History of the International Phonetic Alphabet#1928 revisions

The International Phonetic Association was founded in Paris in 1886 under the name Dhi Fonètik Tîtcerz' Asóciécon (The Phonetic Teachers' Association), a development of L'Association phonétique des professeurs d'Anglais ("The English Teachers' Phonetic Association"), to promote an international phonetic alphabet, designed primarily for English, French, and German, for use in schools to facilitate acquiring foreign pronunciation.{{sfnp|International Phonetic Association|1999|pp=194–7}}

Originally the letters had different phonetic values from language to language. For example, English {{IPA|[ʃ]}} was transcribed with {{angbr|c}} and French {{IPA|[ʃ]}} with {{angbr|x}}.{{sfnp|International Phonetic Association|1999|p=196}}

As of May and November 1887, the alphabets were as follows:{{sfnp|Phonetic Teachers' Association|1887a}}{{sfnp|Phonetic Teachers' Association|1887b}}

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In the August–September 1888 issue of its journal, the Phonetic Teachers' Association published a standardized alphabet intended for transcription of multiple languages, reflecting its members' consensus that only one set of alphabet ought to be used for all languages,{{sfnp|Phonetic Teachers' Association|1888a}} along with a set of six principles:

1. There should be a separate sign for each distinctive sound; that is, for each sound which, being used instead of another, in the same language, can change the meaning of a word.
2. When any sound is found in several languages, the same sign should be used in all. This applies also to very similar shades of sound.
3. The alphabet should consist as much as possible of the ordinary letters of the roman alphabet; as few new letters as possible being used.
4. In assigning values to the roman letters, international usage should decide.
5. The new letters should be suggestive of the sounds they represent, by their resemblance to the old ones.
6. Diacritic marks should be avoided, being trying for the eyes and troublesome to write.{{sfnp|Phonetic Teachers' Association|1888b}}

The principles would govern all future development of the alphabet, with the exception of #5 and in some cases #2,{{sfnp|International Phonetic Association|1949|loc=back endpaper}} until they were revised drastically in 1989.{{sfnp|International Phonetic Association|1989a}} #6 has also been loosened, as diacritics have been admitted for limited purposes.{{sfnp|Kemp|2006|p=407}}

The devised alphabet was as follows. The letters marked with an asterisk were "provisional shapes", which were meant to be replaced "when circumstances will allow".{{sfnp|Phonetic Teachers' Association|1888b}}

During the 1890s, the alphabet was expanded to cover sounds of Arabic and other non-European languages which did not easily fit the Latin alphabet.{{sfnp|International Phonetic Association|1999|p=196}}

Throughout the first half of the 1900s, the Association published a series of booklets outlining the specifications of the alphabet in several languages, the first being a French edition published in 1900.{{sfnp|MacMahon|1986|pp=35, 38 n. 20}} In the book, the chart appeared as follows:{{sfnp|Association phonétique internationale|1900b|p=7}}

Initially, the charts were arranged with laryngeal sounds on the left and labial ones on the right, following the convention of Alexander Melville Bell's Visible Speech.{{sfnp|Esling|2010|p=681}} Vowels and consonants were placed in a single chart, reflecting how sounds ranged in openness from stops (top) to open vowels (bottom). The voiced velar fricative was represented by {{angbr|1=class=skin-invert}} (distinct from {{angbr IPA|ɡ}}, which represents a plosive) since 1895 until it was replaced by {{angbr IPA|ǥ}} in 1900.{{sfnp|Association phonétique internationale|1895}}{{sfnp|Association phonétique internationale|1900a}} {{angbr IPA|ǥ}} too would be replaced by {{angbr IPA|ɣ}} in 1931.{{sfnp|Association phonétique internationale|1931}}

Not all letters, especially those in the fricatives row which included both fricatives in the modern sense and approximants, were self-explanatory and could only be discerned in the notes following the chart, which redefined letters using the orthographies of languages wherein the sounds they represent occur. For example:

{{IPA|(ꞯ)}} [is] the Arabic ain [modern {{angbr IPA|ʕ}}]. {{IPA|(ꜰ) (ʋ)}} is a simple bilabial fricative [modern {{angbr IPA|ɸ β}}] ... {{IPA|(θ)}} is the English hard th, Spanish z, Romaic [Greek] θ, Icelandic þ; {{IPA|(ð)}} the English soft th, Icelandic ð, Romaic δ. {{IPA|(ɹ)}} is the non-rolled r of Southern British, and can also be used for the simple r of Spanish and Portuguese [modern {{angbr IPA|ɾ}}] ... {{IPA|(x)}} is found in German in ach; {{IPA|(ǥ)}}, in wagen, as often pronounced in the north of Germany [modern {{angbr IPA|ɣ}}]. {{IPA|(ᴚ)}} is the Arabic kh as in khalifa [modern {{angbr IPA|χ}}]; {{IPA|(ʁ)}} the Danish r; the Parisian r is intermediate between {{IPA|(ʀ)}} and {{IPA|(ʁ)}}. — {{IPA|(ʜ)}} [modern {{angbr IPA|ħ}}] and {{IPA|(ɦ)}} are the ha and he in Arabic.The 1904 English edition says that {{angbr IPA|ɦ}} is the Arabic and English voiced h -- its use for English, though Arabic has no such sound. — {{IPA|(ᵷ)}} and {{IPA|1=(ʒ)}} are sounds in Circassian [approximately modern {{angbr IPA|ɕ ʑ}}The 1904 English edition describes these sounds as the "Circassian dental hiss". See Postalveolar consonant for details on these sounds, which do not currently have IPA support.].{{sfnp|Association phonétique internationale|1900b|p=8}}

Nasalized vowels were marked with a tilde: {{angbr IPA|ã}}, {{angbr IPA|ẽ}}, etc. It was noted that {{angbr IPA|ə}} may be used for "any vowel of obscure and intermediate quality found in weak syllables".{{sfnp|Association phonétique internationale|1900b|p=8}} A long sound was distinguished by trailing {{angbr IPA|ː}}. Stress may be marked by {{angbr IPA|´}} before the stressed syllable, as necessary, and the Swedish and Norwegian 'compound tone' (double tone) with {{angbr IPA|ˇ}} before the syllable.{{sfnp|Association phonétique internationale|1900b|p=8}}

A voiced sound was marked by {{angbr IPA|◌̬}} and a voiceless one by {{angbr IPA|◌̥}}. Retroflex consonants were marked by {{angbr IPA|◌̣}}, as in {{angbr IPA|ṣ, ṭ, ṇ}}. Arabic emphatic consonants were marked by {{angbr IPA|◌̤}}: {{angbr IPA|s̤, t̤, d̤}}. Consonants accompanied by a glottal stop (ejectives) were marked by {{angbr IPA|ʼ}}: {{angbr IPA|kʼ, pʼ}}. Tense and lax vowels were distinguished by acute and grave accents: naught {{IPA|[nɔ́ːt]}}, not {{IPA|[nɔ̀t]}}. Non-syllabic vowels were marked by a breve, as in {{angbr IPA|ŭ}}, and syllabic consonants by an acute below, as in {{angbr IPA|n̗}}. Following letters, {{angbr IPA|꭫}} stood for advanced tongue, {{angbr IPA|꭪}} for retracted tongue, {{angbr IPA|˕}} for more open, {{angbr IPA|˔}} for more close, {{angbr IPA|˒}} for more rounded, and {{angbr IPA|˓}} for more spread. It was also noted that a superscript letter may be used to indicate a tinge of that sound in the sound represented by the preceding letter, as in {{angbr IPA|ʃᶜ̧}}.{{sfnp|Association phonétique internationale|1900b|p=9}}

It was emphasized, however, that such details need not usually be repeated in transcription.{{sfnp|Association phonétique internationale|1900b|p=9}} The equivalent part of the 1904 English edition said:

[I]t must remain a general principle to leave out everything self-evident, and everything that can be explained once for all. This allows us to dispense almost completely with the modifiers, and with a good many other signs, except in scientific works and in introductory explanations. We write English fill and French fil the same way {{IPA|fil}}; yet the English vowel is 'wide' and the French 'narrow', and the English {{IPA|l}} is formed much further back than the French. If we wanted to mark these differences, we should write English {{IPA|fìl꭪}}, French {{IPA|fíl꭫}}. But we need not do so: we know, once for all, that English short {{IPA|i}} is always {{IPA|ì}}, and French {{IPA|i}} always {{IPA|í}}; that English {{IPA|l}} is always {{IPA|l꭪}} and French {{IPA|l}} always {{IPA|l꭫}}.{{sfnp|Association phonétique internationale|1904|p=10}}

In the 1904 Aim and Principles of the International Phonetic Association, the first of its kind in English, the chart appeared as:{{sfnp|Association phonétique internationale|1904|p=7}}

In comparison to the 1900 chart, the glottal stop appeared as a modifier letter {{angbr IPA|ˀ}} rather than a full letter {{angbr IPA|ʔ}}, {{angbr IPA|ʊ}} replaced {{angbr IPA|ᴜ}}, and {{angbr IPA|ɫ}} replaced {{angbr IPA|ł}}. {{angbr IPA|1=ᵷ, ʒ}} were removed from the chart and instead only mentioned as having "been suggested for a Circassian dental hiss [sibilant] and its voiced correspondent".{{sfnp|Association phonétique internationale|1904|p=10}} {{angbr IPA|σ}} is suggested for the Bantu labialized sibilant, and {{angbr IPA|*}} as a diacritic to mark click consonants. It is noted that some prefer iconic {{angbr IPA|ɵ ʚ}} to {{angbr IPA|ø œ}}, and that {{angbr IPA|ı}} and {{angbr IPA|ː}} are unsatisfactory letters.

Laryngeal consonants had also been moved around, reflecting little understanding about the mechanisms of laryngeal articulations at the time.{{sfnp|Heselwood|2013|pp=112–3}} {{angbr IPA|ʜ}} and {{angbr IPA|ꞯ}} were defined as the Arabic {{lang|ar|ح}} and {{lang|ar|ع}}.{{sfnp|Association phonétique internationale|1904|p=8}}

In the notes, the half-length mark {{angbr IPA|ˑ}} is now mentioned, and it is noted that whispered sounds may be marked with a diacritical comma, as in {{angbr IPA|u̦, i̦}}. A syllabic consonant is now marked by a vertical bar, as in {{angbr IPA|n̩}}, rather than {{angbr IPA|n̗}}.{{sfnp|Association phonétique internationale|1904|p=9}} It is noted, in this edition only, that "shifted vowels" may be indicated: {{angbr IPA|꭪꭪}} for in-mixed or in-front, and {{angbr IPA|꭫꭫}} for out-back.{{harvp|Association phonétique internationale|1904|p=9}}, citing {{harvp|Sweet|1902|p=37}}.

Following 1904, sets of specifications in French appeared in 1905 and 1908, with little to no changes.{{sfnp|Association phonétique internationale|1905}}{{sfnp|Association phonétique internationale|1908}} In 1912, the second English booklet appeared. For the first time, labial sounds were shown on the left and laryngeal ones on the right:{{sfnp|Association phonétique internationale|1912|p=10}}

{{angbr IPA|ř}} was added for the Czech fricative trill, {{angbr IPA|ɛ̈}} replaced {{angbr IPA|ä}} and {{angbr IPA|ɪ}} replaced {{angbr IPA|ı}}, following their approval in 1909.{{sfnp|Passy|1909}} Though not included in the chart, {{angbr IPA|ɱ}} was mentioned as an optional letter for the labiodental nasal. {{angbr IPA|ɹ}} was still designated as the "provisional" letter for the alveolar tap/flap. {{angbr IPA|σ, ƍ}} were defined as the Bantu sounds with "tongue position of θ, ð, combined with strong lip-rounding". {{angbr IPA|ʜ, ꞯ}} were still included though not in the chart.{{sfnp|Association phonétique internationale|1912|p=12}} {{angbr IPA|ᴙ}} was removed entirely.

For the first time, affricates, or {{"'}}[a]ssibilated' consonant groups, i. e. groups in which the two elements are so closely connected that the whole might be treated as a single sound", were noted as able to be represented with a tie bar, as in {{angbr IPA|t͡ʃ, d͜z}}. Palatalized consonants could be marked by a dot above the letter, as in {{angbr IPA|ṡ, ṅ, ṙ}}, "suggesting the connexion with the sounds i and j".{{sfnp|Association phonétique internationale|1912|p=13}}

{{angbr IPA|꭫, ꭪}} were no longer mentioned.

The 1921 Écriture phonétique internationale introduced new letters, some of which were never to be seen in any other booklet:{{sfnp|Association phonétique internationale|1921|p=8}}

{{angbr IPA|χ}} replaced {{angbr IPA|ᴚ}} and {{angbr IPA|ɤ}} replaced {{angbr IPA|{{sc2|Ɐ}}}}, both of which would not officially be approved until 1928.{{sfnp|Association phonétique internationale|1928}} {{angbr IPA|ƕ}} replaced {{angbr IPA|ʍ}} and {{angbr|1=class=skin-invert}} was added for a devoiced {{IPAblink|ɥ}}, but neither has appeared in any other IPA chart and the latter is not supported by Unicode. Also added were dedicated letters for the central vowels, {{angbr IPA|ɨ, ʉ, ɘ, ɵ, ᴈ, ʚ}}, which appeared again in {{harvp|Trofimov|Jones|1923|p=40}} and in the chart in Le Maître Phonétique from 1926 to 1927, though without the Council's approval.{{sfnp|Esling|2010|pp=681–2}}{{sfnp|Wells|1975}} Of these, only {{angbr IPA|ɨ, ʉ, ᴈ, ɵ}} were approved in the 1928 revision, with a different value for {{angbr IPA|ᴈ}}, until {{angbr IPA|ɘ, ʚ}} were revived and {{angbr IPA|ᴈ}} regained the 1921 value in 1993. The old convention of {{angbr IPA|ï, ü, ë, ö, ɛ̈, ɔ̈}} was retained for where central vowels were not phonemically distinct. {{angbr IPA|ə, ɐ}} were still for obscure or indeterminate vowels, as opposed to the others, which would indicate clear pronunciations.

The book also mentioned letters "already commonly used in special works", some of which had long been part of the IPA but others which "have not yet been definitively adopted":{{sfnp|Association phonétique internationale|1921|pp=8–9}}

• {{angbr IPA|ɾ}} for a single-tap r
• {{angbr IPA|ř}} for the Czech fricative trill
• {{angbr IPA|ɦ}} for a voiced {{IPA|[h]}}
• {{angbr IPA|ħ, ʕ}} for the Arabic {{lang|ar|ح}} and {{lang|ar|ع}}, "whose formation we do not yet agree on"
• {{angbr IPA|σ, ƍ}} (dental) and {{angbr IPA|ƪ, ƺ}} (alveolar or palatal) for labialized sibilants found in South African languages
• As "suggested":
• {{angbr IPA|1=ᵷ, ʒ}} for Circassian dental fricatives
• {{angbr IPA|ɮ}} for fricative {{IPA|[l]}} of Bantu languages
• {{angbr IPA|ɺ}} for a sound between {{IPA|[r]}} and {{IPA|[l]}} found in African languages and in Japanese
• Small j for palatalized consonants: {{angbr IPA|ƫ, ᶎ}}
• Overlaying tilde for velarized and Arabic emphatic consonants: {{angbr IPA|ᵵ, ᵭ}}
• {{angbr IPA|ɕ, ʑ}} for "dentalized palatals"
• {{angbr IPA|𝼪}}, {{angbr IPA|𝼥}}, {{angbr IPA|1=r}}, etc. for retroflex consonants, previously represented by {{angbr IPA|ṭ, ḍ, ṛ}} etc.Unicode supports {{angbr|𝼪 𝼥 𝼧 𝼦 𝼩}} and {{angbr|𝼨}} for 'r', but not the 'z'
• {{angbr IPA|ʧ}}, {{angbr IPA|ʤ}}, {{angbr IPA|ʦ}}, {{angbr IPA|ʣ}}, {{angbr IPA|pf}}, {{angbr IPA|tl}}, etc. for affricates
• {{angbr IPA|ᴜ, ɪ, ʏ}} for the near-close equivalents of {{IPA|[o, e, ø]}}
• {{angbr IPA|ɒ, æ}} for the near-open vowels in English not, man
• {{angbr IPA|ʇ, ʖ, ʞ, ʗ}} for clicks, with {{angbr IPA|ʞ}} for the common palatal click (this would be called "velar" in later editions of the IPA, following Jones' terminology)

It also introduced several new suprasegmental specifications:{{sfnp|Association phonétique internationale|1921|p=9}}

• {{angbr IPA|ˎ}} for "half-accent"
• {{angbr IPA|˝}} for "reinforced accent"
• Tones could be indicated either before the syllable or on the nuclear vowel: {{angbr IPA|´◌, ◌́}} high rising, {{angbr IPA|ˉ◌, ◌̄}} high level, {{angbr IPA|ˋ◌, ◌̀}} high falling, {{angbr IPA|ˏ◌, ◌̗}} low rising, {{angbr IPA|ˍ◌, ◌̠}} low level, {{angbr IPA|ˎ◌, ◌̖}} low falling, {{angbr IPA|ˆ◌, ◌̂}} rise-fall, {{angbr IPA|ˇ◌, ◌̌}} fall-rise
• Medium tones, as necessary: {{angbr IPA|1=´◌}} mid rising, {{angbr IPA|1=ˉ◌}} mid level, {{angbr IPA|˴◌}} mid falling

It recommended the use of a circumflex for the Swedish grave accent, as in {{IPA|[ˆandən]}} ("the spirit").{{sfnp|Association phonétique internationale|1921|p=9}} It was mentioned that some authors prefer {{angbr IPA|˖, ˗}} in place of {{angbr IPA|꭫, ꭪}}. Aspiration was marked as {{angbr IPA|pʻ, tʻ, kʻ}} and stronger aspiration as {{angbr IPA|ph, th, kh}}.{{sfnp|Association phonétique internationale|1921|p=10}}

The click letters {{angbr IPA|ʇ, ʖ, ʞ, ʗ}} were conceived by Daniel Jones. In 1960, A. C. Gimson wrote to a colleague:

Paul Passy recognized the need for letters for the various clicks in the July–August 1914 number of Le Maître Phonétique and asked for suggestions. This number, however, was the last for some years because of the war. During this interval, Professor Daniel Jones himself invented the four letters, in consultation with Paul Passy and they were all four printed in the pamphlet L'Écriture Phonétique Internationale published in 1921. The letters were thus introduced in a somewhat unusual way, without the explicit consent of the whole Council of the Association. They were, however, generally accepted from then on, and, as you say, were used by Professor Doke in 1923. I have consulted Professor Jones in this matter, and he accepts responsibility for their invention, during the period of the First World War.{{sfnp|Breckwoldt|1972|p=285}}

{{angbr IPA|ʇ, ʖ, ʗ}} would be approved by the Council in 1928.{{sfnp|Association phonétique internationale|1928}} {{angbr IPA|ʞ}} would be included in all subsequent booklets,{{sfnp|Jones|1928|p=26}}{{sfnp|Jones|Camilli|1933|p=11}}{{sfnp|Jones|Dahl|1944|p=12}}{{sfnp|International Phonetic Association|1949|p=14}} but not in the single-page charts. They would be replaced with the Lepsius/Bleek letters in the 1989 Kiel revision.

The 1921 book was the first in the series to mention the word phoneme (phonème).{{sfnp|Association phonétique internationale|1921|p=10}}

In April 1925, 12 linguists led by Otto Jespersen, including IPA Secretary Daniel Jones, attended a conference in Copenhagen and proposed specifications for a standardized system of phonetic notation.{{sfnp|Jespersen|Pedersen|1926}} The proposals were largely dismissed by the members of the IPA Council.{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|1998|p=315}} Nonetheless, the following additions recommended by the Conference were approved in 1927:{{sfnp|Association phonétique internationale|1927}}

• {{angbr IPA|ˑ}} could now indicate full length when there is no need to distinguish half and full length
• Straight {{angbr IPA|ˈ}} for stress instead of the previous slanted {{angbr IPA|´}}, and {{angbr IPA|ˌ}} for secondary stress
• {{angbr IPA|◌̫}} (recalling a w) for labialized and {{angbr IPA|◌̪}} (recalling a tooth) for dental
• {{angbr IPA|ʈ, ɖ, ɳ, ɭ, ɽ, ʂ, ʐ}}, with the arm moved under the letter, for retroflex consonants
• {{angbr IPA|ɸ, β}} for bilabial fricatives, replacing {{angbr IPA|ꜰ, ʋ}} ({{angbr IPA|ʋ}} was repurposed for the labiodental approximant)
• {{angbr IPA|◌̣}} for more close and {{angbr IPA|◌̨}}{{efn|name=ogonek}} for more open

In 1928, the following letters were adopted:{{sfnp|Association phonétique internationale|1928}}

• {{angbr IPA|ɬ, ɮ}} for lateral fricatives
• {{angbr IPA|ᵭ}}, {{angbr IPA|ᵶ}}, etc. for velarization or pharyngealization (by extension from {{angbr IPA|ɫ}})
• {{angbr IPA|ƫ}}, {{angbr IPA|ᶁ}}, {{angbr IPA|ᶇ}}, etc. for palatalized consonants
• {{angbr IPA|ɓ}}, {{angbr IPA|ɗ}}, etc. for implosives

The following letters, which had appeared in earlier editions, were repeated or formalized:{{sfnp|Association phonétique internationale|1928}}

• {{angbr IPA|ɕ, ʑ}}
• {{angbr IPA|ƪ, ƺ}}
• {{angbr IPA|χ}}
• {{angbr IPA|ħ, ʕ}}
• {{angbr IPA|ɨ, ʉ, ɵ}}
• {{angbr IPA|ɤ}}
• {{angbr IPA|ᴈ}}
• {{angbr IPA|ɒ}}
• {{angbr IPA|ɺ}}
• {{angbr IPA|ʇ, ʖ, ʗ}}

{{harvp|Jones|1928}} also included {{angbr IPA|ɱ}} for a labiodental nasal, {{angbr IPA|ɾ}} for a dental or alveolar tap, {{angbr IPA|ʞ}} for a palatal ('velar') click, and the tonal notation system seen in {{harvp|Association phonétique internationale|1921|p=9}}. For the Swedish and Norwegian compound tones he recommended "any arbitrarily chosen mark", with the illustration {{IPA|[˟andən]}} ("the spirit"). He used {{angbr IPA|ᴜ}} in place of {{angbr IPA|ʊ}}.{{sfnp|Jones|1928|pp=23, 25–7}} Apart from {{angbr IPA|ᴜ}} and {{angbr IPA|ʞ}}, these new specifications would be inherited in the subsequent charts and booklets. The diacritics for whispered, {{angbr IPA|◌̦}}, and for tense and lax, {{angbr IPA|◌́, ◌̀}}, were no longer mentioned.

An updated chart appeared as a supplement to Le Maître Phonétique in 1932.{{sfnp|Association phonétique internationale|1932}}

The vowels were now arranged in a right-angled trapezium as opposed to an isosceles trapezium, reflecting Daniel Jones's development of the Cardinal Vowel theory. A practically identical chart—with the exception of {{angbr IPA|ɣ}}—in German had appeared in {{harvp|Jones|1928|p=23}}. The substitution of {{angbr IPA|ɣ}} for {{angbr IPA|ǥ}} was approved in 1931.{{sfnp|Association phonétique internationale|1931}}

The accompanying notes read:

{{smallcaps|Other Sounds}}.—Palatalized consonants: {{IPA|ƫ, ᶁ}}, etc. Velarized or pharyngealized consonants: {{IPA|ɫ, ᵭ, ᵴ}}, etc. Ejective consonants (plosives{{sic}} with simultaneous glottal stop): {{IPA|pʼ, tʼ}}, etc. Implosive voiced consonants: {{IPA|ɓ, ɗ}}, etc. {{IPA|ř}} fricative trill. {{IPA|σ, ƍ}} (labialized {{IPA|θ, ð}}, or {{IPA|s, z}}). {{IPA|ƪ, ƺ}} (labialized {{IPA|ʃ, ʒ}}). {{IPA|ʇ, ʗ, ʖ}} (clicks, Zulu c, q, x). {{IPA|ɺ}} (a sound between {{IPA|r}} and {{IPA|l}}). {{IPA|ʍ}} (voiceless {{IPA|w}}). {{IPA|ɪ, ʏ, ʊ}} (lowered varieties of {{IPA|i, y, u}}). {{IPA|ᴈ}} (a variety of {{IPA|ə}}). {{IPA|ɵ}} (a vowel between {{IPA|ø}} and {{IPA|o}}).

Affricates are normally represented by groups of two consonants ({{IPA|ts, tʃ, dʒ}}, etc.), but, when necessary, ligatures are used ({{IPA|ʦ, ʧ, ʤ}}, etc.), or the marks {{IPA| ͡   }} or {{IPA| ͜   }} ({{IPA|t͡s}} or {{IPA|t͜s}}, etc.). {{IPA|c, ɟ}} may occasionally be used in place of {{IPA|tʃ, dʒ}}. Aspirated plosives: {{IPA|ph, th}}, etc.

{{sm|Length, Stress, Pitch}}.— {{IPA|ː}} (full length). {{IPA|ˑ}} (half length). {{IPA|ˈ}} (stress, placed at the beginning of the stressed syllable). {{IPA|ˌ}} (secondary stress). {{IPA|ˉ}} (high level pitch); {{IPA|ˍ}} (low level); {{IPA|ˊ}} (high rising); {{IPA|ˏ}} (low rising); {{IPA|ˋ}} (high falling); {{IPA|ˎ}} (low falling); {{IPA|ˆ}} (rise-fall); {{IPA|ˇ}} (fall-rise). See Écriture Phonétique Internationale, p. 9.

{{sm|Modifiers}}.— {{IPA|˜}} nasality. {{IPA|˳}} breath ({{IPA|l̥}} = breathed {{IPA|l}}). {{IPA|ˬ}} voice ({{IPA|s̬}} = {{IPA|z}}). {{IPA|ʻ}} slight aspiration following {{IPA|p, t}}, etc. {{IPA| ̣}} specially close vowel ({{IPA|ẹ}} = a very close {{IPA|e}}). ˛ specially open vowel ({{IPA|ę}} = a rather open {{IPA|e}}). {{IPA| ̫}} labialization ({{IPA|n̫}} = labialized {{IPA|n}}). {{IPA| ̪}} dental articulation ({{IPA|t̪}} = dental {{IPA|t}}). {{IPA|˙}} palatalization ({{IPA|ż}} = {{IPA|ᶎ}}). {{IPA|˔}} tongue slightly raised. {{IPA|˕}} tongue slightly lowered. {{IPA|˒}} lips more rounded. {{IPA|˓}} lips more spread. Central vowels {{IPA|ï}} (= {{IPA|ɨ}}), {{IPA|ü}} (= {{IPA|ʉ}}), {{IPA|ë}} (= {{IPA|ə˔}}), {{IPA|ö}} (= {{IPA|ɵ}}), {{IPA|ɛ̈, ɔ̈}}. {{IPA|ˌ}} (e.g. {{IPA|n̩}}) syllabic consonant. {{IPA|˘}} consonantal vowel. {{IPA|ʃˢ}} variety of {{IPA|ʃ}} resembling {{IPA|s}}, etc.{{sfnp|Association phonétique internationale|1932}}

A new chart appeared in 1938, with a few modifications. {{angbr IPA|ɮ}} was replaced by {{angbr IPA|ꜧ}}, which was approved earlier in the year with the form {{angbr|class=skin-invert}} approved as a compromise.{{sfnp|Jones|1938}} The use of tie bars {{angbr IPA|◌͡◌, ◌͜◌}} was allowed for synchronous articulation in addition to affricates, as in {{angbr IPA|m͡ŋ}} for simultaneous {{IPA|[m]}} and {{IPA|[ŋ]}}, which was approved in 1937.{{sfnp|Association phonétique internationale|1937}} In the notes, the reference to {{harvp|Association phonétique internationale|1921|p=9}}, in regard to tonal notation was removed.{{sfnp|Association phonétique internationale|1938}}

A new chart appeared in 1947, reflecting minor developments up to the point. They were:{{sfnp|Association phonétique internationale|1947}}

• {{angbr IPA|ʔ}} for the glottal stop, replacing {{angbr IPA|ˀ}}
• {{angbr|class=skin-invert}}, the compromise form approved in 1938,{{sfnp|Jones|1938}} replacing {{angbr IPA|ꜧ}}
• {{angbr IPA|ʆ, ʓ}} for palatalized {{IPA|[ʃ, ʒ]}}
• {{angbr IPA|ɼ}} replacing {{angbr IPA|ř}}, approved in 1945{{sfnp|Jones|1945}}
• {{angbr IPA|ƞ}} for the Japanese syllabic nasal
• {{angbr IPA|ɧ}} for a combination of {{IPA|[x]}} and {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
• {{angbr IPA|ɩ, ɷ}} replacing {{angbr IPA|ɪ, ʊ}}, approved in 1943 while condoning the use of the latter except in the Association's official publications{{sfnp|Jones|1943}}
• {{angbr IPA|ƾ, ƻ}} as alternatives for {{IPA|[t͡s, d͡z]}}
• R-coloured vowels: {{angbr IPA|eɹ}}, {{angbr IPA|aɹ}}, {{angbr IPA|ɔɹ}}, etc., {{angbr IPA|eʴ}}, {{angbr IPA|aʴ}}, {{angbr IPA|ɔʴ}}, etc., or {{angbr IPA|ᶒ}}, {{angbr IPA|ᶏ}}, {{angbr IPA|ᶗ}}, etc.
• R-coloured {{IPA|[ə]}}: {{angbr IPA|əɹ}}, {{angbr IPA|əʴ}}, {{angbr IPA|ɹ}}, or {{angbr IPA|ᶕ}}
• {{angbr IPA|◌̟, ◌˖}} and {{angbr IPA|◌̠, ◌˗}} (or with serifs, as in {{angbr IPA|1=◌I}}) for advanced and retracted, respectively, officially replacing {{angbr IPA|◌꭫, ◌꭪}}

The word "plosives" in the description of ejectives and the qualifier "slightly" in the definitions of {{angbr IPA|˔, ˕}} were removed.

The 1949 Principles of the International Phonetic Association was the last installment in the series until it was superseded by the Handbook of the IPA in 1999.{{sfnp|International Phonetic Association|1999|p=vii}} It introduced some new specifications:{{sfnp|International Phonetic Association|1949|pp=15–9}}

• Inserting a hyphen between a plosive and a homorganic fricative to denote they are separately pronounced, as in {{angbr IPA|t-s}}, {{angbr IPA|d-z}}, {{angbr IPA|t-ʃ}}
• {{angbr IPA|eh}}, {{angbr IPA|ah}}, etc. or {{angbr IPA|e̒}}, {{angbr IPA|a̒}}, etc. for "vowels pronounced with 'breathy voice' (h-coloured vowels)"
• {{angbr IPA|m̆b}}, {{angbr IPA|n̆d}}, etc. "to show that a nasal consonant is very short and that the intimate combination with the following plosive counts as a single sound", in parallel to use for non-syllabic vowels
• An "arbitrarily chosen mark" such as {{angbr IPA|˟}} or {{angbr IPA|ˇ}} for a Swedish or Norwegian compound tone, as in {{IPA|[ˇandən]}} ("the spirit")

None of these specifications were inherited in the subsequent charts. {{angbr IPA|ˌ}} was defined as an indicator of "medium stress".{{sfnp|International Phonetic Association|1949|p=18}}

{{angbr IPA|ʞ}} was defined as a velar click, whereas previously it had been identified as the Khoekhoe click not found in Xhosa (that is, as a palatal click).

In 1948, {{angbr IPA|ɡ}} and {{angbr|1=class=skin-invert}} were approved as typographic alternatives, while it was also acknowledged that {{angbr|1=class=skin-invert}} may be used for a velar plosive and {{angbr IPA|ɡ}} (or preferably {{angbr IPA|ꞔ}}) for an advanced one in narrow transcription of a language where it is preferable to distinguish the two, such as Russian.{{sfnp|Jones|1948}} The 1949 Principles recommended this alternation of the letters but did not mention their typographic equivalency in other languages.{{sfnp|International Phonetic Association|1949|p=14}} Nevertheless, the recommendation was hardly adopted,{{sfnp|Wells|2006}} not even by {{harvp|Jones|Ward|1969}}, who used {{angbr IPA|ɡ}} and {{angbr IPA|ᶃ}}.{{sfnp|Jones|Ward|1969|p=115}}

The 1951 chart added {{angbr IPA|ɚ}} as yet another alternative to an r-coloured {{IPA|[ə]}},{{sfnp|Association phonétique internationale|1952}} following its approval in 1950.{{sfnp|Gimson|1950}} Conceived by John S. Kenyon, the letter was in itself a combination of {{angbr IPA|ə}} and the hook for retroflex consonants approved by the IPA in 1927. Since its introduction in 1935, the letter was widely adopted by American linguists and the IPA had been asked to recognize it as part of the alphabet.{{sfnp|Kenyon|1951|pp=315–7}}{{sfnp|Editors of American Speech|1939}}

In 1979, a revised chart appeared, incorporating the developments in the alphabet which were made earlier in the decade:{{sfnp|International Phonetic Association|1978}}

| style="width: 33%;" |

| style="width: 33%;" |

|}

| colspan="4" style="min-width: 10em; max-width: 10em; border-top: solid 1px;" |

| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; border-top: solid 1px; padding: 0.5em;" |

| colspan="4" style="min-width: 10em; max-width: 10em; border-top: solid 1px;" |

| colspan="4" style="max-width: 12em; border-top: solid 1px; padding: 0.5em; line-height: 1.2;" |

{{IPA|ˈ}} stress, placed at begin-
ning of stressed syllable:
{{IPA|ˌ}} secondary stress: {{IPA|ˉ}} high
level pitch, high tone:
{{IPA|ˍ}} low level: {{IPA|ˊ}} high rising:
{{IPA|ˏ}} low rising: {{IPA|ˋ}} high falling:
{{IPA|ˎ}} low falling: {{IPA|ˆ}} rise-fall:
{{IPA|ˇ}} fall-rise.

AFFRICATES can be
written as digraphs, as
ligatures, or with slur
marks; thus {{IPA|ts, tʃ, dʒ}}:
{{IPA|ʦ ʧ ʤ}}: {{IPA|t͡s t͡ʃ d͡ʒ}}.
{{IPA|c, ɟ}} may occasionally be
used for {{IPA|tʃ, dʒ}}.

|}

|}

{{angbr IPA|ɻ}} for a retroflex approximant was approved in 1973. On the same occasion, {{angbr IPA|š}}, {{angbr IPA|ž}}, {{angbr IPA|č}}, and {{angbr IPA|ǰ}} or {{angbr IPA|ǧ}} as alternatives for {{IPA|[ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, dʒ]}} were proposed but the votes were inconclusive. Diacritics {{angbr IPA|◌̢}} (subscript, not attached) for retroflexion, {{angbr IPA|◌̮}} for palatalization, and {{angbr IPA|◌̯}} for indicating non-fricative continuant were proposed but rejected.{{sfnp|Gimson|1973}}

The following changes were approved in 1976:{{sfnp|Wells|1976}}

• {{angbr IPA|ɶ}} for the rounded equivalent of {{IPA|[a]}} (taken from the accompanying text to Daniel Jones's 1956 recording of the Secondary Cardinal Vowels){{sfnp|Wells|1975}}{{sfnp|Jones|1956|pp=12–3, 15}}
• {{angbr IPA|◌̈}} representing "centralized" rather than "central"
• {{angbr IPA|ʰ}} for aspiration (though this was approved merely as an alternative to {{angbr IPA|ʻ}}, neither the latter diacritic nor the baseline letter {{angbr IPA|h}} for aspiration were mentioned in the 1979 chart)
• {{angbr IPA|◌̚}} for absence of audible release (omitted in the chart)
• {{angbr IPA|ʘ}} for a bilabial click
• {{angbr IPA|◌̤}} for breathy voice
• {{angbr IPA|ɰ}} for a velar approximant
• Application of {{angbr IPA|◌̣, ◌̨}} (but not {{angbr IPA|◌̝ ◌˔, ◌̞ ◌˕}}) to consonant letters to denote fricative and approximant, respectively, as in {{angbr IPA|ɹ̣, ɹ̨}}

On the same occasion, the following letters and diacritics were removed because they had "fallen into disuse":{{sfnp|Wells|1976}}

• {{angbr IPA|◌̇}} for palatalization
• {{angbr IPA|ƾ, ƻ}} for {{IPA|[t͡s, d͡z]}}
• {{angbr IPA|ƞ}} for Japanese moraic nasal
• {{angbr IPA|σ, ƍ, ƪ, ƺ}} for labialized {{IPA|[θ, ð, ʃ, ʒ]}}
• {{angbr IPA|◌̢}} for r-colouring, as in {{angbr IPA|ᶒ, ᶏ, ᶗ, ᶕ}}

On the other hand, {{angbr IPA|ɘ}} for the close-mid central unrounded vowel, {{angbr IPA|ɞ}} for the open-mid central rounded vowel, and {{angbr IPA|ᴀ}} for the open central unrounded vowel were proposed but rejected.{{sfnp|Wells|1975}}{{sfnp|Wells|1976}} The proposal of {{angbr IPA|ɘ, ɞ}} was based on {{harvp|Abercrombie|1967|p=161}}.{{sfnp|McClure|1972|p=20}} {{angbr IPA|ʝ}} for the voiced palatal fricative and {{angbr IPA|◌̰}} for creaky voice were proposed but the votes were inconclusive.{{sfnp|Wells|1976}}

In the 1979 chart, {{angbr IPA|ɩ, ʏ, ɷ}}, previously defined as "lowered varieties of {{IPA|i, y, u}}", appeared slightly centered rather than simply midway between {{IPA|[i, y, u]}} and {{IPA|[e, ø, o]}} as they did in the 1912 chart. {{angbr IPA|ɪ, ʊ}}, the predecessors to {{angbr IPA|ɩ, ɷ}}, were acknowledged as alternatives to {{angbr IPA|ɩ, ɷ}} under the section "Other symbols". {{angbr IPA|ɵ}} appeared as the rounded counterpart to {{IPA|[ə]}} rather than between {{IPA|[ø]}} and {{IPA|[o]}}.

The name of the column "Dental and alveolar" was changed to "Dental, alveolar, or post-alveolar". "Pharyngeal", "trill", "tap or flap", and "approximant" replaced "{{not a typo|pharyngal}}", "rolled", "flapped", and "frictionless continuants", respectively. {{angbr IPA|ɹ, ʁ}}, which were listed twice in both the fricative and frictionless continuant rows in the previous charts, now appeared as an approximant and a fricative, respectively, while the line between the rows was erased, indicating certain fricative letters may represent approximants and vice versa, with the employment of the raised and lowered diacritics if necessary. {{angbr IPA|ʍ}}, previously defined as "voiceless {{IPA|w}}", was specified as a fricative. {{angbr IPA|j}} remained listed twice in the fricative and approximant rows. {{angbr IPA|ɺ}}, previously defined merely as "a sound between {{IPA|r}} and {{IPA|l}}", was redefined as an alveolar lateral flap, in keeping with the use for which it had been originally approved, "a sound between l and d".

File:IPA as of 1989.png

By the 1980s, phonetic theories had developed so much since the inception of the alphabet that the framework of it had become outdated.{{sfnp|Ladefoged|Roach|1986}}{{sfnp|Ladefoged|1987a}}{{sfnp|Ladefoged|1987b}} To resolve this, at the initiative of IPA President Peter Ladefoged, approximately 120 members of the IPA gathered at a convention held in Kiel, West Germany, in August 1989, to discuss revisions of both the alphabet and the principles it is founded upon.{{sfnp|International Phonetic Association|1989a}} It was at this convention that it was decided that the Handbook of the IPA {{harv|International Phonetic Association|1999}} would be written and published to supersede the 1949 Principles.{{sfnp|International Phonetic Association|1989a|p=69}}

In addition to the revisions of the alphabet, two workgroups were set up, one on computer coding of IPA characters and computer representation of individual languages, and the other on pathological speech and voice quality.{{sfnp|International Phonetic Association|1989a}}{{sfnp|International Phonetic Association|1999|pp=165, 185}} The former group concluded that each IPA character should be assigned a three-digit number for computer coding known as IPA Number, which was published in the appendices of the 1999 Handbook.{{sfn|International Phonetic Association|1999|pp=161–185}} The latter devised a set of recommendations for the transcription of disordered speech based on the IPA known as the Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet or extIPA, which was published in 1990 and adopted by the International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association, which now maintains it, in 1994.{{sfnp|International Phonetic Association|1999|p=186}}

A drastically renewed chart of the alphabet reflecting decisions made at the convention appeared later in the year. Additions were:{{sfnp|International Phonetic Association|1989b}}

• Consonants
• {{angbr IPA|ʙ}} for a voiced bilabial trill
• {{angbr IPA|ʝ}} for a voiced palatal fricative, with {{angbr IPA|j}} now standing for only the approximant
• {{angbr IPA|ʟ}} for a voiced velar lateral approximant (proposed at least as far back as 1926)
• {{angbr IPA|ʄ, ʛ}} for voiced palatal and uvular implosives
• {{angbr IPA|ƥ, ƭ, ƈ, ƙ, ʠ}} for voiceless implosives
• {{angbr IPA|ʜ, ʢ}} for epiglottal fricatives
• {{angbr IPA|ʡ}} for a voiced epiglottal plosive {{sic}}
• {{angbr IPA|ǀ, ǃ, ǁ, ǂ}} for dental, (post)alveolar, alveolar lateral and palatal clicks, replacing {{angbr IPA|ʇ, ʖ, ʗ}} and obsolescent {{angbr IPA|ʞ}} (see click letter){{sfnp|Köhler|Ladefoged|Snyman|Traill|1988}}
• Diacritics
• {{angbr IPA|◌̰}} for creaky voice
• {{angbr IPA|◌̼, ◌̺, ◌̻}} for linguolabial, apical, and laminal
• {{angbr IPA|◌̹, ◌̜}} for more and less rounded, now placed under the letter
• {{angbr IPA|◌̽}} for mid-centralized
• {{angbr IPA|◌̘, ◌̙}} for advanced and retracted tongue root
• {{angbr IPA|◌{{hairsp}}˞}} for rhoticity
• {{angbr IPA|◌ʷ}} for labialization, replacing {{angbr IPA|◌̫}}
• {{angbr IPA|◌ʲ}} for palatalization, replacing {{angbr IPA|◌̡}}
• {{angbr IPA|◌ˠ, ◌ˤ}} for velarization and pharyngealization, augmenting {{angbr IPA|◌̴}}
• {{angbr IPA|◌ⁿ, ◌ˡ}} for nasal and lateral release
• {{angbr IPA|◌̯}} for non-syllabic, replacing {{angbr IPA|◌̆}}, which now stood for extra-short
• Suprasegmentals
• {{angbr IPA|◌̆}}, which had previously stood for non-syllabic, for extra-short
• {{angbr IPA|.}} for a syllable break
• {{angbr IPA|{{!}}, ‖}} for minor (foot) and major (intonation) groups
• {{angbr IPA|‿}} for linking (absence of a break)
• {{angbr IPA|↗, ↘}} for global rise and fall of pitch
• {{angbr IPA|ꜜ, ꜛ}} for downstep and upstep

Tone, which had been indicated with an iconic line preceding the syllable or above or below the vowel, was now written one of two ways: with a similar iconic line following the syllable and anchored to a vertical bar, as in {{angbr IPA|˥, ˦, ˧˩˨}} (Chao's tone letters), or with more abstract diacritics written over the vowel (acute = high, macron = mid, grave = low), which could be compounded with each other, as in {{angbr IPA|ə᷄, ə᷆, ə᷈, ə̋, ə̏}}.

The palato-alveolar column was removed and {{angbr IPA|ʃ, ʒ}} were listed alongside the postalveolars. {{angbr IPA|ɹ}} appeared at the same horizontal position as the other alveolars rather than slightly more back as did in the previous charts. {{angbr IPA|ʀ}} was specified as a trill rather than either a trill or flap. The alternative raised and lowered diacritics {{angbr IPA|◌̣, ◌̨}} were eliminated in favour of {{angbr IPA|◌̝, ◌̞}}, which could now be attached to consonants to denote fricative or approximant, as in {{angbr IPA|ɹ̝, β̞}}. Diacritics for relative articulation placed next to, rather than below, a letter, namely {{angbr IPA|1=◌˖, ◌˗ (◌I), ◌˔, ◌˕}}, were no longer mentioned. The diacritic for no audible release {{angbr IPA|◌̚}} was finally mentioned in the chart.

{{angbr IPA|ɩ, ɷ}} were eliminated in favour of {{angbr IPA|ɪ, ʊ}}. The letter for the close-mid back unrounded vowel was modified from {{angbr|1=class=skin-invert}} ("baby gamma"), with a flat top, to {{angbr|1=class=skin-invert}} ("ram's horns"), with a rounded top, to better distinguish it from {{angbr IPA|ɣ}}, which represents a voiced velar fricative. {{angbr IPA|ɮ}} was revived in place of {{angbr|1=class=skin-invert}}. {{angbr IPA|ɚ}} was no longer mentioned, and instead a right-hook diacritic {{angbr IPA|˞}} was added for rhoticity; the superscript rhotic diacritics were retired.

{{angbr IPA|ʆ, ʓ}} for palatalized {{IPA|[ʃ, ʒ]}} and {{angbr IPA|ɼ}} for the alveolar fricative trill were withdrawn (now written {{angbr IPA|ʃʲ, ʒʲ}} and {{angbr IPA|r̝}}). The affricate ligatures were withdrawn. The tie bar below letters for affricates and doubly articulated consonants, as in {{angbr IPA|t͜s}}, was no longer mentioned. The practice of placing a superscript letter to indicate the resemblance to a sound, previously illustrated by {{angbr IPA|ʃˢ}}, was no longer explicitly recommended.

At the convention, proposals such as {{angbr|1=class=skin-invert}} for a voiced labial–velar fricative, {{angbr|1=class=skin-invert}} for a voiceless velar lateral fricative, {{angbr IPA|1=ɮ}} for a voiced velar lateral fricative, {{angbr|1=class=skin-invert}} for a voiceless palatal lateral fricative, {{angbr IPA|ŝ, ẑ}} for "the 'hissing-hussing' fricatives of some Caucasian languages", and {{angbr IPA|ᴀ}} for an open central unrounded vowel were discussed but dismissed.{{sfnp|International Phonetic Association|1989a|pp=72, 74}}

The six principles set out in 1888 were replaced by a much longer text consisting of seven paragraphs.{{sfnp|International Phonetic Association|1989a}} The first two paragraphs established the alphabet's purpose, namely to be "a set of symbols for representing all the possible sounds of the world's languages" and "representing fine distinctions of sound quality, making the IPA well suited for use in all disciplines in which the representation of speech sounds is required".{{sfnp|International Phonetic Association|1989a|p=67}} The second paragraph also said, "{{IPA|[p]}} is a shorthand way of designating the intersection of the categories voiceless, bilabial, and plosive; {{IPA|[m]}} is the intersection of the categories voiced, bilabial, and nasal; and so on",{{sfnp|International Phonetic Association|1989a|p=68}} refining the previous, less clearly defined principle #2 with the application of the distinctive feature theory.{{sfnp|International Phonetic Association|1999|pp=37–8}} Discouragement of diacritics was relaxed, though recommending their use be limited: "(i) For denoting length, stress and pitch. (ii) For representing minute shades of sounds. (iii) When the introduction of a single, diacritic obviates the necessity for designing a number of new symbols (as, for instance, in the representation of nasalized vowels)".{{sfnp|International Phonetic Association|1989a|p=68}} The principles also adopted the recommendation of enclosing phonetic transcriptions in square brackets [ ] and phonemic ones in slashes / /,{{sfnp|International Phonetic Association|1989a|p=68}} a practice that emerged in the 1940s.{{sfnp|Heitner|2003|p=326 n. 6}} The principles were reprinted in the 1999 Handbook.{{sfnp|International Phonetic Association|1999|pp=159–60}}

Following the 1989 revision, a number of proposals for revisions appeared in the Journal of the IPA, which were submitted to the Council of the IPA. In 1993, the Council approved the following changes:{{sfnp|International Phonetic Association|1993a}}

• {{angbr IPA|ƥ, ƭ, ƈ, ƙ, ʠ}} for the voiceless implosives were withdrawn.
• The non-pulmonic consonants (ejectives and implosives) were removed from the main table and set up with the clicks in a separate section, with {{angbr IPA|ʼ}} acknowledged as an independent modifier for ejective (therefore allowing combinations absent in the chart).
• It was noted that subdiacritics may be moved above a letter to avoid interference with a descender.
• The central vowels of the 1921 chart were restored, bringing the total back to five: schwa plus open-mid {{angbr IPA|ɜ}} and {{angbr IPA|ʚ}}, and close-mid {{angbr IPA|ɘ}} and {{angbr IPA|ɵ}}.
• The right half of the cell for pharyngeal plosives was shaded, indicating the impossibility of a voiced pharyngeal plosive.

On the same occasion, it was reaffirmed that {{angbr IPA|ɡ}} and {{angbr|1=class=skin-invert}} are typographic alternatives.{{sfnp|International Phonetic Association|1993a}}

The revised chart was now portrait-oriented. {{angbr IPA|ə}} and {{angbr IPA|ɐ}} were moved to the centerline of the vowel chart, indicating that they are not necessarily unrounded. The word "voiced" was removed from the definition for {{angbr IPA|ʡ}}, now simply "epiglottal plosive". "Other symbols" and diacritics were slightly rearranged. The outer stroke of the letter for a bilabial click {{angbr IPA|ʘ}} was modified from a circle with a uniform line width to the shape of uppercase O.{{sfnp|International Phonetic Association|1993b}}

In 1996, it was announced that the form of the open-mid central rounded vowel in the 1993 chart, {{angbr IPA|ʚ}}, was a typographical error and should be changed to {{angbr IPA|ɞ}}, stating the latter was the form that "J. C. Catford had in mind when he proposed the central vowel changes ... in 1990", also citing {{harvp|Abercrombie|1967}} and {{harvp|Catford|1977}},{{sfnp|Esling|1995}} who had {{angbr IPA|ɞ}}.{{sfnp|Abercrombie|1967|p=161}}{{sfnp|Catford|1977|pp=178–9}} However, the letter Catford had proposed for the value in 1990 was in fact {{angbr IPA|1=ꞓ}} (a barred {{angbr IPA|ɔ}}), with an alternative being {{angbr IPA|ʚ}}, but not {{angbr IPA|ɞ}}.{{sfnp|Catford|1990}} Errata for {{harvp|Catford|1990}} appeared in 1992, but the printed form was again {{angbr IPA|ʚ}} and the errata even acknowledged that {{angbr IPA|ʚ}} was included in {{harvp|Association phonétique internationale|1921|pp=6–7}}, as pointed out by David Abercrombie.{{sfnp|International Phonetic Association|1991}}

In the updated chart, which was published in the front matter of the 1999 Handbook of the IPA, the subsections were rearranged so that the left edge of the vowel chart appeared right beneath the palatal column, hinting at the palatal place of articulation for {{IPA|[i, y]}}, as did in all pre-1989 charts, though the space did not allow the back vowels to appear beneath the velars.{{sfnp|Esling|2010|p=697}} A tie bar placed below letters, as in {{angbr IPA|t͜s}}, was mentioned again. {{angbr IPA|˞}} was now attached to the preceding letter, as in {{angbr IPA|ə˞}}. A few illustrations in the chart were changed: {{angbr IPA|a˞}} was added for rhoticity, and {{angbr IPA|i̠, ɹ̩}} were replaced with {{angbr IPA|e̠, n̩}}. The examples of "high rising" and "low rising" tone contours were changed from {{angbr IPA|˦˥}} (4–5) and {{angbr IPA|˩˨}} (1–2) to {{angbr IPA|˧˥}} (3–5) and {{angbr IPA|˩˧}} (1–3), respectively. The word "etc." was dropped from the list of contours, though the 1999 Handbook would continue to use contours that did not appear on the chart.{{sfnp|International Phonetic Association|1999|p=ix}}

The 1999 Handbook of the International Phonetic Association was the first book outlining the specifications of the alphabet in 50 years, superseding the 1949 Principles of the IPA. It consisted of just over 200 pages, four times as long as the Principles. In addition to what was seen in the 1996 chart,{{sfnp|International Phonetic Association|1999|p=ix}} the book included {{angbr IPA|ᵊ}} for mid central vowel release, {{angbr IPA|ᶿ}} for voiceless dental fricative release, and {{angbr IPA|ˣ}} for voiceless velar fricative release as part of the official IPA in the "Computer coding of IPA symbols" section.{{sfnp|International Phonetic Association|1999|pp=167, 170–1, 179}} The section also included {{angbr IPA|ᶑ }} for a voiced retroflex implosive, noting it was "not explicitly IPA approved".{{sfnp|International Phonetic Association|1999|p=166}} The book also said {{angbr IPA|ᶹ}} "might be used" for "a secondary reduction of the lip opening accompanied by neither protrusion nor velar constriction".{{sfnp|International Phonetic Association|1999|p=17}} It abandoned the 1949 Principles{{'}} recommendation of alternating {{angbr|1=class=skin-invert}} and {{angbr IPA|ɡ}} for ordinary and advanced velar plosives, and acknowledged both shapes as acceptable variants.{{sfnp|International Phonetic Association|1999|p=19}}

File:IPA chart (C)2005.pdf

In 2005, {{angbr IPA|ⱱ}} was added for the labiodental flap.{{sfnp|Nicolaidis|2005}}

In 2011, it was proposed that {{angbr IPA|ᴀ}} be added to represent the open central unrounded vowel, but this was declined by the Council the following year.{{sfnp|Keating|2012}}

In 2012, the IPA chart and its subparts were released under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License.{{sfnp|International Phonetic Association|2012}}

In 2016, three versions of a revised chart dated 2015 were released online, each with the characters rendered in a different typeface (IPA Kiel/LS Uni developed by Linguist's Software, Doulos SIL, and DejaVu Sans).{{sfnp|Keating|2016}}{{sfnp|International Phonetic Association|2016}} No character was added or withdrawn, but some notes and the shapes of a few were slightly modified. In particular, {{angbr IPA|ə˞}} was replaced by {{angbr IPA|ɚ}}, with a continuous, slanted stroke, and the example of a "rising–falling" tone contour was changed from {{angbr IPA|˦˥˦}} (4–5–4) to {{angbr IPA|˧˦˧}} (3–4–3).{{sfnp|International Phonetic Association|2016}}

In 2018, another slightly modified chart in different fonts was released, this time also in TeX TIPA Roman developed by Rei Fukui, which was selected as best representing the IPA symbol set by the Association's Alphabet, Charts and Fonts committee, established the previous year.{{sfnp|Keating|2018}}{{sfnp|International Phonetic Association|2018}}{{sfnp|Keating|2017}} The example of a "rising–falling" tone contour was again changed from {{angbr IPA|˧˦˧}} (3–4–3) to {{angbr IPA|˧˦˨}} (3–4–2).{{sfnp|Keating|2018}}

In 2020, another set of charts was released, with the only changes being minor adjustments in the layout, and Creative Commons icons replacing the copyright sign.{{sfnp|International Phonetic Association|2020}}

• Obsolete and nonstandard symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet
• Americanist phonetic notation

{{notelist}}

{{reflist}}

{{refbegin|35em|indent=yes}}

• {{cite book

|last=Abercrombie

|first=David

|author-link=David Abercrombie (linguist)

|year=1967

|title=Elements of General Phonetics

|publisher=Edinburgh University Press

}}

• {{cite journal

|last=Albright

|first=Robert W.

|year=1958

|title=The International Phonetic Alphabet: Its backgrounds and development

|journal=International Journal of American Linguistics

|volume=24

|issue=1

|at=Part III

}}

• {{cite journal

|author=Association phonétique internationale

|year=1895

|title=vɔt syr l alfabɛ

|trans-title=Votes sur l'alphabet

|journal=Le Maître Phonétique

|volume=10

|issue=1

|pages=16–17

|jstor=44707535

}}

• {{cite journal

|author=Association phonétique internationale

|year=1900a

|title=akt ɔfisjɛl

|trans-title=Acte officiel

|journal=Le Maître Phonétique

|volume=15

|issue=2–3

|page=20

|jstor=44701257

}}

• {{cite journal

|author=Association phonétique internationale

|year=1900b

|title=Exposé des principes de l'Association phonétique internationale

|journal=Le Maître Phonétique

|volume=15

|issue=11

|at=Supplement

|jstor=44749210

}}

• {{cite journal

|author=Association phonétique internationale

|year=1904

|title=Aim and Principles of the International Phonetic Association

|journal=Le Maître Phonétique

|volume=19

|issue=11

|at=Supplement

|jstor=44703664

}}

• {{cite journal

|author=Association phonétique internationale

|year=1905

|title=Exposé des principes de l'Association phonétique internationale

|journal=Le Maître Phonétique

|volume=20

|issue=6–7

|at=Supplement

|jstor=44707887

}}

• {{cite journal

|author=Association phonétique internationale

|year=1908

|title=Exposé des principes de l'Association phonétique internationale

|journal=Le Maître Phonétique

|volume=23

|issue=9–10

|at=Supplement

|jstor=44707916

}}

• {{cite journal

|author=Association phonétique internationale

|year=1912

|title=The Principles of the International Phonetic Association

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|volume=27

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|jstor=44707964

}}

• {{cite book

|author=Association phonétique internationale

|year=1921

|title=L'Ecriture phonétique internationale : exposé populaire avec application au français et à plusieurs autres langues

|edition=2nd

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}}

• {{cite journal

|author=Association phonétique internationale

|year=1927

|title=desizjɔ̃ dy kɔ̃sɛːj rəlativmɑ̃ o prɔpozisjɔ̃ d la kɔ̃ferɑ̃ːs də *kɔpnag

|trans-title=Décisions du conseil relativement aux propositions de la conférence de Copenhague

|journal=Le Maître Phonétique

|series=Troisième série

|volume=5

|issue=18

|pages=13–18

|jstor=44704201

}}

• {{cite journal

|author=Association phonétique internationale

|year=1928

|title=desizjɔ̃ ofisjɛl

|trans-title=Décisions officielles

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|issue=23

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|jstor=44704266

}}

• {{cite journal

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|year=1931

|title=desizjɔ̃ ofisjɛl

|trans-title=Décisions officielles

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|volume=9

|issue=35

|pages=40–42

|jstor=44704452

}}

• {{cite journal

|author=Association phonétique internationale

|year=1932

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|issue=37

|at=Supplement

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}} Reprinted in {{harvp|MacMahon|1996|p=830}}.

• {{cite journal

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|year=1937

|title=desizjɔ̃ ofisjɛl

|trans-title=Décisions officielles

|journal=Le Maître Phonétique

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|volume=15

|issue=52

|pages=56–57

|jstor=44704932

}}

• {{cite journal

|author=Association phonétique internationale

|year=1938

|title=The International Phonetic Alphabet (revised to 1938)

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|series=Troisième série

|volume=16

|issue=62

|at=Supplement

|jstor=44748188

}}

• {{cite journal

|author=Association phonétique internationale

|year=1947

|title=The International Phonetic Alphabet (revised to 1947)

|journal=Le Maître Phonétique

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|issue=88

|at=Supplement

|jstor=44748304

}} Reprinted in {{harvp|Albright|1958|p=57}}.

• {{cite journal

|author=Association phonétique internationale

|year=1952

|title=The International Phonetic Alphabet (revised to 1951)

|journal=Le Maître Phonétique

|series=Troisième série

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|issue=97

|at=Front matter

|jstor=44748475

}} Reprinted in {{harvp|MacMahon|2010|p=270}}.

• {{cite journal

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|title=Revisions to the extIPA chart

|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association

|volume=48

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|doi=10.1017/S0025100317000147

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}}

• {{cite book

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|editor2-first=René

|title=Proceedings of the Seventh International Congress of Phonetic Sciences

|location=The Hague and Paris

|publisher=Mouton

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|doi=10.1515/9783110814750-017

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|chapter-url=https://www.coli.uni-saarland.de/groups/BM/phonetics/icphs/ICPhS1971/p7_281.pdf

}}

• {{cite book

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|year=1977

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}}

• {{cite journal

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|year=1990

|title=A proposal concerning central vowels

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}}

• {{cite book

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|year=1998

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}}

• {{cite book

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}}

• {{cite journal

|author=((Editors of American Speech))

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}}

• {{cite journal

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|year=1995

|title=News of the IPA

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}}

• {{cite book

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|editor2-last=Laver

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|editor3-last=Gibbon

|editor3-first=Fiona E.

|title=The Handbook of Phonetic Sciences

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}}

• {{cite journal

|last=Gimson

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|year=1950

|title=desizjɔ̃ ofisjɛl

|trans-title=Décisions officielles

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}}

• {{cite journal

|last=Gimson

|first=A. C.

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}}

• {{cite book

|last=Heselwood

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|title=Phonetic Transcription in Theory and Practice

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}}

• {{cite journal

|last=Heitner

|first=Reese M.

|year=2003

|title=Brackets and slashes, stars and dots: understanding the notation of linguistic types

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}}

• {{cite journal

|author=International Phonetic Association

|year=1949

|title=The Principles of the International Phonetic Association

|journal=Le Maître Phonétique

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|issue=91

|at=Supplement

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}} Reprinted in Journal of the International Phonetic Association 40 (3), December 2010, pp. 299–358, {{doi|10.1017/S0025100311000089}}.

• {{cite journal

|author=International Phonetic Association

|year=1978

|title=The International Phonetic Alphabet (Revised to 1979)

|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association

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|jstor=44541414

}} Reprinted in {{harvp|MacMahon|2010|p=271}}.

• {{cite journal

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|year=1989a

|title=Report on the 1989 Kiel Convention

|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association

|volume=19

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|doi=10.1017/S0025100300003868

|jstor=44526032

|s2cid=249412330

}}

• {{cite journal

|author=International Phonetic Association

|year=1989b

|title=The International Phonetic Alphabet (revised to 1989)

|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association

|volume=19

|issue=2

|at=Centerfold

|doi=10.1017/S002510030000387X

|s2cid=249414249

}}

• {{cite journal

|author=International Phonetic Association

|year=1991

|title=Errata

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|volume=21

|issue=1

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|doi-access=free

}}

• {{cite journal

|author=International Phonetic Association

|year=1993a

|title=Council actions on revisions of the IPA

|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association

|volume=23

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|pages=32–34

|doi=10.1017/S002510030000476X

|s2cid=249420050

}}

• {{cite journal

|author=International Phonetic Association

|year=1993b

|title=The International Phonetic Alphabet (revised to 1993)

|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association

|volume=23

|issue=1

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|doi=10.1017/S0025100300004746

|s2cid=242001518

}} Reprinted in {{harvp|MacMahon|1996|p=822}}.

• {{cite book

|author=International Phonetic Association

|year=1999

|title=Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A Guide to the Use of the International Phonetic Alphabet

|publisher=Cambridge University Press

|isbn=0-521-63751-1

}}

• {{cite web

|author=International Phonetic Association

|date=1 July 2012

|url=https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/news/201207/ipa-chart-now-under-creative-commons-licence

|title=IPA Chart now under a Creative Commons Licence

}}

• {{cite web

|author=International Phonetic Association

|year=2016

|url=https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/content/full-ipa-chart

|title=Full IPA Chart

|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305165838/https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/content/full-ipa-chart

|archive-date=5 March 2016

}}

• {{cite web

|author=International Phonetic Association

|year=2018

|url=http://linguistics.ucla.edu/people/keating/IPA/IPA_charts_2018.html

|title=IPA charts and sub-charts in four fonts

|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180524110302/http://linguistics.ucla.edu/people/keating/IPA/IPA_charts_2018.html

|archive-date=24 May 2018

|url-status=dead

}}

• {{cite web

|author=International Phonetic Association

|year=2020

|url=https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/IPAcharts/IPA_chart_orig/IPA_charts_E.html

|title=IPA charts and sub-charts in four fonts

}}

• {{cite book

|last1=Jespersen

|first1=Otto

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|last2=Pedersen

|first2=Holger

|author-link2=Holger Pedersen (linguist)

|year=1926

|title=Phonetic Transcription and Transliteration: Proposals of the Copenhagen Conference, April 1925

|publisher=Oxford University Press

|url=https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-80279873

}}

• {{cite book

|last=Jones

|first=Daniel

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|year=1928

|chapter=Das System der Association Phonétique Internationale (Weltlautschriftverein)

|editor-last=Heepe

|editor-first=Martin

|title=Lautzeichen und ihre Anwendung in verschiedenen Sprachgebieten

|location=Berlin

|publisher=Reichsdruckerei

|pages=18–27

}} Reprinted in Le Maître Phonétique 3, 6 (23), July–September 1928, {{JSTOR|44704262}}. Reprinted in {{harvp|Collins|Mees|2003}}.

• {{cite journal

|last=Jones

|first=Daniel

|year=1938

|title=desizjɔ̃ ofisjɛl

|trans-title=Décisions officielles

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|volume=16

|issue=61

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|jstor=44704878

}}

• {{cite journal

|last=Jones

|first=Daniel

|year=1943

|title=desizjɔ̃ ofisjɛl

|trans-title=Décisions officielles

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|volume=21

|issue=80

|pages=27–28

|jstor=44705153

}}

• {{cite journal

|last=Jones

|first=Daniel

|year=1945

|title=desizjɔ̃ ofisjɛl

|trans-title=Décisions officielles

|journal=Le Maître Phonétique

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|volume=23

|issue=83

|pages=11–17

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}}

• {{cite journal

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|year=1948

|title=desizjɔ̃ ofisjɛl

|trans-title=Décisions officielles

|journal=Le Maître Phonétique

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|issue=90

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|jstor=44705217

}}

• {{cite book

|last=Jones

|first=Daniel

|year=1956

|title=Cardinal Vowels Spoken by Daniel Jones: Text of Records with Explanatory Notes by Professor Jones

|location=London

|publisher=Linguaphone Institute

|url=https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/s3-euw1-ap-pe-ws4-cws-streaming.ri-prod/9781444183092/cardinal.pdf

}}

• {{cite journal

|last1=Jones

|first1=Daniel

|last2=Camilli

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|year=1933

|title=Fondamenti di grafia fonetica secondo il sistema dell'Associazione fonetica internazionale

|journal=Le Maître Phonétique

|series=Troisième série

|volume=11

|issue=43

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}} Reprinted in {{harvp|Collins|Mees|2003}}.

• {{cite journal

|last1=Jones

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|year=1944

|title=Fundamentos de escritura fonética según el sistema de la Asociación Fonética Internacional

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• {{cite book

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}}

• {{cite journal

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|title=IPA Council votes against new IPA symbol

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}}

• {{cite web

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|date=20 February 2016

|url=https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/news/201602/new-versions-ipa-chart-3-different-fonts

|title=New versions of IPA chart - 3 different fonts

|publisher=International Phonetic Association

}}

• {{cite web

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|date=14 June 2017

|url=https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/news/201706/ipa-council-establishes-new-committees

|title=IPA Council establishes new committees

|publisher=International Phonetic Association

}}

• {{cite web

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|date=18 May 2018

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|title=2018 IPA charts now posted online

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}}

• {{cite book

|last=Kemp

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|editor-last=Brown

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}}

• {{cite book

|last=Kelly

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|chapter=The 1847 Alphabet: an Episode of Phonotypy

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|editor1-link=Ronald E. Asher

|editor2-last=Henderson

|editor2-first=Eugene J. A.

|title=Towards a History of Phonetics

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|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/towardshistoryof0000unse/page/248

}}

• {{cite journal

|last=Kenyon

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|author-link=John Samuel Kenyon

|year=1951

|title=Need of a uniform phonetic alphabet

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|doi=10.1080/00335635109381671

}}

• {{cite journal

|last1=Köhler

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|last5=Vossen

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|year=1988

|title=The symbols for clicks

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}}

• {{cite journal

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|year=1987a

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|doi=10.1017/S0025100300003170

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}}

• {{cite journal

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}}

• {{cite journal

|last1=Ladefoged

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|author-link2=Peter Roach (phonetician)

|year=1986

|title=Revising the International Phonetic Alphabet: A plan

|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association

|volume=16

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|doi=10.1017/S0025100300003078

|s2cid=143609570

}}

• {{cite book

|last=Lepsius

|first=R.

|author-link=Karl Richard Lepsius

|year=1855

|title=Standard Alphabet for Reducing Unwritten Languages and Foreign Graphic Systems to a Uniform Orthography in European Letters

|location=London

|publisher=Seeleys

}}

• {{cite journal

|last=MacMahon

|first=Michael K. C.

|year=1986

|title=The International Phonetic Association: The first 100 years

|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association

|volume=16

|issue=1

|pages=30–38

|doi=10.1017/S002510030000308X

|s2cid=145576661

}}

• {{cite book

|last=MacMahon

|first=Michael K. C.

|year=1996

|chapter=Phonetic Notation

|editor1-last=Daniels

|editor1-first=Peter T.

|editor1-link=Peter T. Daniels

|editor2-last=Bright

|editor2-first=William

|editor2-link=William Bright

|title=The World's Writing Systems

|publisher=Oxford University Press

|pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195079937/page/821 821–846]

|isbn=0-19-507993-0

}}

• {{cite book

|last=MacMahon

|first=Michael K. C.

|year=2010

|chapter=The International Phonetic Alphabet

|editor-last=Malmkjaer

|editor-first=Kirsten

|title=The Routledge Linguistics Encyclopedia

|url=https://archive.org/details/routledgelinguis00malm

|url-access=limited

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}}

• {{cite journal

|last=McClure

|first=J. Derrick

|year=1972

|title=A suggested revision for the Cardinal Vowel system

|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association

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|doi=10.1017/S0025100300000402

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• {{cite journal

|last=Nicolaidis

|first=Katerina

|year=2005

|title=Approval of new IPA sound: the labiodental flap

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• {{cite journal

|last=Passy

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|title=desizjɔ̃ː dy kɔ̃ːsɛːj

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}}

• {{cite journal

|author=Phonetic Teachers' Association

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|title=lernərz kornər

|trans-title=Learners' corner

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}}

• {{cite journal

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|trans-title=Learners' corner

|journal=The Phonetic Teacher

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• {{cite journal

|author=Phonetic Teachers' Association

|date=1888a

|title=aur alfəbits

|trans-title=Our alphabets

|journal=The Phonetic Teacher

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|jstor=44707197

}}

• {{cite journal

|author=Phonetic Teachers' Association

|date=1888b

|title=aur rivàizd ælfəbit

|trans-title=Our revised alphabet

|journal=The Phonetic Teacher

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}}

• {{cite book

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|author-link=Henry Sweet

|year=1902

|title=A Primer of Phonetics

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|last1=Trofimov

|first1=M. V.

|last2=Jones

|first2=Daniel

|year=1923

|title=The Pronunciation of Russian

|publisher=Cambridge University Press

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• {{cite journal

|last=Wells

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|author-link=John C. Wells

|year=1975

|title=The Association's alphabet

|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association

|volume=5

|issue=2

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|doi=10.1017/S0025100300001274

|s2cid=249411014

}}

• {{cite journal

|last=Wells

|first=John C.

|year=1976

|title=The Association's Alphabet

|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association

|volume=6

|issue=1

|pages=2–3

|doi=10.1017/S0025100300001420

|s2cid=249403800

}}

• {{cite web

|last=Wells

|first=John C.

|date=6 November 2006

|url=http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/wells/blog0611a.htm

|title=Scenes from IPA history

|work=John Wells's phonetic blog

|publisher=Department of Phonetics and Linguistics, University College London

}}

• {{cite journal

|last=Whitley

|first=M. Stanley

|year=2003

|title=Rhotic representation: problems and proposals

|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association

|volume=23

|issue=1

|pages=81–86

|doi=10.1017/S0025100303001166

|s2cid=145538124

}}

{{refend}}

{{refbegin|35em|indent=yes}}

• {{cite journal

|last=Abel

|first=James W.

|year=1972

|title=Vowel-R symbolization: {{not a typo|An historical}} development

|journal=Speech Monographs

|volume=39

|issue=1

|pages=23–36

|doi=10.1080/03637757209375735

}}

• {{cite journal

|last=Akamatsu

|first=Tsutomu

|year=1992

|title=A critique of the IPA chart (revised to 1951, 1979 and 1989)

|journal=Contextos

|volume=10

|issue=19–20

|pages=7–45

|url=http://www.revistacontextos.es/1992/1.-Tsu%C3%ADomu.Akamatsu.pdf

}}

• {{cite journal

|last=Akamatsu

|first=Tsutomu

|year=1996

|title=A critique of the IPA chart (revised to 1993)

|journal=Contextos

|volume=14

|issue=27–28

|pages=9–22

|url=http://www.revistacontextos.es/1996/01.-Tsutomu.Akamatsu.pdf

}}

• {{cite journal

|last=Akamatsu

|first=Tsutomu

|year=2003–2004

|title=A critique of the IPA chart (revised to 1996)

|journal=Contextos

|volume=21–22

|issue=41–44

|pages=135–149

|url=http://www.revistacontextos.es/2003-2004/Akamatsu1.pdf

}}

• {{cite journal

|last=Koerner

|first=E. F. Konrad

|author-link=E. F. K. Koerner

|year=1993

|title=Historiography of Phonetics: the State of the Art

|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association

|volume=23

|issue=1

|pages=1–12

|doi=10.1017/S0025100300004710

|s2cid=145182661

}}

• {{cite journal

|last=Roach

|first=Peter

|author-link=Peter Roach (phonetician)

|year=1987

|title=Rethinking phonetic taxonomy

|journal=Transactions of the Philological Society

|volume=85

|issue=1

|pages=24–37

|doi=10.1111/j.1467-968X.1987.tb00710.x

}}

{{refend}}

• [https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/content/history-ipa History of the International Phonetic Association]
• [https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/IPAcharts/IPA_hist/IPA_hist_2018.html Historical charts of the International Phonetic Alphabet]

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