 August 2014 |magazine=Newsweek}} Russia has, however, shown a slight population growth since the late 2000s, partly due to immigration and slowly rising birth rates.{{cite magazine |author=Mark Adomanis |date=11 May 2013 |title=Russia's Population Isn't Shrinking (It's Growing Very, Very Slowly) |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/markadomanis/2013/05/11/russias-population-isnt-shrinking-its-growing-very-very-slowly/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130609004205/http://www.forbes.com/sites/markadomanis/2013/05/11/russias-population-isnt-shrinking-its-growing-very-very-slowly/ |archive-date=9 June 2013 |access-date=8 July 2014 |magazine=Forbes}}

Nathan Smith of the National Business Review has said that despite Russia having potential, it did not win the new "Cold War" in the 1980s, and thus makes superpower status inaccurate.{{cite news |author=Nathan Smith |date=8 March 2014 |title=Do not treat Russia like a superpower, it isn't |url=http://www.nbr.co.nz/article/do-not-treat-russia-superpower-it-isnt-ns-152930 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140715010833/http://www.nbr.co.nz/article/do-not-treat-russia-superpower-it-isnt-ns-152930 |archive-date=15 July 2014 |access-date=7 July 2014 |newspaper=National Business Review}} Dmitry Medvedev predicted that if the Russian elite is not consolidated, Russia will disappear as a single state.{{Cite web |title=Философские науки — 2/2015. В. Н. Шевченко. К дискуссиям вокруг темы «Распад России»: В поисках оптимальной формы Российского государства |url=http://www.phisci.ru/files/issues/2015/02/RJPS_2015-02_Shevchenko.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160920214334/http://www.phisci.ru/files/issues/2015/02/RJPS_2015-02_Shevchenko.pdf |archive-date=20 September 2016}} Vladimir Putin said the moment the Caucasus leaves Russia, other territorial regions would follow.{{Cite news |date=20 December 2011 |title=Владимир Путин: Отделение Кавказа от России приведет к развалу страны |trans-title=Vladimir Putin: Separation of the Caucasus from Russia will lead to the collapse of the country |url=https://rg.ru/2011/12/20/reg-skfo/gudermes-anons.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210729223249/https://rg.ru/2011/12/20/reg-skfo/gudermes-anons.html |archive-date=29 July 2021 |access-date=6 May 2018 |work=Российская газета |language=ru}}

After Russia's poor performance in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, some analysts questioned Russia's military and power projection capabilities.{{Cite web |date=2 March 2022 |title=Poor planning, low moral, weak supplies erode Russian invasion from within |url=https://youtube.com/watch?v=poXV-cwbQDA |publisher=MSNBC}}{{Cite web |date=18 March 2022 |title=Damage to Russian equipment raises questions about its military effectiveness |url=https://youtube.com/watch?v=iaz8RrsRKyc |work=ABC News}}{{Cite web |date=2 May 2022 |title=Why Russia's military operations have fallen short of expectations |url=https://youtube.com/watch?v=w1eENwQOp_c |work=CBS News}}{{Cite news |title=War in Ukraine: why is Russia's army so weak |url=https://youtube.com/watch?v=x8C7aMeunE0 |newspaper=The Economist}}{{Cite news |last=drezner |first=daniel |title=Is Russia still a great power? |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2022/03/15/is-russia-still-great-power/}} After two years of war, the Russian army did make progress in Ukraine, but the country's economy and resources have been strained. Russia's ally Syria was overrun by rebels, and Bashar al-Assad was granted asylum in Russia.{{Cite web |last1=Gebeily |first1=Maya |last2=Azhari |first2=Timour |date=8 December 2024 |title=Assad gets asylum in Russia, rebels sweep through Syria |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syria-rebels-celebrate-captured-homs-set-sights-damascus-2024-12-07/ |website=Reuters}} Nevertheless, Russia maintains the world's largest nuclear arsenal, a large military force, and can project influence around the world, spreading propaganda online with companies such as the Internet Research Agency. As political scientist Daniel W. Drezner puts it in a Washington Post article, Russia is still a great power. "But it is not the great power everyone thought it was [before the war]".{{Cite news |last=Drezner |first=Daniel W. |date=2022-03-15 |title=Perspective {{!}} Is Russia still a great power? |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2022/03/15/is-russia-still-great-power/ |access-date=2025-05-09 |work=The Washington Post |language=en-US |issn=0190-8286}}

{{Main||Pax Americana|American Century}}

File:NATO_partnerships.svg members and their partners (NATO is a military alliance which the United States is part of.){{legend|#004990|NATO members|outline=black}}{{legend|#2a7fff|Membership Action Plan|outline=black}}{{legend|#88b7ff|Enhanced Opportunities Partners|outline=black}}{{legend|#ffd900|Individual Partnership Action Plan|outline=black}}{{legend|#ff7826|Partnership for Peace|outline=black}}{{legend|#d40000|Mediterranean Dialogue|outline=black}}{{legend|#cc00ff|Istanbul Cooperation Initiative|outline=black}}{{legend|#008000|Global Partners|outline=black}}]]

The United States was the foremost of the world's two superpowers during the Cold War. After the Cold War, the most common belief held that only the United States fulfilled the criteria to be considered a superpower.{{cite web |title=Analyzing American Power in the Post-Cold War Era |url=http://post.queensu.ca/~nossalk/papers/hyperpower.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070311021450/http://post.queensu.ca/~nossalk/papers/hyperpower.htm |archive-date=11 March 2007 |access-date=28 February 2007}} Regardless of the debate on its status as a superpower, the United States is considered a great power.

Its geographic area composes the third or fourth-largest state in the world, with an area of approximately 9.37 million km².{{Cite web |title=United States Geography 1989 – Flags, Maps, Economy, Geography, Climate, Natural Resources, Current Issues, International Agreements, Population, Social Statistics, Political System |url=https://www.theodora.com/wfb1989/united_states/united_states_geography.html |website=www.theodora.com}} The population of the US was 334.9 million in 2024, the third-largest of any nation.{{Cite web |publisher=United States Census Bureau |title=National Population Totals and Components of Change: 2020–2024 |url=https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-series/demo/popest/2020s-national-total.html |access-date=2024-12-27 |website=Census.gov |language=en}} The US holds a permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council, with two allies with permanent seats, the United Kingdom and France. The US has strong ties with most of Europe and NATO, Latin America, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Commonwealth Realms in Oceania and the Caribbean, and several East Asian countries (South Korea, Taiwan, Japan, Singapore).

The economic strength of the United States is a major driving force of its power. The United States is a highly developed country, and its economy accounts for approximately more than a quarter of global GDP, the world's largest by country. By value, the United States is the world's largest importer and second-largest exporter. Although it accounts for just over 4.2% of the world's total population, the U.S. holds over 30% of the total wealth in the world, the largest share held by any country. The US has large resources of minerals, energy resources, metals, and timber, a large and modernized farming industry and a large industrial base. The United States dollar is the dominant world reserve currency. US systems were rooted in capitalist economic theory based on supply and demand, that is, production determined by customers' demands. America was allied with the G7 major economies. US economic policy prescriptions were the "standard" reform packages promoted for crisis-wracked developing countries by Washington, DC–based international institutions such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, as well as the US Treasury Department.Williamson, John: [http://www.iie.com/publications/papers/paper.cfm?researchid=486 What Washington Means by Policy Reform] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090625085003/http://www.iie.com/publications/papers/paper.cfm?ResearchID=486|date=25 June 2009}}, in: Williamson, John (ed.): Latin American Readjustment: How Much has Happened, Washington: Institute for International Economics 1989. The US also provides aid to developing countries through USAID.

File:American_bases_worldwide.svg, as of 2016]]

The military of the United States is a naval-based advanced military with by far the highest military expenditure in the world.{{Cite web |title=World Wide Military Expenditures |url=https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/spending.htm |website=www.globalsecurity.org}} The United States Navy is the world's largest navy, with the largest number of aircraft carriers, and military bases all over the world. The US had the largest nuclear arsenal in the world during the first half of the Cold War, and keeps the second-largest to this day; one of the largest armies in the world and the largest air force in the world. Under the NATO nuclear sharing program, the United States provides nuclear weapons to protect several NATO states.{{Citation |last1=Chalmers |first1=Malcolm |title=NATO's Tactical Nuclear Dilemma |date=March 2010 |url=http://www.rusi.org/downloads/assets/NATOs_Nuclear_Dilemma.pdf |access-date=16 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120529205033/http://www.rusi.org/downloads/assets/NATOs_Nuclear_Dilemma.pdf |archive-date=29 May 2012 |url-status=dead |publisher=Royal United Services Institute |last2=Lunn |first2=Simon}} The US also possesses a powerful global intelligence network in the Central Intelligence Agency.

The cultural impact of the US, often known as Americanization, is seen in the influence on other countries of US music, TV, films, art, and fashion, as well as the desire for freedom of speech and other guaranteed rights its residents enjoy. Various styles of music born in the US have become globally influential.Biddle, Julian (2001). What Was Hot!: Five Decades of Pop Culture in America. New York: Citadel, p. ix. {{ISBN|0-8065-2311-5}}.

Following the conclusion of the Cold War, the US enjoyed a short period of absolute dominance, stretching from 1993 to 2001. The subsequent War on Terrorism, second invasion of Iraq, the response to the Great Recession and the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States were all seen to damage the credibility of the United States.{{Cite web |title=In Depth: Topics A to Z, Iraq |url=http://www.news.gallup.com/poll/1633/iraq |access-date=29 July 2021 |website=news.gallup.com |language=en}}{{dead link|date=June 2022|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}

The United States intervenes and can hold a military presence in several countries, notably Afghanistan, Somalia, and Iraq. The US is able to strike around the world, as it proved during anti-terror operations like the killing of Osama Bin Laden, or the assassination of Qasem Soleimani.

In 2011, the U.S. had 10 major strengths according to Chinese scholar Peng Yuan, the director of the Institute of American Studies of the China Institutes for Contemporary International Studies. He noted that the United States had a sizable population (300 million), enjoys its position as a two-ocean power, and has abundant natural resources. Besides, he believed that the United States' military muscle, high technology, fair education system, cultural power, cyber power, allies (as the United States has more allies than any other state), global force projection, intelligence capabilities (as demonstrated by the killing of Osama bin Laden), intellectual think tanks and research institutes, and strategic power lead the United States into the superpower status it now enjoys. However, he noted that the recent breakdown of bipartisanship in the US, economic slowdown, intractable deficits and rising debt, societal polarization, and the weakening of US institutional power since the US can no longer dominate global institutions, are the current flaws of the United States' power.Quoted in Josef Joffe, The Myth of America's Decline: Politics, Economics, and a Half Century of False Prophecies (2014) ch. 7.

Regardless of its recent issues, the economic, technological and military dominance of the United States keep the country as the world's foremost great power for the time being.

{{Main|Least of the great powers}}

The Italian Republic has been referred to as a great power with almost the same power as Germany, France, and the UK.

Italy's great power strengths include a vast advanced economy,{{Cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Bruce D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ev_pAgAAQBAJ&q=great+powers+US+Russia+China+Germany+France+Italy+UK+Japan&pg=PA47 |title=Still Ours to Lead: America, Rising Powers, and the Tension between Rivalry and Restraint |date=17 March 2014 |publisher=Brookings Institution Press |isbn=9780815725138}}{{Cite web |date=20 September 2017 |title=The global economic balance of power is shifting |url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2017/09/the-global-economic-balance-of-power-is-shifting |website=Weforum.org}} the second-strongest manufacturing industry in Europe,{{cite web |date=November 2015 |title=Manufacturing statistics |url=http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Manufacturing_statistics_-_NACE_Rev._2 |access-date=8 February 2015 |publisher=Eurostat}} a large luxury goods market,{{Cite web |title=Italy remains the third market for luxury goods |url=http://s24ore.it/2GuYkA |access-date=10 March 2022 |website=S24ore.it}} a large national budget and the third largest gold reserve in the world. It has one of the largest SDRs and voting power in the IMF.Andre Melville, Yuri Polunin, Mikhail Ilyin (2011). [https://books.google.com/books?id=Vnp2pOS5v9IC&q=%22major+powers%22+exertin+maximun+influence+on+the+International+Arena+&pg=PA202 Political atlas of the Modern World] The country is a cultural superpower and it has close ties with the rest of the Catholic world as the home of the Pope. Italy is a key player in maintaining international security, especially in the wider Mediterranean region,The concept of Mediterraneo Allargato (Enlarged Mediterranean) includes the Horn of Africa, the Balkans and the MENA region. by performing air policing duties for its allies and commanding multinational forces in foreign countries.{{Cite journal |last1=Vignoli |first1=Valerio |last2=Coticchia |first2=Fabrizio |title=Italy's Military Operations Abroad (1945–2020): Data, Patterns, and Trends |journal=International Peacekeeping |date=2022-05-27 |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=436–462 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13533312.2022.2054044 |doi=10.1080/13533312.2022.2054044 |issn=1353-3312}} The country has therefore developed considerable military capabilities by building two aircraft carriers and establishing some overseas military bases. The country is home to two nuclear bases and, as part of the NATO nuclear sharing program, therefore has a retaliatory nuclear capacity despite nominally being a non-nuclear state. According to the former Italian President Francesco Cossiga, Italy's plans of nuclear retaliation during the Cold War consisted of targeting nuclear weapons in Czechoslovakia and Hungary in case the Soviet Union waged nuclear war against NATO.{{Cite web |date=17 January 2018 |title=Anche l'Italia coinvolta nel riarmo nucleare da noi settanta testate |url=https://ricerca.repubblica.it/repubblica/archivio/repubblica/2018/01/17/anche-litalia-coinvolta-nel-riarmo-nucleare-da-noi-settanta-testate14.html |website=Ricera.repubblica.it}} He acknowledged the presence of U.S. nuclear weapons in Italy, and speculated about the possible presence of British and French nuclear weapons.{{cite web |title=Cossiga: "In Italia ci sono bombe atomiche Usa" |url=http://notizie.tiscali.it/articoli/politica/08/22/cossiga_atomica_in_italia_123.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150928225725/http://notizie.tiscali.it/articoli/politica/08/22/cossiga_atomica_in_italia_123.html |archive-date=28 September 2015 |access-date=18 September 2015 |publisher=Tiscali |language=it}} Italy secretly developed its own nuclear weapons program, and one in collaboration with France and Germany, but abandoned such projects when it joined the nuclear sharing program.{{cite web |title=SEDUTA POMERIDIANA DI GIOVEDÌ 23 GENNAIO 1969 |url=http://legislature.camera.it/_dati/leg05/lavori/stenografici/sed0073/sed0073.pdf |access-date=10 March 2022 |website=Legislature.camera.it}}{{Cite book |last1=Baracca |first1=Angelo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dmUrPe1ZJ3MC&q=programma+nucleare+Italia-Francia-Germania&pg=PA122 |title=A volte ritornano: Il nucleare : La proliferazione nucleare ieri, oggi e soprattutto domani |publisher=Editoriale Jaca Book |year=2005 |isbn=9788816407107}} The country has developed the ABM PAAMS system.{{Cite web |title=Eurosam |url=https://www.mbda-systems.com/about-us/mbda-worldwide/eurosam/ |access-date=10 March 2022 |website=MBDA}} It has developed several space-launch vehicles, such as Alfa and more recently Vega. In more recent years, under the auspices of European space agency, it has demonstrated the reentry and landing of a spacecraft, the Intermediate eXperimental Vehicle. Italy is home to one of two ground operations centres of the Galileo global satellite navigation system.

Besides, Italy has as one of the most advanced economies in the world as the eighth-largest economy by nominal GDP (third in the European Union), the sixth-largest national wealth and the third-largest central bank gold reserve. It ranks very high in life expectancy, quality of life,[https://www.economist.com/media/pdf/QUALITY_OF_LIFE.pdf The Economist Intelligence Unit's quality-of-life index] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120802135752/http://www.economist.com/media/pdf/QUALITY_OF_LIFE.pdf|date=2 August 2012}}, Economist, 2005 healthcare,{{cite web |title=The World Health Organization's ranking of the world's health systems |url=http://www.photius.com/rankings/healthranks.html |access-date=7 September 2015 |publisher=Photius.com}} and education. The country is considered a great power and it plays a prominent role in regionalGabriele Abbondanza, Italy as a Regional Power: the African Context from National Unification to the Present Day (Rome: Aracne, 2016)"Operation Alba may be considered one of the most important instances in which Italy has acted as a regional power, taking the lead in executing a technically and politically coherent and determined strategy." See Federiga Bindi, Italy and the European Union (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2011), p. 171. and global{{cite book |url={{Google books|nTKBdY5HBeUC |keywords=Canada%20Among%20Nations%2C%202004%3A%20Setting%20Priorities Straight |text= |plainurl=yes}} |title=Canada Among Nations, 2004: Setting Priorities Straight |date=17 January 2005 |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP |isbn=978-0-7735-2836-9 |page=85 |access-date=13 June 2016}} ("The United States is the sole world's superpower. France, Italy, Germany and the United Kingdom are great powers"){{cite book |last1=Sterio |first1=Milena |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-QuI6n_OVMYC&q=The%20Right%20to%20Self-determination%20Under%20International%20Law%3A%20%22selfistans%22%2C%20Secession%20and%20the%20Rule%20of%20the%20Great%20Powers |title=The right to self-determination under international law : "selfistans", secession and the rule of the great powers |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-66818-7 |location=Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon |page=xii (preface) |access-date=13 June 2016}} ("The great powers are super-sovereign states: an exclusive club of the most powerful states economically, militarily, politically and strategically. These states include veto-wielding members of the United Nations Security Council (United States, United Kingdom, France, China, and Russia), as well as economic powerhouses such as Germany, Italy and Japan.") economic, military, cultural, and diplomatic affairs. Italy is a founding and leading member of the European Union and a member of numerous international institutions, including the United Nations, NATO, the OECD, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, the World Trade Organization, the Group of Seven, the G20, the Union for the Mediterranean, the Latin Union, the Council of Europe, Uniting for Consensus, and many more. The source of many inventions and discoveries, the country has long been a global centre of art, music, literature, philosophy, science and technology, and fashion, and has greatly influenced and contributed to diverse fields including cinema, cuisine, sports, jurisprudence, banking, and business.{{cite web |author=Michael Barone |date=2 September 2010 |title=The essence of Italian culture and the challenge of the global age |url=http://www.crvp.org/book/Series04/IV-5/chapter_vi.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120922063927/http://www.crvp.org/book/Series04/IV-5/chapter_vi.htm |archive-date=22 September 2012 |access-date=22 September 2012 |publisher=Council for Research in Values and philosophy}} As a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy has the world's largest number of World Heritage Sites (58), and is the fourth-most visited country in the world.

Moreover, Italy contributes greatly to scientific research; in 2023, Italy was the sixth-biggest producer of scientific articles.{{Cite web |title=SJR – International Science Ranking |url=https://www.scimagojr.com/countryrank.php?year=2023 |access-date=2024-12-28 |website=www.scimagojr.com}} Italy operates some permanent research stations in Antarctica. In terms of spaceflight capability, the country owns the Broglio Space Centre. The country is a major contributor to the European Space Agency and the International Space Station.

However, due to internal political instability, a large public debt,{{Cite journal |last1=Holtemöller |first1=Oliver |last2=Knedlik |first2=Tobias |last3=Lindner |first3=Axel |date=2018 |title=On the Risk of a Sovereign Debt Crisis in Italy |url=https://www.intereconomics.eu/contents/year/2018/number/6/article/on-the-risk-of-a-sovereign-debt-crisis-in-italy.html |journal=Intereconomics |language=en |volume=2018 |issue=6 |pages=316–319 |doi=10.1007/s10272-018-0775-y |s2cid=158807558 |hdl-access=free |hdl=10419/213187}} a diminishing economic productivity, low economic growth in the last fifteen years{{Cite web |date=26 May 2021 |title=Why Italy's Economy Stopped Growing |url=https://www.newswise.com/articles/why-italy-s-economy-stopped-growing |website=newswise.com}} and a significant Centre-North/South socio-economic divide, Italy is often considered as the least of the great powers.[https://web.archive.org/web/20150413191614/http://www.eurasia-rivista.org/italia-150-anos-de-uma-pequena-grande-potencia/7478/ Italy: 150 years of a small great power], eurasia-rivista.org, 21 December 2010

{{Main|Chinese Century}}

{{Further|China's peaceful rise|Pax Sinica|Potential superpowers#China}}

File:Belt and Road Initiative members.svg, which is a global infrastructure development strategy adopted by the Chinese government in 2013 to invest in nearly 150 countries and international organizations]]

China started to be seen as a great power after World War II as one of the Four Policemen and principal Allies of World War II.{{Cite book |last1=Doenecke |first1=Justus D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xdMF9rX6mX8C&pg=PA62 |title=Debating Franklin D. Roosevelt's Foreign Policies, 1933–1945 |last2=Stoler |first2=Mark A. |date=2005 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-8476-9416-7 |pages=62 |language=en |quote=THE FOUR POLICEMEN AND CHINA POLICY in turning to the wider issue of the entire postwar order, one notes that by 1942 FDR saw four great powers as the major guarantors of the peace. In order of importance, they were the United States, the Soviet Union, China, and Britain.}}{{Cite journal |last=VAN ALSTYNE |first=RICHARD W. |date=1950 |title=The United States and Russia in World War Ii: Part I |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/45307844 |journal=Current History |volume=19 |issue=111 |pages=257–260 |doi=10.1525/curh.1950.19.111.257 |issn=0011-3530 |jstor=45307844 |s2cid=249683657}} After its victory in the Chinese Civil War, the Korean War in 1950–1953 and the Sino-Soviet split in the 1960s, the People's Republic of China emerged as one of the main players in international geopolitics during the late Cold War, with its status as a recognized nuclear weapons state in the 1960s.{{Cite journal |last=Clubb |first=O. Edmund |date=1 January 1964 |title=Living with China as a Great Power |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/000271626435100116 |journal=The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science |language=en |volume=351 |issue=1 |pages=140–147 |doi=10.1177/000271626435100116 |issn=0002-7162 |s2cid=154986216}}{{Cite web |title=Less Revolution, More Realpolitik: China's Foreign Policy in the Early and Middle 1970s {{!}} Wilson Center |url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/less-revolution-more-realpolitik-chinas-foreign-policy-early-and-middle-1970s |access-date=21 August 2022 |website=wilsoncenter.org |language=en}} China was officially recognized as one of the permanent members of the UN Security Council in 1971.

Currently, China has the world's second-largest population, second-largest GDP per country, and the largest economy in the world by PPP since 2013 according to The Economist.{{Cite web |last=Lemahieu |first=Herve |title=Five big takeaways from the 2019 Asia Power Index |url=https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/power-shifts-fevered-times-2019-asia-power-index |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210724203232/https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/power-shifts-fevered-times-2019-asia-power-index |archive-date=24 July 2021 |access-date=6 May 2020 |website=Lowy Institute |language=en |quote=China, the emerging superpower, netted the highest gains in overall power in 2019, ranking first in half of the eight Index measures. For the first time, China narrowly edged out the United States in the Index's assessment of economic resources. In absolute terms, China's economy grew by more than the total size of Australia's economy in 2018. The world's largest trading nation has also paradoxically seen its GDP become less dependent on exports. This makes China less vulnerable to an escalating trade war than most other Asian economies.}}{{Cite book |last1=Huhua |first1=Cao |title=Facing China as a New Global Superpower |last2=Jeremy |first2=Paltiel |publisher=Springer |year=2016 |isbn=978-981-287-823-6 |location=Singapore |pages=XI, 279 |doi=10.1007/978-981-287-823-6}}{{Cite news |date=27 October 2018 |title=The Chinese century is well under way |url=https://www.economist.com/graphic-detail/2018/10/27/the-chinese-century-is-well-under-way |access-date=24 July 2021 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613}} China created the Belt and Road Initiative, which according to analysts has been a geostrategic effort to take a more significant role in global affairs and challenge US post-war hegemony.{{cite web |date=21 June 2016 |title=China's one belt, one road initiative set to transform economy by connecting with trading partners along ancient Silk Road |url=http://www.scmp.com/business/china-business/article/1978450/chinas-one-belt-one-road-initiative-set-transform-economy |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170107172637/http://www.scmp.com/business/china-business/article/1978450/chinas-one-belt-one-road-initiative-set-transform-economy |archive-date=7 January 2017 |access-date=7 January 2017 |work=South China Morning Post}}{{cite web |date=10 December 2014 |title=One Belt, One Road |url=http://english.caixin.com/2014-12-10/100761304.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160912022038/http://english.caixin.com/2014-12-10/100761304.html |archive-date=12 September 2016 |access-date=13 April 2016 |publisher=Caixin Online}}{{Cite web |title=What Does China's Belt and Road Initiative Mean for US Grand Strategy? |url=https://thediplomat.com/2018/06/what-does-chinas-belt-and-road-initiative-mean-for-us-grand-strategy/ |access-date=24 July 2021 |website=thediplomat.com |language=en-US}} It has also been argued that China co-founded the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank and New Development Bank to compete with the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund in development finance.{{cite web |title=AIIB Vs. NDB: Can New Players Change the Rules of Development Financing? |url=http://english.caixin.com/2016-09-08/100986629.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226055140/http://english.caixin.com/2016-09-08/100986629.html |archive-date=26 December 2016 |access-date=26 December 2016 |publisher=Caixin}}{{cite book |last=Cohn |first=Theodore H. |title=Global Political Economy: Theory and Practice |date=5 May 2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-33481-1}} In 2015, China launched the Made in China 2025 strategic plan to further develop its manufacturing sector. There have been debates on the effectiveness and practicality of these programs in promoting China's global status.{{Cite web |title=Is 'Made in China 2025' a Threat to Global Trade? {{!}} Council on Foreign Relations |url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/made-china-2025-threat-global-trade |access-date=2024-12-28 |website=www.cfr.org |language=en}}

On a foreign exchange rate basis, some estimates in 2020 and early 2021 said that China could overtake the U.S. in 2028,{{cite web |last=Elliot |first=Larry |date=26 December 2020 |title=China to overtake US as world's biggest economy by 2028, report predicts |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/dec/26/china-to-overtake-us-as-worlds-biggest-economy-by-2028-report-predicts |access-date=28 December 2020 |work=The Guardian |quote="With the US expected to contract by 5% this year, China will narrow the gap with its biggest rival, the CEBR said. Overall, global gross domestic product is forecast to decline by 4.4% this year, in the biggest one-year fall since the second world war. Douglas McWilliams, the CEBR's deputy chairman, said: "The big news in this forecast is the speed of growth of the Chinese economy. We expect it to become an upper-income economy during the current five-year plan period (2020–25). And we expect it to overtake the US a full five years earlier than we did a year ago. It would pass the per capita threshold of $12,536 (£9,215) to become a high-income country by 2023."}} or 2026 if the Chinese currency further strengthened.{{Cite web |last1=Cheng |first1=Evelyn |last2=Lee |first2=Yen Nee |date=February 2021 |title=New chart shows China could overtake the U.S. as the world's largest economy earlier than expected |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/02/01/new-chart-shows-china-gdp-could-overtake-us-sooner-as-covid-took-its-toll.html |access-date=24 July 2021 |work=CNBC |quote=could}} As of July 2021, Bloomberg L.P. analysts estimated that China may either overtake the U.S. to become the world's biggest economy in the 2030s or never be able to reach such a goal.{{Cite web |last1=Zhu |first1=Eric |last2=Orlik |first2=Tom |date=5 July 2021 |title=When Will China Rule the World? Maybe Never |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2021-07-05/when-will-china-s-economy-beat-the-u-s-to-become-no-1-why-it-may-never-happen |access-date=6 July 2021 |website=Bloomberg News |agency=Bloomberg News}}

The nation receives continual coverage in the popular press of its emerging superpower status,{{cite web |year=1999 |title=Visions of China – Asian Superpower |url=http://edition.cnn.com/SPECIALS/1999/china.50/asian.superpower/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010727044319/http://edition.cnn.com/SPECIALS/1999/china.50/asian.superpower/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=27 July 2001 |access-date=19 July 2014 |publisher=CNN}}{{cite web |date=1 January 2014 |title=China's military presence is growing. Does a superpower collision loom? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jan/01/china-military-presence-superpower-collision-japan |access-date=19 July 2014 |website=The Guardian}}{{cite journal |author=Cordesman, Anthony |date=1 October 2019 |title=China and the United States: Cooperation, Competition, and/or Conflict |url=https://www.csis.org/analysis/china-and-united-states-cooperation-competition-andor-conflict |journal=Center for Strategic and International Studies |access-date=22 March 2021 |quote=Seen from this perspective, such trends clearly that show that China already is a true economic superpower with growing resources and a steadily improving technology base. Its military structure is evolving to the point where China can compare or compete with the U.S. – at least in Asia.}}{{cite web |author1=Silver, Laura |author2=Devlin, Kat |author3=Huang, Christine |date=5 December 2019 |title=China's Economic Growth Mostly Welcomed in Emerging Markets, but Neighbors Wary of Its Influence |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2019/12/05/chinas-economic-growth-mostly-welcomed-in-emerging-markets-but-neighbors-wary-of-its-influence/ |access-date=22 March 2021 |work=Pew Research Center |quote=China has emerged as a global economic superpower in recent decades. It is not only the world's second largest economy and the largest exporter by value, but it has also been investing in overseas infrastructure and development at a rapid clip}}{{cite news |author=Lendon, Brad |date=5 March 2021 |title=China has built the world's largest navy. Now what's Beijing going to do with it? |url=https://www.cnn.com/2021/03/05/china/china-world-biggest-navy-intl-hnk-ml-dst/index.html |access-date=22 March 2021 |publisher=CNN |quote=In 2018, China held 40% of the world's shipbuilding market by gross tons, according to United Nations figures cited by the China Power Project at the Center for Strategic and International Studies, well ahead of second place South Korea at 25%. Put in a historical perspective, China's shipbuilding numbers are staggering – dwarfing even the U.S. efforts of World War II. China built more ships in one year of peace time (2019) than the U.S. did in four of war (1941–1945).}}{{cite web |author=Lemahieu, Herve |date=29 May 2019 |title=Five big takeaways from the 2019 Asia Power Index |url=https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/power-shifts-fevered-times-2019-asia-power-index |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210724203232/https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/power-shifts-fevered-times-2019-asia-power-index |archive-date=24 July 2021 |access-date=22 March 2021 |publisher=Lowy Institute |quote=China, the emerging superpower, netted the highest gains in overall power in 2019, ranking first in half of the eight Index measures. For the first time, China narrowly edged out the United States in the Index's assessment of economic resources. In absolute terms China's economy grew by more than the total size of Australia's economy in 2018. The world's largest trading nation has also paradoxically seen its GDP become less dependent on exports. This makes China less vulnerable to an escalating trade war than most other Asian economies.}} and has been identified as a rising or emerging economic growth and military superpower by academics and other experts. The "rise of China" has been named the top news story of the 21st century by the Global Language Monitor, as measured by the number of appearances in the global print and electronic media, on the Internet and blogosphere, and in social media.{{cite web |date=7 May 2011 |script-title=zh:21世纪新闻排行中国崛起居首位 |trans-title=The rise of China ranked first place in 21st century news |url=http://www.ycwb.com/ePaper/xkb/html/2011-05/07/content_1105830.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927095901/http://www.ycwb.com/ePaper/xkb/html/2011-05/07/content_1105830.htm |archive-date=27 September 2011 |access-date=10 February 2012 |website=Ycwb.com |language=zh-Hans-CN}}{{cite web |last=Romana |first=Chito |date=2 March 2010 |title=Does China Want to Be Top Superpower? |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/china-replace-us-top-superpower/story?id=9986355 |access-date=10 February 2012 |website=Abcnews.go.com}}{{cite web |date=9 February 2006 |title=From Rural Transformation to Global Integration: The Environmental and Social Impacts of China's Rise to Superpower – Carnegie Endowment for International Peace |work=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace |url=http://carnegieendowment.org/2006/02/09/from-rural-transformation-to-global-integration-environmental-and-social-impacts-of-china-s-rise-to-superpower/dfi |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120316154013/http://www.carnegieendowment.org/2006/02/09/from%2Drural%2Dtransformation%2Dto%2Dglobal%2Dintegration%2Denvironmental%2Dand%2Dsocial%2Dimpacts%2Dof%2Dchina%2Ds%2Drise%2Dto%2Dsuperpower/dfi |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 March 2012 |access-date=10 February 2012 |last1=Muldavin |first1=Joshua }}{{cite web |year=2006 |title=China: The Balance Sheet Summary |url=http://www.getabstract.com/en/summary/global-business/china-the-balance-sheet/6584/?isbn= |access-date=19 July 2014 |website=getabstract.com}}{{cite web |last=Uckert |first=Merri B. |date=April 1995 |title=China As An Economic and Military Superpower: A Dangerous Combination? |url=http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/awc/uckertmb.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115145821/http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/awc/uckertmb.pdf |archive-date=15 January 2013 |access-date=10 February 2012}} The term "Second Superpower" has been applied by scholars to the possibility that the People's Republic of China could emerge with global power and influence on par with the United States.{{cite book |last=Wood |first=James |title=History of International Broadcasting |publisher=IET |year=2000 |page=155}} The potential for the two countries to form stronger relations to address global issues is sometimes referred to as the Group of Two.

Barry Buzan asserted in 2004 that "China certainly presents the most promising all-round profile" of a potential superpower. Buzan claimed that "China is currently the most fashionable potential superpower and the one whose degree of alienation from the dominant international society makes it the most obvious political challenger." However, he noted this challenge is constrained by the major challenges of development and by the fact that its rise could trigger a counter-coalition of states in Asia.{{cite book |last=Buzan |first=Barry |title=The United States and the Great Powers |publisher=Polity Press |year=2004 |isbn=0-7456-3375-7 |location=Cambridge, United Kingdom |page=70}}

Parag Khanna stated in 2008 that by making massive trade and investment deals with Latin America and Africa, China had established its presence as a superpower along with the European Union and the United States. China's rise is demonstrated by its rising share of trade in its gross domestic product. He believed that China's "consultative style" had allowed it to develop political and economic ties with many countries, including those viewed as rogue states by the United States. He stated that the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation founded with Russia and the Central Asian countries may eventually be the "NATO of the East".{{cite news |last=Khanna |first=Parag |date=27 January 2008 |title=Waving Goodbye to Hegemony |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/27/magazine/27world-t.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0 |access-date=19 July 2014 |newspaper=The New York Times}}

Historian Timothy Garton Ash argued in 2011 that the International Monetary Fund predicting that China's GDP (purchasing power parity adjusted) would overtake that of the United States in 2016 – which it did in 2013 – and that a power shift to a world with several superpowers was happening in the early 21st century. However, China is still lacking in soft power and power projection abilities and has a low GDP per capita. The article also stated that the Pew Research Center in a 2009 survey found that people in 15 out of 22 countries believed that China had already overtaken or would overtake the US as the world's leading superpower.{{cite web |date=27 February 2012 |title=Oxford Prof on China and the New World OrderPart 1 |url=http://english.caixin.com/2012-02-27/100360946.html |access-date=19 July 2014 |publisher=Caixin}}

In an interview given in 2011, Singapore's first premier, Lee Kuan Yew, stated that while China supplanting the United States is not a foregone conclusion, Chinese leaders are nonetheless serious about displacing the United States as the most powerful country in Asia. "They have transformed a poor society by an economic miracle to become now the second-largest economy in the world. How could they not aspire to be number 1 in Asia, and in time the world?"{{cite book |author1=Kuan Yew Lee |title=Lee Kuan Yew: The Grand Master's Insights on China, the United States, and the World |author2=Graham Allison |author3=Robert D. Blackwill |author4=Ali Wyne |date=1 February 2013 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-01912-5 |page=2 |chapter=Future of China |access-date=11 December 2015 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=geiCymK1IWIC&pg=PA2}} The Chinese strategy, Lee maintains, will revolve around their "huge and increasingly highly skilled and educated workers to out-sell and out-build all others".{{cite book |last=Allison |first=Graham |author2=Robert D. Blackwill |author3=Ali Wyne |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=geiCymK1IWIC |title=Lee Kuan Yew: The Grand Master's Insights on China, the United States, and the World |publisher=The MIT Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-262-01912-5 |location=Cambridge Massachusetts |page=4}} Nevertheless, relations with the United States, at least in the medium term, will not take a turn for the worse because China will "avoid any action that will sour up relations with the U.S. To challenge a stronger and technologically superior power like the U.S. will abort their 'peaceful rise.'" Though Lee believes China is genuinely interested in growing within the global framework the United States has created, it is biding its time until it becomes strong enough to successfully redefine the prevailing political and economic order.{{cite book |last=Allison |first=Graham |author2=Robert D. Blackwill |author3=Ali Wyne |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=geiCymK1IWIC |title=Lee Kuan Yew: The Grand Master's Insights on China, the United States, and the World |publisher=The MIT Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-262-01912-5 |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |page=12}}

China is thought to be on the course to becoming the world's largest economy and is making rapid progress in many areas. The United States is seen as a declining superpower, as indicated by factors such as poor economic recovery, financial disorder, high deficits, increasing political polarization, and overregulation forcing jobs overseas in China.{{cite web |date=31 March 2010 |title=Counting the jobs lost to China |url=http://www.epi.org/publication/counting_the_jobs_lost_to_china/ |access-date=8 July 2014 |work=Economic Policy Institute}}{{cite web |author1=Kenneth Lieberthal |author2=Wang Jisi |date=2 April 2012 |title=US, China Experts Warn of Growing Bilateral Distrust |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/us-china-experts-warn-of-growing-bilateral-distrust-145900615/179594.html |access-date=19 July 2014 |publisher=Voice of America}}{{cite web |date=March 2012 |title=Addressing U.S.-China Strategic Distrust |url=http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/files/papers/2012/3/30-us-china-lieberthal/0330_china_lieberthal.pdf |access-date=19 July 2014 |publisher=China Center at Brookings}} However, after the COVID-19 pandemic, China's economic growth has greatly stalled, and while the country is still progressing, its rapid rise has been considerably slowed.{{Cite web |last=Palmer |first=James |date=2025-01-01 |title=China Is Still Suffering an Economic Hangover |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2024/12/27/china-economy-slowdown-policy-property-crisis-trump-tariffs/ |access-date=2024-12-27 |website=Foreign Policy |language=en-US}}{{Cite web |title=The New Reality of Dealing With a China in Decline |url=https://thediplomat.com/2024/06/the-new-reality-of-dealing-with-a-china-in-decline/ |access-date=2024-12-27 |website=thediplomat.com |language=en-US}}{{Cite web |title=China economy slowdown deepens, official figures show |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/crr54x00857o |access-date=2024-12-27 |website=www.bbc.com |date=18 October 2024 |language=en-GB}}

File:Tiananmen_beijing_Panorama.jpg, the "Gate of Heavenly Peace", is the front gate of the Imperial City of Beijing, first built under the Yongle Emperor who also commissioned the Yongle Encyclopedia and the Ming treasure voyages. As a national symbol of China, Tiananmen features a giant portrait of Chairman Mao Zedong with two giant placards: the left one reads "Long Live the People's Republic of China" (中华人民共和国万岁; Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó wànsuì), while the right one reads "Long Live the Great Unity of the World's Peoples" (世界人民大团结万岁; Shìjiè rénmín dà tuánjié wànsuì).]]

Some consensus has concluded that China has reached the qualifications of superpower status, citing China's growing political clout and leadership in certain economic sectors. Although China's military projection is still premature and untested, the perceived humiliation of US leadership in failing to prevent its closest allies from joining the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank,{{cite magazine |author=Allen-Ebrahimian, Bethany |date=1 April 2015 |title=Obama Is Sitting Alone at a Bar Drinking a Consolation Beer |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2015/04/01/obama-china-bank-aiib-policy/ |magazine=Foreign Policy}} along with the Belt and Road Initiative and China's role in the worldwide groundings of the Boeing 737 MAX,{{cite magazine |author=Aboulafia, Richard |date=20 March 2019 |title=Boeing's Crisis Strengthens Beijing's Hand |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/03/20/boeings-crisis-strengthens-beijings-hand-737max-faa-caac-aviation-regulators-trade-war-china-xi-trump/ |magazine=Foreign Policy}} was seen as a paradigm shift or an inflection point to the unipolar world order that dominated post-Cold War international relations. University Professor Øystein Tunsjø argues that competition between China and the USA will increase, leading to the gap between them decreasing, while the gap between the two countries and the rest of the top ten largest economies will widen.{{Cite book |author=Tunsjø, Øystein |url=https://cup.columbia.edu/book/the-return-of-bipolarity-in-world-politics/9780231176545 |title=The Return of Bipolarity in World Politics: China, the United States, and Geostructural Realism |date=27 February 2018 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-54690-4}} Additionally, economics correspondent, Peter S. Goodman and Beijing Bureau Chief of China, Jane Perlez further stated that China is using a combination of its economic might and growing military advancements to pressure, coerce and change the current world order to accommodate China's interests at the expense of the United States and its allies.{{cite news |author1=Goodman, Peter |author2=Perlez, Jane |date=25 November 2018 |title=Beijing is leveraging its commercial and military might to redraw the terms of trade, diplomacy and security, challenging the liberal democratic order. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/11/25/world/asia/china-world-power.html?mtrref=www.google.com&gwh=9DD0254E4F46A3D7C0FD201DDFA1E152&gwt=pay |newspaper=The New York Times}}

Diplomatically, China has seen some success in Africa, becoming the largest trading partner of the continent,{{Cite web |title=Understanding evolving China-Africa economic relations |url=https://www.weforum.org/stories/2024/06/why-strong-regional-value-chains-will-be-vital-to-the-next-chapter-of-china-and-africas-economic-relationship/ |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20241212163624/https://www.weforum.org/stories/2024/06/why-strong-regional-value-chains-will-be-vital-to-the-next-chapter-of-china-and-africas-economic-relationship/ |archive-date=2024-12-12 |access-date=2024-12-28 |website=World Economic Forum |language=en}} and has made some overtures towards Europe. However, the country's authoritarian rule and controversies such as with the Uyghurs have soured relations with the major European powers.

The 2019 Chinese Defense White Paper highlights the growing strategic competition between China and the United States. According to Anthony H. Cordesman, although the paper flags both China and the US as competing superpowers, it was far more moderate in its treatment of the US in contrast to the United States' view on Chinese military developments. Cordesman states that the paper was a warning that will shape Sino-American relations as China becomes stronger than Russia in virtually every aspect other than its nuclear arsenal.{{cite journal |author=Cordesman, Anthony H. |date=24 July 2019 |title=China's New 2019 Defense White Paper: An Open Strategic Challenge to the United States, But One Which Does Not Have to Lead to Conflict |url=https://www.csis.org/analysis/chinas-new-2019-defense-white-paper-open-strategic-challenge-united-states-one-which-does |journal=Center for Strategic and International Studies}}

On 19 August 2019, the United States Studies Centre published a report, suggesting that Washington no longer enjoys primacy in the Indo-Pacific. It stresses that the War on Terror has greatly distracted the US response to China's role in the Pacific; that US military force in the region has greatly atrophied whereas Beijing only grew stronger and more capable since the September 11 attacks, to the point that China could now actively challenge the United States over the Indo-Pacific.{{cite report |url=https://www.ussc.edu.au/analysis/averting-crisis-american-strategy-military-spending-and-collective-defence-in-the-indo-pacific |title=Averting Crisis: American strategy, military spending and collective defence in the Indo-Pacific |author=Ashley Townshend |author2=Brendan Thomas-Noone |author3=Matilda Steward |date=19 August 2019 |work=United States Studies Centre}} China's challenging the United States for global predominance constitutes the core issue in the debate over the American decline.{{cite news |last1=Wyne |first1=Ali |date=21 June 2018 |title=Is America Choosing Decline? |url=https://newrepublic.com/article/149008/america-choosing-decline |access-date=28 March 2019 |magazine=The New Republic}}{{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Stuart S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RgVBK3B1oOQC&q=US+cultural+decline |title=The Future of US Global Power: Delusions of Decline |date=2013 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-137-02315-5 |language=en |access-date=24 March 2019}}{{dead link|date=September 2023|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}{{cite web |last1=Rapoza |first1=Kenneth |title=The Future: China's Rise, America's Decline |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/kenrapoza/2017/03/26/the-future-chinas-rise-americas-decline/#43133b093b2f |access-date=28 March 2019 |website=Forbes |language=en}}

China's emergence as a global economic power is tied to its large working population.{{Cite web |date=15 February 2016 |title=Does China have an aging problem? |url=https://chinapower.csis.org/aging-problem/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190518054454/https://chinapower.csis.org/aging-problem/ |archive-date=18 May 2019 |access-date=16 May 2019 |website=ChinaPower Project |language=en-US}} However, the population in China is aging faster than almost any other country in history.{{Cite web |last=Kapadia |first=Reshma |date=7 September 2019 |title=What Americans Can Learn From the Rest of the World About Retirement |url=https://www.barrons.com/articles/how-to-fix-the-global-retirement-crisis-51567808425 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210316101509/https://www.barrons.com/articles/how-to-fix-the-global-retirement-crisis-51567808425 |archive-date=16 March 2021 |access-date=3 February 2021 |newspaper=Barron's}} Current demographic trends could hinder economic growth, create challenging social problems, and limit China's capabilities to act as a new global hegemon.{{cite book |last=Tozzo |first=Brandon |title=American Hegemony after the Great Recession |date=18 October 2017 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |isbn=978-1-137-57538-8 |publication-place=London |pages=79–92 |chapter=The Demographic and Economic Problems of China |doi=10.1057/978-1-137-57539-5_5}}{{Cite magazine |author=Nick Eberstadt |date=11 June 2019 |title=With Great Demographics Comes Great Power |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/world/2019-06-11/great-demographics-comes-great-power |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120080551/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/world/2019-06-11/great-demographics-comes-great-power |archive-date=20 January 2021 |access-date=4 February 2021 |magazine=Foreign Affairs}}{{Cite web |last=Sasse |first=Ben |date=26 January 2020 |title=The Responsibility to Counter China's Ambitions Falls to Us |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2020/01/china-sasse/605074/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210208223916/https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2020/01/china-sasse/605074/ |archive-date=8 February 2021 |access-date=4 February 2021 |publisher=The Atlantic}} China's primarily debt-driven economic growth also creates concerns for substantial credit default risks and a potential financial crisis.

File:The_Tokyo_Stock_Exchange_-_main_room_3.jpg, the third largest stock exchange in the world by market capitalization, as well as the 2nd largest stock market in Asia]]

Japan is considered a great power.{{Cite web |last=Glosserman |first=Brad |date=17 August 2020 |title=Japan and the 'great power competition' |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2020/08/17/commentary/japan-great-power-competition/ |access-date=8 April 2021 |website=The Japan Times |language=en-US}} It is a member of numerous international organizations, including the United Nations (since 1956), the OECD, and the Group of Seven. Although it has renounced its right to declare war, the country maintains Self-Defense Forces that rank as one of the world's strongest militaries. After World War II, Japan experienced record growth in an economic miracle, becoming the second-largest economy in the world by 1990. Japanese economy was the world's second largest economy in terms of GDP until it was surpassed by China in 2010, then Germany in 2023. {{As of|2024}}, the country's economy is the fourth-largest by nominal GDP as well as the fifth-largest by PPP. The country is the third-largest in the world by total wealth. It is also ranked "very high" on the Human Development Index.

Japan's capital Tokyo is a leading Alpha + Global city with the Greater Tokyo Area having the second-largest metropolitan economy in the world and a gross metropolitan product estimated at US$2 trillion.{{Cite web |title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2021 |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2021/April |access-date=2024-06-22 |website=IMF |language=en |archive-date=April 7, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210407050829/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2021/April |url-status=live }} The city is also one of the worlds major financial centres, being the headquarters of many of the world’s largest investment banks and insurance companies. It is also the hub for the country’s telecommunications, electronic, broadcasting, and publishing industries.{{cite web|url=https://www.investopedia.com/articles/investing/091114/worlds-top-financial-cities.asp|title=The World's Leading Financial Cities|website=Investopedia|date=1 February 2024}} The other major economic centres of the country include Osaka, Yokohama and Nagoya.

In the 1980s, many political and economic analysts predicted that Japan would eventually accede to superpower status, due to its large population, huge gross domestic product and high economic growth at that time. Japan was expected to eventually surpass the economy of the United States, which never happened.{{cite book |last=Zakaria |first=Fareed |author-link=Fareed Zakaria |url=https://archive.org/details/postamericanworl00zaka_199 |title=The Post-American World |date=2008 |publisher=W. W. Norton and Company |isbn=978-0-393-06235-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/postamericanworl00zaka_199/page/n225 210] |url-access=limited}}{{Cite news |date=12 November 2009 |title=Land of the setting sun |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2009/11/12/land-of-the-setting-sun |newspaper=The Economist}}{{cite magazine |date=4 July 1988 |title=Japan From Superrich To Superpower |url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,967823,00.html |magazine=Time}} However, Japan is considered a cultural superpower in terms of the large-scale influence Japanese food, music, video games, manga, anime and movies have on the world.{{Cite web |date=31 January 2015 |title=How Japan became a pop culture superpower |url=https://www.spectator.co.uk/article/how-japan-became-a-pop-culture-superpower/ |website=The Spectator}}{{Cite web |last=Nagata |first=Kazuaki |date=7 September 2010 |title='Anime' makes Japan a cultural superpower |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2010/09/07/reference/anime-makes-japan-superpower/ |via=Japan Times Online}}{{cite web |last1=Tamaki |first1=Taku |date=26 April 2017 |title=Japan has turned its culture into a powerful political tool |url=http://theconversation.com/japan-has-turned-its-culture-into-a-powerful-political-tool-72821 |website=The Conversation |language=en}}{{Cite news |date=18 July 2020 |title='Pure Invention': How Japan's pop culture became the 'lingua franca' of the internet |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/culture/2020/07/18/books/pure-invention-jpop-culture/ |work=The Japan Times}}{{Cite news |date=27 May 2020 |title=How Japan's global image morphed from military empire to eccentric pop-culture superpower |url=https://qz.com/1806376/japans-image-has-changed-from-fierce-to-lovable-over-the-decades/ |publisher=Quartz}} In 2023, U.S. News & World Report ranked Japan as the most culturally influential country in Asia and 5th in the world.{{cite web |date=2024 |title=Cultural Influence rankings |url=https://www.usnews.com/news/best-countries/influence-rankings |access-date=24 May 2021 |publisher=USnews}} Similarly, in 2019 Japan was considered the 8th most powerful country in terms of soft power.{{Cite web |title=Soft Power 30 |url=https://softpower30.com/ |access-date=2024-12-28 |website=Soft Power |language=en-GB}}

Japan is also considered to be a technological power, being the leader in the automotive,{{cite web|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/globe-drive/adventure/red-line/the-rise-of-japan-how-the-car-industry-was-won/article27100187/|title=The rise of Japan: How the car industry was won|website=The Globe and Mail|date= 5 November 2015}} electronics{{cite web|url=https://www.weforum.org/stories/2023/11/how-japan-s-semiconductor-industry-is-leaping-into-the-future/|title=How Japan's semiconductor industry is leaping into the future|website= World Economic Forum|date=20 November 2023}} and robotics industries.{{cite web |date=18 May 2021 |title=Top 10 Countries for Technological Expertise, Ranked by Perception |url=https://www.usnews.com/news/best-countries/slideshows/top-10-countries-for-technological-expertise-ranked-by-perception |website=U.S. News & World Report}}{{cite web |title=Japan, the World's Leading "Robot Nation" |url=https://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/whyutokyo/wj_003.html |publisher=The University of Tokyo}} As of 2022, 40 of the Fortune Global 500 companies are based in Japan.{{cite web |title=Global 500 (updated) |url=http://fortune.com/global500/ |work=Fortune}} Japan's most valuable and internationally known brands include: Toyota, Honda, Sony, SoftBank, Subaru, Nissan, Mazda, Canon Inc., Uniqlo and Nintendo.{{cite web |date=7 June 2021 |title=Brand value of the leading 50 most valuable Japanese brands in 2021 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/235054/brand-value-of-the-leading-30-most-valuable-global-japanese-brands/ |website=Statista}}

Japan was ranked as the world's fourth most-powerful military in 2015.{{cite report |url=http://publications.credit-suisse.com/tasks/render/file/index.cfm?fileid=EE7A6A5D-D9D5-6204-E9E6BB426B47D054 |title=The End of Globalization or a more Multipolar World? |last1=O’Sullivan |first1=Michael |last2=Subramanian |first2=Krithika |date=17 October 2015 |publisher=Credit Suisse AG |access-date=14 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180215235711/http://publications.credit-suisse.com/tasks/render/file/index.cfm?fileid=EE7A6A5D-D9D5-6204-E9E6BB426B47D054 |archive-date=15 February 2018 |url-status=dead}} The military capabilities of the Japan Self-Defense Forces are held back by the pacifist 1947 constitution. However, there is a gradual push for a constitutional amendment. On 18 September 2015, the National Diet enacted the 2015 Japanese military legislation, a series of laws that allow Japan's Self-Defense Forces to collective self-defense of allies in combat for the first time under its constitution.{{cite news |last=Slavin |first=Erik |date=18 September 2015 |title=Japan enacts major changes to its self-defense laws |url=http://www.stripes.com/news/pacific/japan-enacts-major-changes-to-its-self-defense-laws-1.368783 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180619063041/https://www.stripes.com/news/pacific/japan-enacts-major-changes-to-its-self-defense-laws-1.368783 |archive-date=19 June 2018 |newspaper=Stars and Stripes |location=Tokyo}} In May 2017, former Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe set a 2020 deadline for revising Article 9, which would legitimize the JSDF in the Constitution.{{cite web |last=Tatsumi |first=Yuki |title=Abe's New Vision for Japan's Constitution |url=http://thediplomat.com/2017/05/abes-new-vision-for-japans-constitution/ |access-date=18 May 2017 |website=thediplomat.com}} However, Article 9 has not yet been revised as of 2024, and Japan's military forces are still only meant for its own defense.

Japan is not the military giant it once was, and its new constitution restrains its power projection to having a single overseas military base, in Djibouti. However, its vast economical strength, alliances, technology and cultural influence over the world still make it one of the world's great powers.

The Federal Republic of Germany is, since its reunification, considered a great power.

Germany has a strong economy; it has the largest economy in Europe, the world's third-largest economy by nominal GDP, and the sixth-largest by PPP. It is one of the most innovative countries in several industrial, scientific and technological sectors,{{Cite book |last=Ziegler |first=Nicholas |title=Governing Ideas: Strategies for Innovation in France and Germany |date=2019 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-1-5017-4496-9 |series=Cornell Studies in Political Economy |location=Ithaca, NY}} and is both the world's third-largest exporter and importer. As a developed country, which ranks very high on the Human Development Index, it offers social security, a universal health care system, and a tuition-free university education. Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G7, the G20, and the OECD. It has the third-greatest number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

Germany's social market economy has a highly skilled labour force, a low level of corruption, and a high level of innovation.{{Cite web |title=Germany |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/germany/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109075739/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/germany |archive-date=9 January 2021 |access-date=29 March 2020 |website=The World Factbook |publisher=CIA}}{{cite web |date=24 January 2020 |title=Corruption Perceptions Index 2019 |url=https://www.transparency.org/cpi2019 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200327160133/https://www.transparency.org/cpi2019 |archive-date=27 March 2020 |access-date=29 March 2020 |publisher=Transparency International}}{{cite web |last=Schwab |first=Klaus |title=The Global Competitiveness Report 2018 |url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/GCR2018/05FullReport/TheGlobalCompetitivenessReport2018.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200224135655/http://www3.weforum.org/docs/GCR2018/05FullReport/TheGlobalCompetitivenessReport2018.pdf |archive-date=24 February 2020 |access-date=29 March 2020 |page=11}} Its GDP per capita measured in purchasing power standards amounts to 121% of the EU27 average (100%).{{cite web |title=GDP per capita in PPS |url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/table.do?tab=table&init=1&language=en&pcode=tec00114&plugin=1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150120063953/https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/table.do?tab=table&init=1&language=en&pcode=tec00114&plugin=1 |archive-date=20 January 2015 |access-date=18 June 2020 |website=ec.europa.eu/eurostat |publisher=Eurostat}} The service sector contributes approximately 69% of the total GDP, industry 31%, and agriculture 1% {{as of|2017|lc=y}}. Its unemployment rate, published by Eurostat, amounts to 3.2% {{as of|2020|01|lc=y}}, which is the fourth-lowest in the EU.{{Cite web |title=Unemployment statistics |url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Unemployment_statistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200406062752/https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Unemployment_statistics |archive-date=6 April 2020 |access-date=29 March 2020 |website=Eurostat}}

Germany is part of the European single market.{{cite web |date=5 July 2016 |title=The European single market |url=https://ec.europa.eu/growth/single-market_en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200409110216/https://ec.europa.eu/growth/single-market_en |archive-date=9 April 2020 |access-date=30 March 2020 |publisher=European Commission}} In 2017, the country accounted for 28% of the eurozone economy according to the International Monetary Fund.{{cite web |title=Germany: Spend More at Home |url=http://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2017/07/05/na070717-germany-spend-more-at-home |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180108101740/https://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2017/07/05/na070717-germany-spend-more-at-home |archive-date=8 January 2018 |access-date=28 April 2018 |publisher=International Monetary Fund}} Its monetary policy is set by the European Central Bank, which is headquartered in Frankfurt.{{cite web |title=Monetary policy |url=https://www.bundesbank.de/en/tasks/monetary-policy/monetary-policy-625914 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210620152755/https://www.bundesbank.de/en/tasks/monetary-policy/monetary-policy-625914 |archive-date=20 June 2021 |access-date=30 March 2020 |publisher=Bundesbank}}{{cite report |url=http://speri.dept.shef.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/SPERI-Brief-10-Frankfurt.pdf |title=Frankfurt as a financial centre after Brexit |last1=Lavery |first1=Scott |last2=Schmid |first2=Davide |publisher=University of Sheffield |access-date=30 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210620152658/http://speri.dept.shef.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/SPERI-Brief-10-Frankfurt.pdf |archive-date=20 June 2021 |url-status=live |series=SPERI Global Political Economy Brief |year=2018}} Frankfurt is also home to the Frankfurt Stock Exchange, the 12th largest stock exchange by market capitalization{{Cite web |last=Market |first=Deutsche Börse Cash |title=Deutsche Börse Cash Market – Organisation of the FWB |url=http://www.deutsche-boerse-cash-market.com/dbcm-en/about-us/organisation-of-the-fwb |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160405010038/http://www.deutsche-boerse-cash-market.com/dbcm-en/about-us/organisation-of-the-fwb |archive-date=5 April 2016 |access-date=9 April 2016 |website=www.deutsche-boerse-cash-market.com}} and one of the biggest in Europe. The automotive industry in Germany is regarded as one of the most competitive and innovative in the world,{{cite web |last=Randall |first=Chris |date=10 December 2019 |title=CAM study reveals: German carmakers are most innovative |url=https://www.electrive.com/2019/12/10/cam-study-reveals-german-manufacturers-as-innovative/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200510175816/https://www.electrive.com/2019/12/10/cam-study-reveals-german-manufacturers-as-innovative/ |archive-date=10 May 2020 |publisher=Electrive}} and is the sixth-largest by production.{{Cite web |title=2023 Statistics {{!}} www.oica.net |url=https://www.oica.net/category/production-statistics/2023-statistics/ |access-date=2024-03-26 |website=www.oica.net}}

Of the world's 500 largest stock-market-listed companies measured by revenue in 2024, the Fortune Global 500, 29 are headquartered in Germany. Well-known international brands include Mercedes-Benz, BMW, Volkswagen, Audi, Siemens, Allianz, Adidas, Porsche, Bosch and Deutsche Telekom.{{cite web |title=Brand value of the leading 10 most valuable German brands in 2019 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/235173/brand-value-of-the-leading-10-most-valuable-german-brands/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191210192215/https://www.statista.com/statistics/235173/brand-value-of-the-leading-10-most-valuable-german-brands/ |archive-date=10 December 2019 |access-date=30 March 2020 |website=Statista}} Berlin is a hub for startup companies and has become the leading location for venture capital funded firms in the European Union.{{Cite web |last=Frost |first=Simon |date=28 August 2015 |title=Berlin outranks London in start-up investment |url=http://www.euractiv.com/sections/innovation-industry/berlin-outranks-london-start-investment-317140 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151106224621/http://www.euractiv.com/sections/innovation-industry/berlin-outranks-london-start-investment-317140 |archive-date=6 November 2015 |access-date=28 October 2015 |website=euractiv.com}} Germany is recognised for its large portion of specialised small and medium enterprises, known as the {{lang|de|Mittelstand}} model.{{cite news |last=Dakers |first=Marion |date=11 May 2017 |title=Secrets of growth: the power of Germany's Mittelstand |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/connect/small-business/driving-growth/secrets-growth-power-of-germany-mittelstand/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306134928/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/connect/small-business/driving-growth/secrets-growth-power-of-germany-mittelstand/ |archive-date=6 March 2019 |website=The Telegraph}} These companies represent 48% global market leaders in their segments, labelled hidden champions.{{cite web |last=Bayley |first=Caroline |date=17 August 2017 |title=Germany's 'hidden champions' of the Mittelstand |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-40796571 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190522010803/https://www.bbc.com/news/business-40796571 |archive-date=22 May 2019 |publisher=BBC News}}

Research and development efforts form an integral part of the German economy.{{Cite web |date=2014 |title=Federal Report on Research and Innovation 2014 |url=http://www.bmbf.de/pub/Federal_Report_on_Research_and_Innovation_2014.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160514110947/http://www.bmbf.de/pub/Federal_Report_on_Research_and_Innovation_2014.pdf |archive-date=14 May 2016 |access-date=26 March 2015 |publisher=Federal Ministry of Education and Research}} In 2018 Germany ranked fourth globally in terms of number of science and engineering research papers published.{{cite web |last=McCarthy |first=Niall |date=13 January 2020 |title=The countries leading the world in scientific research |url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/01/top-ten-countries-leading-scientific-publications-in-the-world/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200312073822/https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/01/top-ten-countries-leading-scientific-publications-in-the-world |archive-date=12 March 2020 |publisher=World Economic Forum}} Germany was ranked 9th in the Global Innovation Index in 2019 and 2020.{{Cite web |title=Release of the Global Innovation Index 2020: Who Will Finance Innovation? |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2020/index.html |access-date=2 September 2021 |publisher=WIPO}}{{Cite web |title=Global Innovation Index 2019 |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2019/index.html |access-date=2 September 2021 |publisher=WIPO}} Research institutions in Germany include the Max Planck Society, the Helmholtz Association, and the Fraunhofer Society and the Leibniz Association.{{cite journal |last=Boytchev |first=Hristio |date=27 March 2019 |title=An introduction to the complexities of the German research scene |journal=Nature |volume=567 |issue=7749 |pages=S34–S35 |bibcode=2019Natur.567S..34B |doi=10.1038/d41586-019-00910-7 |pmid=30918381 |doi-access=free}} Germany is the largest contributor to the European Space Agency. While its diplomatic power is limited compared to that of Britain and France, Germany still leads the European Union with France,{{Cite book |last=Pedersen |first=Thomas |title=Germany, France, and the integration of Europe: a realist interpretation |date=1998 |publisher=Pinter |isbn=978-1-85567-537-7 |location=London; New York}} formulating various European sanctions, yet remained dependent on Russian gas for a time. Germany has foreign relations with almost every country.

While recent years have seen German overtures towards Russia labeled a mistake,{{cite web |title=The ruins of Ostpolitik |url=https://www.eurozine.com/german-ostpolitik-in-the-shadow-of-russias-imperial-revenge/ |website=www.eurozine.com|date=23 February 2022 }} and the German economy has been struggling, having the lowest GDP growth among the G7 during recent years,{{Cite news |date=2024-09-01 |title=The German problem? It's an analogue country in a digital world |url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/article/2024/sep/01/germany-economy-problem-analogue-industries |accessdate=2024-09-06 |newspaper=The Guardian}}{{Cite news |date=2024-08-15 |title=GDP – International Comparisons: Key Economic Indicators |url=https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/sn02784/ |accessdate=2024-09-06 |newspaper=House of Commons Library}} Germany remains one of the largest and most advanced economies, with a strong, slowly recovering military,{{Cite web |title=Germany's Defense Budget 2024 {{!}} DGAP |url=https://dgap.org/en/research/publications/germanys-defense-budget-2024 |access-date=2024-12-28 |website=dgap.org}} and is still considered a great power.

{{Main|Emerging power}}

Some nations, while not fitting the criteria to be considered or recognized as a great power yet, are emerging, with a fast-growing economy, as major driving forces in the modern world. Examples of such powers include Turkey, India, or Brazil.{{cite web |last1=Shaw |first1=Timothy M. |last2=Cornelissen |first2=Scarlett |last3=Miranda |first3=Liliana Avendãno |last4=McDonald |first4=Matthew |date=June 2010 |title=The Emerging Politics of the Emerging Powers: The BRICs and the Global South |url=http://www.ccs.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/China_Monitor_JUNE_2010.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131204011005/http://www.ccs.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/China_Monitor_JUNE_2010.pdf |archive-date=4 December 2013 |access-date=4 December 2013 |work=The China Monitor |publisher=Centre For Chinese Studies |location=University of Stellenbosch, South Africa |issue=52}}{{Cite web |title=Brazil as an Emerging Power: The View from the United States |url=https://www.cfr.org/blog/brazil-emerging-power-view-united-states |access-date=2023-07-31 |website=Council on Foreign Relations |language=en}}Stacy White, [http://csis.org/files/publication/110214_White_EmergingPowers_Web.pdf CSIS: Emerging Powers, Emerging Donors] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110308123921/http://csis.org/files/publication/110214_White_EmergingPowers_Web.pdf|date=8 March 2011}}, Published February 2011

• Cold War 1947–1989
• Concert of Europe, after 1814
• Diplomatic history of World War I
• Diplomatic history of World War II
• European balance of power
• Foreign policy of the Russian Empire
• Great Eastern Crisis, 1875–1878
• Historic recurrence
• Historiography of the British Empire
• History of the foreign relations of the United Kingdom
• Pax Britannica
• Timeline of British diplomatic history
• History of colonialism
• History of French foreign relations
• History of German foreign policy
• History of globalization
• International relations (1648–1814)
• International relations (1919–1939)
• International relations (1814–1919)
• List of ancient great powers
• List of largest empires
• List of medieval great powers
• Precedence among European monarchies
• Middle power
• New Imperialism
• Potential superpower
• Power (international relations)
• Timeline of European imperialism
• Timeline of United States diplomatic history

• {{cite book |last=Anderson |first=Fred |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FFO2clqJCqMC |title=Crucible of War: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754–1766 |date=2007 |publisher=Vintage – Random House |isbn=978-0-307-42539-3}}
• {{cite web |last=DeLong |first=J. Bradford |author-link=J. Bradford DeLong |date=February 1997 |title=Slouching Towards Utopia?: The Economic History of the Twentieth Century. XV. Nazis and Soviets |url=http://econ161.berkeley.edu/TCEH/Slouch_Purge15.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511190923/http://econ161.berkeley.edu/TCEH/Slouch_Purge15.html |archive-date=11 May 2008 |access-date=21 April 2013 |work=econ161.berkeley.edu |publisher=University of California at Berkeley |df=dmy-all}}
• {{cite book |last=Evans |first=Richard J. |url=https://archive.org/details/thirdreichinpowe00evan |title=The Third Reich in Power |publisher=Penguin |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-14-303790-3 |location=New York |url-access=registration}}
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• {{cite book |last=Kershaw |first=Ian |title=Hitler: A Biography |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-393-06757-6 |location=New York}}
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• {{cite book |last=Marston |first=Daniel |title=The French and Indian War |date=2002 |publisher=Osprey |isbn=1-84176-456-6 |series=Essential Histories}}
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• {{cite book |last=Richter |first=Daniel |author-link=Daniel K. Richter |title=Before the Revolution: America's ancient pasts |date=2011 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-05580-3}}
• {{cite book |last=Shirer |first=William L. |author-link=William L. Shirer |title=The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich |title-link=The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich |publisher=Simon & Schuster |year=1960 |location=New York}}
• {{Cite book |last=Truitt |first=Wesley B. |title=Power and Policy: Lessons for Leaders in Government and Business |publisher=Praeger |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-313-38240-6}}
• {{cite book |last=Tooze |first=Adam |author-link=Adam Tooze |title=The Wages of Destruction: The Making and Breaking of the Nazi Economy |title-link=The Wages of Destruction |publisher=Viking |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-670-03826-8 |location=New York; Toronto}}

• Banks, Arthur. (1988) A World Atlas of Military History 1861–1945
• Cambridge Modern History Atlas (1912) online. 141 maps
• Catchpole, Brian. (1982) Map History of the Modern World
• Cooper, F. (2008). Empires and Political Imagination in World History. Princeton [u.a.]: Princeton University Press.
• Daniels, Patricia S. and Stephen G. Hyslop, Almanac of World History (3rd ed 2014); 384pp well illustrated
• Doyle, M. W. (1986). Empires. Ithaca, N.Y: Cornell University Press.
• Farrington, K. (2003). Historical Atlas of Empires. London: Mercury.
• Grenville, J.A.S. (1994) A History of the World in the Twentieth Century (1994). online
• Haywood, John. (1997) Atlas of world history [https://archive.org/search.php?query=atlas%20world%20history%20haywood online]
• Joffe, Josef. The myth of America's decline: Politics, economics, and a half century of false prophecies ( WW Norton & Company, 2014).
• Kinder, Hermann and Werner Hilgemann. The Penguin Atlas of World History (2 vol, 2004); advanced topical atlas. [https://www.amazon.com/Penguin-Atlas-World-History-Prehistory/dp/0141012633/ excerpt of vol 1] also see [https://www.amazon.com/Penguin-Atlas-World-History-Revolution/dp/0141012625/ excerpt vol 2]
• Langer, William, ed. (1973) An Encyclopedia of World History (1948 And later editions) online
• Stearns, Peter, ed. The Encyclopedia of World History (2007), 1245pp; update of Langer
• {{cite book |author=Mckay, Derek |author2=H.M. Scott |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OaiQBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR7 |title=The Rise of the Great Powers 1648–1815 |publisher=Pearson |year=1983 |isbn=978-1-317-87284-9}}
• Pella, John & Erik Ringmar, (2019) History of international relations [http://www.irhistory.info/%20History%20of%20International%20Relations Online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190816033245/http://www.irhistory.info/%20History%20of%20International%20Relations|date=16 August 2019}}
• O'Brian, Patrick K. Atlas of World History (2007) online
• Pastor, Robert, ed. A Century's Journey How The Great Powers Shape The World (2000)
• Rand McNally Atlas of World History (1983), maps #76–81. Published in Britain as the Hamlyn Historical Atlas online
• Roberts, J. M. and Odd Arne Westad, eds. The Penguin History of the World (6th ed. 2014) 1280pp [https://www.amazon.com/Penguin-History-World-Sixth/dp/1846144434/ excerpt]
• Robertson, Charles Grant. An historical atlas of modern Europe from 1789 to 1922 with an historical and explanatory text (1922) online

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Category:Countries

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Category:History of international relations

Great powers

Category:Modern history